HBSC3303 School Science Curriculum

Topic
1
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. State the meaning of the term „curriculum‰;
2. Discuss the philosophical considerations in formulating a curriculum;
3. Discuss the psychological considerations in formulating a curriculum;
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1.1: How is a curriculum developed?
and
4. Discuss the social and economic considerations in formulating a
curriculum.
Formulation
of the
Curriculum

2 TOPIC 1 FORMULATION OF THE CURRICULUM
Look at the scenario in Figure 1.1. If you were the teacher how would you answer
the question posed by the parent?
ACTIVITY 1.1
What do you understand by the term „curriculum‰?
Browse the Internet or use reference books to find out what „curriculum‰
means.
While doing Activity 1.1, you would have come across many different definitions
of the term „curriculum‰. The word curriculum is derived from an ancient Latin
word currere which means „running course‰. Over time the word curriculum
has come to mean „sequence of courses or learning experiences.‰ Many attempts
have been made to provide more specific definitions of curriculum.
The Merriam Webster Dictionary defines curriculum as:
This view defines curriculum as an organised body of knowledge to be conveyed
to students. This is a general way of defining curriculum and refers to the subject
matter, content or syllabus. However, views such as these are narrow and
simplify the complexity of the curriculum. Curriculum is a broad term and refers
to more than just courses offered.
Tanner and Tanner (1995) describe curriculum as a plan or programme of all
experiences which the learner encounters under the direction of a school.
Another definition by Taba (1962) is:
The curriculum usually contains a statement of aims of specific objectives, it
indicates some selection and organisation of content, it implies certain
patterns of learning and teaching, whether because the objectives demand
them or because the content organisation requires them. Finally it includes a
programme of evaluation of the outcomes.
Taba (1962)
„The courses offered by an educational institution‰.

TOPIC 1 FORMULATION OF THE CURRICULUM
3
From the above definitions we can conclude that a curriculum has the following
elements:
(a) Learning objectives;
(b) Content;
(c) Instructional strategies;
(d) Learning experiences for the learners; and
(e) Programme of evaluation.
Now, if you were a curriculum developer and had to formulate a new science
curriculum where would you start? How would you decide the learning
objectives and choose what content is relevant? How would you choose suitable
instructional strategies and learning experiences to fulfil the curriculum?
Curriculum developers use different curriculum development models or
approaches when formulating a curriculum. Their main concern would be what
should be included in the curriculum (the content) and how to present and
arrange what is selected (learning experiences). Regardless of the model or
approach used, curriculum developers need to consider the philosophical,
psychological, social and economic needs of the society when planning the
curriculum.
In this topic, you will learn about the philosophical, psychological, social and
economic considerations in formulating a curriculum. A sound understanding of
this will reflect on how you think and approach the teaching and learning
process in your classroom. You will also be able to give informed answers to
parents if the need arises.
PHILOSOPHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
FORMULATING A CURRICULUM
1.1
What is the connection between philosophy and the curriculum? Philosophy
provides curriculum developers, educators and teachers with a framework of
values and beliefs related to the goals of education that they can use for planning,
implementing and evaluating the curriculum in school. Curriculum developers
need to identify an educational vision or philosophy which will form the basis of
planning the curriculum. Philosophy helps in answering questions like:

(a) „What are schools for?‰
(b) „What subjects are important?‰
(c) „How should students learn?‰
(d) „What teaching strategies must be used?‰
(e) „How should evaluation be carried out?‰
Learning in schools in any country is guided by its national goals and philosophy
which reflect the desires of the nation. In Malaysia there is a written philosophy
known as The National Philosophy of Education. The National Philosophy of
Education is shown in Figure 1.2. Read through it carefully and think about how
it can guide curriculum development.
The National Education Policy is based on the National Philosophy of Education
which constitutes the basis for all educational activities and programmes. Thus
the Malaysian school curriculum is developed in line with the National
Philosophy of Education. The role of the Malaysian school curriculum is to
ensure the holistic development of an individualÊs potential, and develop him or
her, mentally, spiritually, emotionally and physically. The curriculum is to
develop Malaysian citizens who are balanced and well-rounded individuals,
trained, skilful and who cherish the national aspiration for unity.
Figure 1.2: The National Philosophy of Education of Malaysia

