3. At the heart of the Industrial Revolution lay a
great acceleration in the rate of technological
innovation, leading to enormous increases in
the output of goods and services.
use of new energy sources (steam engines,
petroleum engines)
before 1750/1800, the major Eurasian civilizations
were about equal technologically
greatest breakthrough was the steam engine
agriculture was transformed
spread from Britain to Western Europe, then to
the United States, Russia, and Japan
4. The Industrial Revolution was one of the most
significant elements of Europe’s modern
transformation.
initial industrialization period was 1750–1900
drew on the Scientific Revolution
utterly transformed European society
pushed Europe into a position of global dominance
was more fundamental than any breakthrough
since the Agricultural Revolution
We don’t know where we are in the industrial
era—at the beginning, in the middle, or at the
end.
5. the fact that other parts of the world have had times
of great technological and scientific flourishing
Islamic world 750–1100 CE
India was the center of cotton textile production and
source of many agricultural innovations
China led the world in technological innovation
between 700 and 1400 CE
all had slowed or stagnated by the early modern era
the fact that Europe did not enjoy any overall
economic advantage as late as 1750
across Eurasia, life expectancy, consumption and nutrition
patterns, wage levels, living standards, etc., were broadly
similar in the eighteenth century
6. why it might have occurred in Europe
some patterns of European internal development
favored innovation
small, highly competitive states
European rulers had an unusual alliance with
merchant classes
it was in governments’ interest to encourage
commerce and innovation
in Venice and Holland, merchants controlled the state
other societies developed market-based economies
by the eighteenth century (e.g., Japan, India, and
China)
but Europe was at the center of the most varied
exchange network
contact with culturally different peoples encouraged
change and innovation
quest for the products and ideas of Asia
competition with Indian cotton cloth manufacture
popularity of other Asian goods prompted imitation
the Americas provided silver, raw materials, and foods
7. Britain was the most commercialized of
Europe’s larger countries
small farmers had been pushed out (enclosure
movement)
market production fueled by a number of
agricultural innovations
guilds had largely disappeared
ready supply of industrial workers with few
options
British aristocrats were interested in commerce
8. British political life encouraged commercialization
and economic innovation
policy of religious toleration (established 1688)
welcomed people with technical skills regardless of
faith
British government imposed tariffs to protect its
businessmen
it was easy to form companies and forbid workers’
unions
patent laws protected inventors’ interests
checks on royal authority gave more room for
private enterprise
9. emphasis of the Scientific Revolution was
different in Great Britain
on the continent: logic, deduction, mathematical
reasoning
in Britain: observation and experiment,
measurement, mechanical devices, practical
applications
in Britain, artisan/craftsman inventors were in
close contact with scientists and entrepreneurs
Britain had plenty of coal and iron ore, often
conveniently located
Britain was not devastated by the Napoleonic
wars
10. 1. In what respects did the roots of the Industrial
Revolution lie within Europe?
2. In what ways did that transformation have
global roots?
3. What was distinctive about Britain that may
help to explain why the Industrial Revolution
began there?
11. There was a massive increase in output as
industrialization took hold in Britain.
rapid development of railroad systems
much of the dramatic increase was in mining,
manufacturing, and services
agriculture became less important by comparison
(in 1891, agriculture generated only 8 percent of
British national income)
12. The British Aristocracy
landowning aristocrats had little material loss in
the Industrial Revolution
but the aristocracy declined, because urban
wealth became more important
aristocrats had declining political clout i. e.g., high
tariffs on agricultural imports were abolished in 1840s
by 1900, businessmen led the major political
parties
titled nobles retained great social prestige and
personal wealth
13. The Middle Classes
Upper middle class: some became extremely wealthy,
bought into aristocratic life
The middle classes had the most obvious gains from
industrialization
middle class: large numbers of smaller businessmen
and professionals
politically liberal
stood for thrift, hard work, rigid morals, and cleanliness
Samuel Smiles, Self-Help (1859): individuals are
responsible for their own destiny
middle-class women were more frequently cast as
homemakers,wives, and mothers
14. lower middle class: service sector workers
(clerks, secretaries, etc.)