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The Malaysian science curriculum is also influenced by the National Philosophy
of Science as shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3: National Science Education Philosophy
ACTIVITY 1.2
Study the Primary Science Curriculum and the National Philosophy of
Education Malaysia (NPE). Discuss in what ways the content selection
and teaching strategies of the primary science curriculum are able to fulfil
the NPE.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN
FORMULATING A CURRICULUM
1.2
The school curriculum development is also influenced by psychology.
Psychology deals with how humans learn and behave. It forms a basis for
understanding the teaching-learning process. Ralph Tyler, a well-known scholar
in curriculum development proposed in the 1960s that anything that is to be
taught in the classroom should be subjected to a psychology „screen‰ to establish
whether they are suitable for the way humans learn.
The curriculum developed must be based on a sound understanding of child
growth and development. Psychological considerations such as the mental,
physical and emotional requirements of the child need to be taken into account
when planning the curriculum. The school curriculum developers look at the
childÊs level of development and maturity. Younger children should be given
what they can handle in terms of depth and quantity.

For example, in science at the primary level, there is more concern with the
systems and processes that affect the learnerÊs life without giving the principles
and theories behind them. At higher levels, the physical, chemical and biological
systems and processes are described in terms of the principles and theories that
explain them. The level of complexity increases as the mental capacity of the
learner develops. Learning experiences increase in intensity and complexity with
increased manipulative skills. Thus the physical condition of the learners also
influences the selection of subjects and experiences.
Theories of learning also have to be considered when developing the content of
the curriculum and how it will be delivered. The curriculum developer has to
know how pupils learn and take into consideration individual differences when
designing a curriculum. Learning can be maximised by ensuring that activities
and experiences are introduced at the most „teachable‰ moment.
You would remember from your earlier modules that there are many different
explanations of how humans learn. There are four major psychological schools of
thought of how learning occurs that have had an impact on curriculum. These
schools of thought are Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Humanism and
Constructivism. Study Table 1.1 which shows the four major psychological
orientations of learning and the main proponents.
Table 1.1: The Four Major Psychological Orientations
of Learning and the Main Proponents
Behaviourism Cognitivism Humanism Constructivism
Pavlov
Thorndike
Skinner
Piaget
Bruner
Ausubel
Gagne
Gardner
Maslow
Rogers
Piaget
Vygotsky
Do you recall the main principles of these theories? The principles of these
learning theories are used as a guide to select the content and strategies of the
curriculum. A brief description of these theories is as follows.
(a) Behaviourism
In behaviourism, the main task of the teacher is to arrange the classroom
and learning activities so as to enhance connection between a stimulus and
response. Behaviour that is positively reinforced will be repeated and
information presented in small amounts can reinforce and shape the
formation of the behaviour desired.

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(b) Cognitivism
Cognitivism explains how information is received, assimilated, stored and
recalled in the brain. There should be a step-by-step structured method of
teaching and learning. Teachers should present easier and simpler
materials to be followed later by complex and difficult materials. Teachers
should also teach from whole to part. The learners should develop some
kind of a frame of reference that will help them relate an aspect of what is
learned to its other aspects as well as to their previous experiences. What
has been taught earlier should be related to what is currently being taught.
Memory can be improved by making meaningful connections between
what is known and what is new.
(c) Humanism
The learner is a person who has feelings, attitudes and emotions, according
to humanistic theories. Emotions such as self-efficacy, self-assurance,
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation determine how a pupil approaches
learning.
(d) Constructivism
In constructivism, learners are not passive recipients of information but are
active agents engaging in constructing their own knowledge. Pupils should
not be treated as passive learners but rather as active learners exploring
and going beyond the information given. They should be provided with
authentic and challenging projects that encourage them to work with other
students and teachers. Cooperative, collaborative and group investigation
methods allow pupils to discuss ideas and misconceptions with their peers
and teachers. Learning is enhanced when pupils learn how to learn
together.
ACTIVITY 1.3
Identify which learning theories were used to select the content and
teaching strategies in the primary science curriculum for one selected
year.

SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC
CONSIDERATIONS IN FORMULATING A
CURRICULUM
1.3
„Education is a major contributor to the development of our social and
economic capital. It inspires creativity and fosters innovation; provides our
youth with the necessary skills to be able to compete in the modern labour
market; and is a key driver of growth in the economy‰
(DatoÊ Sri Mohd Najib bin Tun Haji Abdul Razak
Malaysian Education Blueprint 2013-2025)
Read the statement given above. Do you see the importance of education in the
development of Malaysian social and economic capital?
1.3.1 Social Considerations in Formulating a
Curriculum
We must understand that schools are part of society and exist for society.
Schools, through their execution of the curriculum, can shape and mould a
society. Therefore curriculum developers need to take into account societal
considerations when planning the curriculum. If this does not happen, the
curriculum becomes irrelevant.
So what do you think society wants from the curriculum? The main societal
consideration in Malaysia is that the curriculum must promote a sense of
national pride and identity. In Malaysia, which has a heterogeneous ethnic
population, the school curriculum is expected to promote a sense of cohesion and
unity amongst the various ethnic groups. The curriculum must assist the
individual to understand the process of harmonisation and develop values and
attitudes such as compassion, understanding, tolerance, sensitivity and
awareness. The curriculum should also be able to impart social norms, social
order and morality.
The design of the curricular materials should be of relevance to the culture of the
society. For example, would pupils in Malaysia need to learn about the customs
of the Eskimo people in detail? It would not be relevant to them. On the other
hand, they would need to learn the beliefs, values and culture of the various
ethnic groups in Malaysian society to promote understanding and tolerance of
other cultures in the society that they live in.

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A continuous examination of the goals and demands of society which are
continuously changing is needed to determine what knowledge is most
worthwhile and which values are relevant.
ACTIVITY 1.4
1. The concerns of society twenty years ago is different from the
concerns of society today. Discuss how this has affected the present
science curriculum.
2. Social factors are very critical in formulating a curriculum. Identify
at least two social factors that should be considered when
formulating a curriculum.
1.3.2 Economic Considerations in Formulating a
Curriculum
The national economy is an important consideration when formulating a
curriculum. Are you wondering how the economy of the country affects the
curriculum?
The children you teach will one day be employed. Schools need to meet the
workforce demands of a changing world. The 21st century world is a
technologically advanced world. Modern careers require skills that are
technologically complex. There is a demand for skilled and literate workers.
Successful workers in the modern world must possess both an understanding of
electronic technology, and the ability to work more cooperatively with others to
solve problems of a highly intricate nature, are able to communicate their ideas
confidently.
The curriculum offered has to provide appropriate education for the students to
develop the skills, knowledge and attitudes required by the workforce so as to
sustain the countryÊs progress with a competent labour force. It is therefore
important that serious consideration is given to economic demands when
designing the curriculum.

1 0 TOPIC 1 FORMULATION OF THE CURRICULUM
SELF-CHECK 1.1
1. Explain what you understand by the term „curriculum‰.
2. A country has been using the same curriculum for the last 10
years. Do you think this is a good practice? Why?
3. How do the philosophical foundations of education influence
curriculum formulation?
4. How do the psychological foundations of education influence
curriculum formulation?
5. To what extent can the school curriculum equip individuals to
cope with the challenges and requirements of the 21st century?
A curriculum consists of learning objectives, content, instructional strategies,
learning experiences of the learner and a programme for evaluation of
outcomes.
Curriculum developers need to consider the philosophical, psychological,
social and economic needs of the society when planning the curriculum.
Philosophy provides a framework of values and beliefs related to the goals
of education that can be used for planning, implementing and evaluating the
curriculum in school.
The National Philosophy of Education is the basis for all educational
activities and programmes in Malaysia.
The Malaysian school curriculum is developed in line with the National
Philosophy of Education.
The Malaysian science curriculum is also influenced by the National
Philosophy of Science.

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The curriculum developed must be based on a sound understanding of
psychological factors such as child growth, child development and learning
theories.
Psychological considerations such as the mental, physical and emotional
requirements of the child need to be taken into account when planning the
curriculum.
Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can shape and mould a
society.
Curriculum developers need to take into account societal considerations
when planning the curriculum.
Consideration must be given to economic demands when designing the
curriculum so as to develop the skills, knowledge and attitudes required by
the workforce to sustain the countryÊs progress with a competent labour
force.
Curriculum
Economic considerations
National Philosophy of Education
National Science Education Philosophy
Philosophical considerations
Psychological considerations
Social considerations

Educational Planning and Research Division, Ministry of Education Malaysia.
(2008). Education in Malaysia - A journey to excellence. Retrieved from
http://www.slideshare.net/Fadzliaton/education-in-malaysia
Heslep, R. (1997). Philosophical thinking in educational practice . London:
Greenwood Publishing.
Ornstein, A. C. Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum foundations, principles and
theory. USA: Allyn and Bacon.