by 1900, they were around 20 percent of Britain’s
population
employment opportunities for women as well as
men
almost all were single and expected to marry and
give up jobs
15. in the nineteenth century, about 70 percent of
Britons were workers
laboring classes suffered most/benefited least
from industrialization
rapid urbanization
by 1851, a majority of Britain’s population was
urban
by 1900, London was the largest city in the world (6
million)
16. horrible urban conditions
vast overcrowding
inadequate sanitation and water supplies
Epidemics
few public services or open spaces
little contact between the rich and the poor
industrial factories offered a very different work
environment
long hours, low wages, and child labor were
typical for the poor
many girls and young women worked
usually left outside paid employment when they
married
19. “friendly societies,” especially of artisans, for
self-help were common
other skilled artisans sometimes wrecked
machinery and burned mills
some joined political movements, aimed to
enfranchise working-class men
trade unions were legalized in 1824
fought for better wages and working conditions
20. Socialist ideas spread gradually
Karl Marx (1818–1883) laid out a full ideology of
socialism
in his own time, saw a growing hostility between the
bourgeoisie and the proletariat
argued that capitalism can never end poverty
foretold a future (communist) golden age when industrial
technology would serve the whole community
socialist ideas were attractive among more radical trade
unionists and some middle-class intellectuals in the
late nineteenth century
21. British working-class movement remained
moderate
material conditions for workers improved in
second half of the century
capitalists and impoverished working class
didn’t polarize because of the large middle and
lower middle class
wages improved
cheap imported food improved diets
infant death rates fell
male workers gradually got the vote
sanitary reform cleaned up cities
but immense inequalities remained
22. 1. How did the Industrial Revolution transform
British society?
2. How did Britain’s middle classes change during
the nineteenth century?
3. How did Karl Marx view the Industrial
Revolution?
4. In what ways did his ideas have an impact in the
industrializing world of the 19th century?
23. The Industrial Revolution soon spread to
continental Western Europe.
industrialization had broadly similar outcomes
wherever it was established
aristocratic, artisanal, and peasant classes declined
middle-class women withdrew from paid labor
altogether
women received lower wages than men, were accused
of taking jobs from men
establishment of trade unions and socialist movements
24. The spread of industrialization was
affected by the cultures of the lands where
it was established, pace and timing of
industrialization, nature of major
industries, role of the state, political
expression of social conflict, etc.
French industrialization was slower,
perhaps less disruptive
Germany focused at first on heavy
industry
was far more concentrated in huge
companies
generated a more militant and
Marxist-oriented labor movement
25. American industrialization began with New England
textiles (1820s)
Explosive growth after the Civil War
by 1914, the United States was the world’s leading
industrial power
Europeans provided around one-third of the capital
investment
The U.S. government played an important role
through tax breaks, land grants to railroads, laws
making formation of corporations easy, absence of
overt regulation
Pioneering of mass production techniques
Creation of a “culture of consumption” through
advertising, catalogs, and department stores
Self-made industrialists became cultural heroes
(Ford, Carnegie, Rockefeller)
26. Serious social divisions rose
growing gap between rich and poor
constant labor of the working class
creation of vast slums
growing labor protest
Why didn’t socialism appeal to American
workers?
U.S. union organizations were relatively
conservative
American Federation of Labor focused on skilled
workers
American workers had a higher standard of
living than did their European counterparts
middle-class aspirations of white-collar workers
27. “Populists” denounced corporate interests
but populism had little appeal in growing
industrial areas
“Progressives” were more successful, especially
after 1900
Aimed to remedy the ills of industrialization
Socialism was labeled as fundamentally “un-
American”
29. How was industrialization in the US similar to in
Europe?
How was industrialization in the US different from in
Europe?