1 2 TOPIC 1 FORMULATION OF THE CURRICULUM
Psychological Influences in the Curriculum Decision Making Process. Anne
Syomwene (Ph.D) 1*; Kisilu Kitainge (Ph.D) 2; Marcella Mwaka (PhD)
3*Moi University, Kenya 2University of Eldoret, Kenya 3Moi University,
Kenya . Retrieved from (http://www.iiste.org/Journals/index.php/JEP/
article/view/5201/5319)
Sharifah, Maimunah Syed Zin Lewin, K. M. (1991). Curriculum development
in Malaysia in curriculum development in east Asia. Ed by Marsh, C.
Morris, P. London: The Falmer Press.
Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. New York, NY:
Harcourt, Brace, World.
Tanner, D., Tanner, L. (1995). Curriculum development: Theory into practice
(3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill.
Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.

Topic
2
Issues in
Science
Education
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Examine the goals of a science curriculum;
2. Analyse the content of a science curriculum;
3. List the relevant methods for teaching science;
4. Explain the meaning of scientific literacy;
5. Discuss the meaning of scientific language; and
6. Discuss some of the contemporay issues of science education.
INTRODUCTION
Figure 2.1: Planning lessons for Science Year 4

TOPIC 2 ISSUES IN SCIENCE EDUCATION
14
What should Cik Lee do? What documents should she refer to in planning the
teaching of the subject? Yes, she should study the science curriculum. She should
refer to the primary science syllabus and curriculum specifications for Year Four.
Then only should she look at the textbook and other resources to plan the
lessons.
The curriculum is a course or path. It is meant to be connected and integrated
and it should lead to educational attainment. Thus, by understanding the science
curriculum, Cik Lee would be clear about the aspirations of the curriculum, the
topics to be taught, and how to assess her pupilsÊ learning.
In this topic you will be looking at the details of any science curriculum goals of
a science curriculum, the contents of the curriculum, how to teach them, the
language of science, the concept of scientific literacy and the issues pertaining to
the science curriculum.
ACTIVITY 2.1
Recall how science was taught when you were in primary school. Take
time to list down the characteristics of the science lesson.
GOALS OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
2.1
Knowing where you want to go will make it easier for you to plan your
destination. Thus knowing the goals of science education will make it easier for a
curriculum planner to plan the appropriate curriculum needed. And for you as a
teacher, knowing the goals will make it easier to plan how to teach and assess the
teaching and learning of science.
Let us study a few of the goals of science curriculum in different countries.

TOPIC 2 ISSUES IN SCIENCE EDUCATION 15
ILLINOIS LEARNING STANDARDS
According to Illinois Learning Standards (ISBE, 1997), the general and
subsidiary goals of the science curriculum are as follows:
Goal 1: Understand and apply the methods of scientific inquiry and
technological design to investigate questions, solve problems and analyse
claims.
Explain the principles and practices of scientific research.
Apply the steps and methods of scientific inquiry to conduct experiments
and investigate research questions.
Apply the principles and methods of technological design to solve
problems.
Assess the credibility of scientific claims.
Goal 2: Understand the facts and unifying concepts of the life, physical and
earth/space sciences.
Apply concepts of systems within the sciences.
Apply concepts of form and function within the sciences.
Apply concepts of change and constancy within the sciences.
Apply concepts of models and explanations within the sciences.
Goal 3: Understand connections and relationships among science, technology
and society.
Explain the historical development and importance of science and
technology.
Explain conceptual relationships between science and technology.
Describe and analyse relationships among science, technology and
society in practical situations.

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NEW ZEALAND
The outcome of school science education programmes should be that pupils
leaving the school system will have developed the knowledge, skills,
attitudes and values that will allow them to take an informed position on
scientific issues and tensions that may be facing them and the society they
live in at the time. School-leavers should be aware of and have an
understanding of the scientific process and its values. They should have
developed an enquiring attitude and the knowledge and skills that will allow
them to find the answers to their questions.
There are five overarching integrated aspects of science that those seeking to
identify goals for science education should consider: scientific literacy,
attitudes and interests towards the environment, doing science, science as a
career and communication in science.
MANITOBA SCIENCE CURRICULA
The following goals were developed for all Canadian pupils, regardless of
gender or cultural background, to have an opportunity to develop scientific
literacy.
Encourage pupils in all grades to develop a critical sense of wonder and
curiosity about scientific and technological endeavours.
Enable pupils to use science and technology to acquire new knowledge
and solve problems, so that they may improve the quality of their own
lives and the lives of others.
Prepare pupils to critically address science-related societal, economic,
ethical and environmental issues.
Provide pupils with a proficiency in science that creates opportunities for
them to pursue progressively higher levels of study, prepares them for
science-related occupations, and engages them in science-related hobbies
appropriate to their interests and abilities.
Develop in pupils of varying aptitudes and interests a knowledge of the
wide variety of careers related to science, technology and the environment.

If you analysed all the curricula above, the goals underlying science curriculum
and instruction are the same. The goals can be classified into the following
categories: scientific knowledge, scientific methods, social issues, personal needs,
and career awareness.
(a) Science education should develop a fundamental understanding of natural
systems: There is a body of knowledge concerning biological, physical, and
earth systems. For over 200 years, our science education programmes have
aimed towards informing pupils of these natural systems. This goal has
been, and will continue to be, of significant importance for science teachers.
(b) Science education should develop a fundamental understanding of, and
ability to use the methods of scientific inquiry: This goal will ensure pupils
will acquire the skills of planning and doing science investigations in
finding answers to problems.
(c) Science education should prepare citizens to make responsible decisions
concerning science-related social issues. Science education exists in society
and should contribute to the maintenance and aspirations of the culture.
This goal is especially important when there are social challenges directly
related to science.
(d) Science education should contribute to an understanding and fulfilment of
personal needs, thus contributing to personal developmen. All individuals
have needs related to their own biological/psychological systems.
(e) Science education should inform pupils about careers in the sciences:
Scientific research, development, and application continue through the
work of individuals within science and technology and through the
support of those not directly involved in scientific work.
ACTIVITY 2.2
Study our primary science curriculum. Compare and contrast the aims
stipulated in the curriculum with the curricula that you have just read.

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CONTENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
2.2
What content to be taught in the science curriculum at any level is a statement
about the elements of science we choose to teach selected from a much larger set
of possibilities. There are many factors that need to be considered before deciding
the content to be taught. Looking at the goals of science education will certainly
help us to determine what content should be taught in the curriculum.
The content of science for primary school children should be an interplay among
concepts, scientific reasoning, the nature of science, and doing science. Although
science concepts are important as a basic foundation of science knowledge,
children need to begin to build an understanding of basic concepts and how they
connect and apply to the world in which they live. It could be done through
hands-on activities where the children are actively exploring and finding out the
concepts. These first-hand experiences help them to find answers to problems
themselves by exploring their own environment.
Scientific skills are the tools that need to be acquired by the children so that they
could do the activities. Thus, broadly the content should contain a skills section
and a content section.
(a) The Skills Section
The skills section will help children to work scientifically, and in designing
and making. Children are encouraged to work as scientists as they
investigate and explore their physical and natural surroundings. The
curriculum should support children in developing skills of enquiry during
this investigative work: observing, asking questions, suggesting
explanations, predicting outcomes, planning investigations or experiments
to test ideas and drawing conclusions.
Designing and making are the technological components of the science
curriculum. This aspect of the curriculum provides children with
opportunities to apply scientific ideas to everyday situations and problems.
The children are challenged to explore, plan and make models and
functional objects in order to solve practical problems. This develops
children's awareness of the value of technology in their lives.
(b) The Content Section
What to include in the content section is debatable. Different countries have
different ways of organising the basic concepts that should be taught in
primary science. In the Malaysian Science Curriculum the contents are
organised around themes. What is important is this content should cover

core concepts, principles, and theories of science that would be continued
in the secondary school science curriculum.
We should also remember that not all pupils would end up as scientists as
their careers. Thus the content should cover just enough concepts so that
they become ‰scientifically literate‰. Consequently, the science curriculum
should be oriented more towards developing awareness among the
learners about the interface of science, technology and society, sensitising
them, especially to the issues of environment and health, and enabling
them to acquire practical knowledge and skills to enter the world of work.
ACTIVITY 2.3
What are the themes used in our primary science curriculum? Discuss
with your classmates.
TEACHING OF SCIENCE
2.3
Did you enjoy studying science in school? Who were your science teachers? Do
you think they enjoyed teaching science? There is no doubt that a teacher who
outwardly states a dislike for a subject can negatively influence pupilsÊ attitudes
towards that subject. Similarly, a teacher who demonstrates enthusiasm and
genuine interest in teaching a subject can be a catalyst for pupil learning.
Teaching strategies also shape the learning environment. An effective teacher
would need to select teaching strategies to engage pupils in learning science.
There are teaching strategies that can be transferred from other subjects to also
teach science. For example, you could use storytelling or drama, which are very
useful in learning language, into the teaching of science. There are also strategies
that are more specific to teaching science. For example, project and
experimentation are synonymous with science teaching. What strategy that you
as a teacher decide to employ depends on many factors. These factors include:
(a) PupilsÊ learning styles;
(b) PupilsÊ prior knowledge and skills;
(c) Availability of teaching resources;