30. Russia was an absolute monarchy, with the
greatest state control of anywhere in the
Western world
in 1900: no national parliament, no legal
political parties, no nationwide elections
until 1861, most Russians were serfs
in Russia, the state, not society, usually initiated
change
the state set out to improve Russia’s economic
and industrial backwardness
31. Russian Industrial Revolution was launched by
the 1890s
focused on railroads and heavy industry
substantial foreign investment
industry was concentrated in a few major cities
Growing middle class disliked Russia’s deep
conservatism, sought
greater role in political life
but they were dependent on the state for
contracts and jobs
also relied on the state to suppress worker
radicalism
32. Russian working class (only about 5
percent of the population)
rapidly radicalized
No legal outlet for grievances
Large-scale strikes
Marxist socialism appealed to some
educated Russians, gave them hope for
the future
Founded the Russian Social-Democratic Labor
Party (1898)
Got involved in workers’ education, union
organizing, and revolutionary action
33. Major insurrection broke out in 1905, after
defeat in war by Japan
In Moscow and St. Petersburg, workers went on
strike, created their own representative councils
(“soviets”)
Non-Russian nationalities revolted
Brutally suppressed, but forced the tsar’s regime
to make reforms
Granted a constitution
Legalized trade unions and political
parties
Created a national assembly (the Duma)
34. Russia falls behind the
West industrially.
1854-1856 Crimean War:
fought on the Black Sea.
Western forces damaged
the Russian army's
entrenched positions.
1855: Alexander II is
convinced that it is time
for change!
35.
36. For two decades, Russia engages in reform, based
on Western standards.
1861: Emancipation of the serfs-serfs got a piece of
land they used to work.
Creates a large labor force
Zemstvoes: local political councils regulating
roads, schools, and other regional policies.
Literacy increases
Increased Women’s rights
37. Trans-Siberian Railroad: connected European
Russia with the Pacific.
Stimulated iron and coal industries.
Export of grain to the West.
Factories began to spring up throughout Russia.
38.
39. Russia’s railroad network had quintupled since
1860
Modern Factories were in St. Petersburg and
Moscow.
Influx of foreign interests under Count Sergei
Witte, Minister of Finance from 1892-1903.
High tariffs to support Russian industry
Encourage Western investors
41. Intelligentsia: Russian term for articulate
intellectuals as a class.
Wanted political freedom and deep social reform.
Wanted a different society than that in the West
(which they saw as materialistic)
Anarchists: desired to abolish all forms of
government.
Heated opposition to tsarist autocracy
42. The Good
By 1900, Russia surges to
#4 in the world in steel
production
Second only to the US in
petroleum production
and refining
The Bad
Russian factories were
huge, but not up to Western
technical standards
Labor force was not highly
skilled
Backwards agricultural
production system
Largely illiterate peasant
class which lacks capital
Lack of middle-class
43. By the 1870’s Alexander II is
pulling back on reforms.
Censorship, dissidents
arrested, etc.
Alexander II is assassinated
by a terrorist bomb in 1881
Successors continue
industrialization, but
continue political repression
as well.
Persecution of the Jewish
minority.
Pogroms: mass executions of
Jews
44. Socialism: Marxist
doctrine spreads from
the West to Russia
Lenin claimed that a
proletariat was
developing worldwide
due to the spread of
international capitalism,
in advance of growing
industrialization.
Bolsheviks: group of
Russian Marxists, who
formed the majority
party.
45. Working class unrest grows in the
cities, aided by the undercurrents
of socialism being pushed by the
intelligentsia.
Russian workers radicalize much
more than Western counterparts
Unions, strikes
Become interested in the “equality”
and “freedom” of Bolshevism
Russian government under
Alexander III from 1881-1894
remained stubbornly opposed to
compromise
46. Emperor from 1894-1918
The Last Imperial
Emperor of Russia
Bad fortune was
predicted by mystics
after the Khadynka
Tragedy during his
coronation in 1896
47. Russo-Japanese War:
1904, Japan wins
because Russia can’t
mobilize quickly.
Unleashes massive
protest
Brutal repression was
not well received, so
reform follows.
Creation of a national
parliament, the
DUMA
48. Stolypin Reforms:
Peasants gain greater freedom
Peasants can buy and sell land.
Kulaks: wealthy peasant farmers who owned land
and used hired labor
Nicholas II was unable to keep his promises of
reform.