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(d) TeachersÊ knowledge and skills; and
(e) SocietyÊs expectations.
The nature of science should be the most, or at least, a big consideration when
deciding on the pedagogy when teaching science.
The main complaint of pupils about science is that it is not sufficiently relevant.
What is learnt in the science classroom is only used in the classroom and has no
connection with the real world, although science is in fact the study of the natural
world.
For activities to be meaningful and engaging they should help the understanding
of things pupils have encountered directly in their day-to-day experience and
indirectly through films and television programmes. It should be possible for
children to make a link between new experiences and previous experiences.
There can be a dilemma here in relation to whether science activities should be
taken from real-life events often complex and with several ideas involved or
whether they should be „tidied up‰ to demonstrate certain relationships or
principles. Some degree of abstraction from real events is generally necessary,
but it should always be possible for the children to link what is learned to real
events.
Inquiry-based is the essence of science teaching and learning. It „fits‰ with the
nature of science. Pupils should be actively engaged in exploring the concepts
through hands-on activities. Pupils learn effectively when they are actively
engaged in the discovery process, often working in small groups. They should be
provided opportunities to have direct experience with common objects,
materials, and living things in their environment. Good instruction focuses on
understanding important relationships, processes, mechanisms and applications
of concepts.
Teachers act as facilitators. Managing inquiry during a lesson is not the only
thing that a science teacher must do. Her work starts before the lesson begins.
She decides the concepts and the skills that should be developed during the
lesson. Then, throughout the lesson, the teacher should be listening to the
discussion about the concepts and observing the skills as the pupils are doing
their work. This information or formative assessment can later be used as
feedback for the teacher and pupils about learning. Have they understood the
lesson? Have they mastered the skills? Do the concepts need to be explored
again? These are some of the questions that the teacher can answer from
formative assessments.

SELF-CHECK 2.1
Would the following scenarios be the elements in the teaching and
learning of science?
Scenario Yes? No?
Children have the opportunity to express their ideas, to listen to
the ideas of others and to build on their existing ideas when
faced with new experiences.
Teachers pose questions that require children to hypothesise,
predict and suggest answers.
Teachers engage children in thinking about and discussing how
to test their predictions and see if their ideas „work‰.
Children are clear about what they are finding out and what they
are learning by doing so.
Children consider the evidence they collect in relation to initial
ideas and predictions.
Children reflect and report on how and what they have learned.
Not all learning in science involves inquiry. There are some things, such as
conventions, names and the basic skills of using equipment, that are more
efficiently learned by direct instruction. If you want your pupils to know how to
use the thermometer, or the measure correctly the length of a room using a metre
rule, then demonstrating and explaining to them the skills would be more
appropriate, followed by practice in using the skills.

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ACTIVITY 2.4
Which of the following strategies would have high impact for primary
science?
Strategies High Impact? Low Impact?
Misconceptions are
targeted
Enthusiasm from
teacher
Uniform on individual
interests
Usable and practical
scientific knowledge
Group work
Hands-on experiences
Chalk and talk or
copying from OHT
Interactivity with life
Purposes are clearly
articulated
Excursions for science
understanding
In summary there is no one best method to teach any subject. Although the
inquiry-based method is considered a very good method to teach science, if
pupils are not equipped with the knowledge, skills and attitude, then it is not the
effective method to choose. You, as the teacher, know best what works and what
does not work with your pupils.

SCIENTIFIC LITERACY
2.4
Have a look at Figure 2.2 and see if you can recall anything.
Figure 2.2: A definition of scientific literacy (Rennie, 2005)
Source: Skamp: Teaching Primary Science Constructively, pg 3
We have discussed this concept in detail in Topic 1 of HBSC1103 Teaching and
Learning of Science.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
By referring to Figure 2.2, can you summarise the definition of scientific
literacy?
Yes! Scientific literacy means that a person can ask, find, or determine answers to
questions derived from curiosity about everyday experiences. It means that a
person has the ability to describe, explain, and predict natural phenomena. A

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literate citizen should be able to evaluate the quality of scientific information on
the basis of its source and the methods used to generate it.
As mentioned above, one of the goals of the science is to develop a scientifically
literate population. Feasey (1996) suggests that most people are scientifically
illiterate and often hold negative and contradictory viewpoints of science. The
public think that science belongs to the scientists and is too difficult for them to
understand.
Skamp (2004) mentioned that Feasey and Gott (1996) suggest two elements that
can provide a foundation for a scientifically literate individual.
(a) Factual background which relates to the understanding of key ideas and
facts in science. A sound knowledge and ability to apply such concepts in a
range of contexts is essential.
(b) An understanding of evidence that focuses on the individualÊs
understanding of how and why scientists collect evidence and an ability to
challenge the reliability and validity of evidence in order to decide on its
believability.
Why do you think we need to be scientifically literate? One of the main reasons is
that the society we live in depends to an ever-increasing extent on technology
and scientific knowledge that makes it possible. Decisions we make every day
have the capacity to affect energy consumption, our personal health, natural
resources, and the environment ultimately our well-being and that of our
community and the world. Individual decisions may not seem to be critical, but
when they are multiplied by 300 million nationwide, or nearly seven billion
worldwide, they have the power to change the face of the planet (Scearce, 2007).
ACTIVITY 2.5
1. Draw your image of a typical scientist and list the characteristics of
the person that you have drawn.
2. What work does he or she do?

SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE
2.5
Teachers often say: „I have explained so many times, yet pupils cannot
understand!‰ What could the reason be? One of the reasons is because the pupils
do not understand the scientific language that the teacher is using. What and
how is scientific language different from everyday language? This section will
discuss these points.
2.5.1 Difficulties in Language
The use of scientific language and terminology enables scientists around the
world to communicate effectively with each other. However, the use of scientific
words and phrases is often confusing for non-specialists, let alone non-scientists.
There are a number of ways language can make understanding science more
difficult, such as alternative meanings of words, pupilsÊ lack of appropriate
vocabulary, the specialised vocabulary used by scientists, and English as a
second language. Pupils may begin to separate school explanations and home
explanations. Or, pupils may begin to believe they are unable to learn science it
is just too difficult to figure out. Still others may reject the scientific explanation
as too difficult and accept their own, or their community's explanation instead.
Learners may develop an understanding of the meaning of certain words that is
different from the scientists' meaning of these words. People outside the scientific
community and scientists themselves give these same words other meanings
and/or use them in other contexts, resulting in slight nuances to the original
meaning. These alternative meanings can make understanding and/or accepting
the scientist's use of the word or term difficult. Table 2.1 illustrates the different
meaning of certain terms.

26
Table 2.1: Examples of the Meaning of Words in
Scientific Language and Everyday Language
Concepts Scientific Language Everyday Language
Living and
non-living
Living and non-living are
associated with the terms
alive and dead.
Describe those and other non-living
objects as being alive, e.g. a live wire or
the fire „came to life‰ when we added
wood, or as having died, e.g. the car or
battery died.
Community The interaction of living
organisms within a bounded
system.
Within the general culture, communities
are determined by groups of residents
who have some common identity.
Communities in this sense focus on the
activities, needs and care of human
beings.
Force We talk about force as one
aspect of a field of influence
surrounding objects. That is,
a force field is a complex
system of pushes and pulls.
However, the everyday use of the term
force includes such phrases as, „I was
forced to go to bed without my dinner‰,
„Someone forced their way into the
house‰, „My mom works in the police
force,‰ and in the movies, „May the
force be with you.‰
The language used by scientists to communicate their work reflects the nature of
science. Scientific language used by scientists includes:
(a) Appeals to evidence. E.g., „Based upon the evidence gathered in this
investigation, ....‰
(b) Expressions about the validity and reliability of the evidence. E.g., „The
design called for the control of ....‰, „A new technology allowed for ....‰,
„This procedure ....‰, „The skill of the technician was such that we were
able to ....‰,
(c) Appeals to prominent scientists. E.g., „Ian Stirling found in his research
that ....‰
(d) Appeals to accepted literature. E.g., „A research study reported in
Science indicated that ....‰, „Peer reviewed research in Nature suggests
that ....‰

(e) Expressions of (un)certainty. E.g., „This was an initial study ....‰, „The
These characteristics are typically found in scientific research papers and ideally
in science educational materials such as science textbooks. Popular science
magazines and newspaper articles about science often take liberties with
scientific language by translating it into more common everyday language. This
translation often removes important aspects about the nature of science, or
worse, misrepresents the nature of science. Two common problems with popular
science articles are a lack of expression of appropriate uncertainty (tending to
more absolute statements) and confusion between evidence and interpretation.
Evidence is the ultimate authority in science even though all evidence is
uncertain to some degree. Expressions such as „facts‰, „exactly‰, „absolutely‰ or
„we proved ‰ are not appropriate in the context of a scientific investigation.
Evidence can support or fail to support a prediction and/or hypothesis, but
cannot „prove‰ either. „Proof‰ is considered too absolute and does not connote
the uncertainty accompanying all scientific evidence and knowledge. Table 2.2
shows more examples of the use of scientific language.
Table 2.2: Some Examples of the Use of Scientific Language
Expressing the Authority Expressing the Degree of Certainty
Based on the concept of The certainty is three significant digits.
According to the law of Based upon the limited evidence gathered,