Unable to surrender the autocratic tradition
49. Limited political reforms failed to
pacify the radicals or bring stability
Growing belief that only a revolution
would help
World War I provided the revolutionary
moment
Russian Revolution broke out in 1917
Brought the most radical of the socialist
groups to power—the Bolsheviks, led by
Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin)
Only in Russia did industrialization lead to
violent social revolution
52. 1. What were the major differences between
industrialization in the United States and in
Russia
2. Why did Marxist socialism not take root in the
United States?
3. What factors contributed to the making of a
revolutionary situation in Russia by the
beginning of the 20th century?
54. Beyond Europe and North America, only
Japan underwent major industrialization
in the nineteenth century.
Did not transform societies
Non-industrialized societies still felt the
impact of European and North American
developments
55. Tokugawa
Shogunate: Strict
isolationism in
Japan.
Feudal society
between emperor,
shogun, daimyo, and
samurai
Ban on Western
books was repealed
in 1720
Schools of Dutch
studies throughout
Japan around 1850
56. Bureaucrats saw no other possibility than to
open Japan
Daimyo oppose this, as do many samurai.
They appeal to the emperor (long a religious
and ceremonial figure), rather than the shogun
Samurai are split on their support…some want
change, others stress conservatism
57. 1866: Japanese Civil War-
Samurai forces defeat
Shogunate forces and
declare Mutsuhito, or Meiji
(Enlightened One) the new
emperor.
1868: Meiji Restoration-A
profound period of change
in Japan that will guide
Japan to becoming a world
power into the 20th century
58. Abolishes feudalism
Daimyo are replaced
by nationally
appointed prefects
(district
administrators)
Political power was
centralized
Emperor and
advisors enact
economic and social
change, quickly
59. Modeled after the Germans
Emperor commanded the military directly and
directly named his ministers
Western style clothing
Diet could pass laws, upon agreement of both
houses, and pass budgets
Japanese government thus includes
centralized Imperial Rule, combined with
limited representative bodies copied from the
West
Japan incorporated business leaders into its
governing structure, while Russia defended its
traditional social elite
60. Create the conditions
necessary for
industrialization…
New government banks
funded growing trade and
provide capital for industry
State-built railroads spread
Steamships connect the
islands
Guilds and internal road
tariffs are
abolished…create a
national market
Land Reform
62. 1. Discuss the events that led to the development
of industrialization in Japan
2. In what ways and with what impact was Japan
linked to the global economy of the 19th century?
3. In what ways was Japan similar to Europe in the
19th century?
4. In what ways was Japan different to Europe in
the 19th century?
63. After Independence in Latin America
The four vice-royalties of Spanish America became
eighteen separate countries
International wars hindered development of the
new nations
Mexico lost vast territories to the United States (1846–
1848)
Paraguay was devastated by war (1864–1870)
Political life was highly unstable
Often, military strongmen (caudillos) gained
power
They were unstable, too
64. Independence brought little fundamental
change to social life
Slavery was abolished (though not until late 1880s
in Brazil and Cuba)
Most legal distinctions between racial categories
were abolished
But creole whites remained overwhelmingly in
control of productive economic resources
The vast majority were impoverished
Caste War of Yucatán (1847–1901) was one of the few
rebellions of the poor
65. Rapid population increase
Rapid urbanization
Actively sought European immigrants
Few people benefitted from the export boom
Upper middle class landowners did very well
Middle class grew somewhat
Over 90% of the population was still lower-class
66. industrial workers made up a modest segment
of the lower class
attempted unions and strikes
harshly repressed
Only in Mexico did conditions provoke a
nationwide revolution
Overthrow of the dictator Porfirio Díaz (1876–1911)
Major, bloody conflict (1910–1920)
Huge peasant armies
New constitution (1917) proclaimed universal
suffrage, land redistribution, disestablishment
of the Catholic Church, minimum wage, eight-hour
work day.
67. The export boom did not cause a thorough
Industrial Revolution
governments supported free trade, so cheaper
and higher-quality foreign goods were available
than could be made at home
instead, economic growth was dependent on
Europe and North America
the case of the “banana republics” under pressure
from the United States
repeated U.S. military intervention
68. 1. In what ways and with what impact was Latin
America linked to the global economy of the 19th
century?
2. In what ways was Latin America similar to
Europe in the 19th century?
3. In what ways was Latin America different to
Europe in the 19th century?