Using the theory of Without full control of all variables
Based on the evidence obtained in this
investigation
The experiment needs to be replicated by
another group but
In our judgment, Careful control of all known variables
suggests
sample size was small but ...‰,
(f) Appeals to the nature of science. E.g., „Although science requires us to
be open-minded about this counter-claim,‰, „This is only a correlational
study and not a cause and effect study so ...‰.
(g) Appeals to logical reasoning. E.g., „If ..., then ....‰, „If ... and ...., then
....‰, Logical consistency requires that ....‰

28
Our interpretation of the evidence is that

Accepting that all knowledge is uncertain,

If this concept is valid, then The accuracy as a per cent difference is
This accepted concept leads us to believe
that
Having a high degree of confidence in the
evidence, it is appropriate to
Logical and consistent reasoning suggests
that
In this correlational (not cause and effect)
study
Source: http://www.crystaloutreach.ualberta.ca/en/ScienceReasoningText/Scientific
Languageaspx
ACTIVITY 2.6
The main reason pupils find it difficult to understand science is because
of the difficulty in writing, spelling and reading the terms. Actually,
scientific vocabulary is a jumble of little words that are linked together to
have different meanings. Guess the meaning of each of these terms:
(a) Epidermis;
(b) Abiotic;
(c) Endocytosis;
(d) Anaerobic; and
(e) Monochrome.
2.5.2 Sources of Scientific Words
Scientific words in English may conveniently be divided, from the standpoint of
their origins, into three groups:
(a) Those taken from the ordinary English vocabulary;
(b) Those taken virtually unchanged from another language; and
(c) Those which have been invented.
Table 2.3 shows a few examples.

Table 2.3: Examples of Scientific Words and Their Origin
Sources Examples of Words
(a) Taken from the ordinary English
vocabulary.
Although the scientist may give
them precise meanings, they are
liable to be interpreted more loosely
(or even differently) by the non-scientist.
Energy, work, power, salt, base, fruit
(b) Taken virtually unchanged from
another language.
Many of the Greek or Latin terms
have retained their original meaning
but in some cases the meanings have
been restricted and rendered more
precise.
Latin words: axis, fulcrum, larva, radius,
locus, nimbus, cortex, cerebrum, pelvis,
cornea
Greek words: thorax, stigma, iris, helix
(c) Those which have been invented.
Ester for a compound formed by the
interaction of an alcohol and an organic
acid.
ScientistsÊ names have also been used to
provide the names of units (e.g. watt, volt,
gauss, joule)
Scientists have taken „bits and pieces‰
roots, prefixes, suffixes from different
languages and joined them together to form
the terms. Thus, when they needed a
general name for animals such as snails and
slugs which apparently walk on their
stomachs, they have taken the Greek roots
gast(e)ro- (stomach) and -pod (foot) and
formed the new word gastropod. When he
wanted a word to describe a speed greater
than that of sound he took the Latin prefix
super- (above, beyond) and the Latin root
son- (sound) and coined the adjective
supersonic.

30
2.5.3 How to Teach the Language?
Introducing new scientific language to pupils can cause considerable confusion,
particularly when the pupils may have established a different understanding of
the terms from their everyday use. Careful thought needs to be given to the
selection of new scientific terms, the choice of language used in definitions and
the implications of prior understanding based on everyday use.
In learning the language of science, pupils need to learn not only a specialised
vocabulary but also how words go together and when to use this way of
communicating. The challenge is to teach these „rules of the game‰ whilst still
valuing the ways of using language that the pupils bring to the classroom. The
role of teachers is to help pupils build bridges between their known and familiar
ways of using language, and academic ways of using language.
Below are a few suggestions that you as a teacher can take:
(a) Practise Using and Build Perceived Usefulness of the Scientific Model or
Idea
Encourage activities which promote pupil experience with the language of
scientific discourse. Focus on helping pupils to identify scientific terms that
are new to them or terms where their meanings remain unclear. Encourage
pupils to practise language patterns that assist them to describe events,
objects, and processes, to make predictions and to draw conclusions.
Encourage short verbal reporting by pupils or presentations to their peers
where particular scientific terms should be used.
(b) Clarify and Consolidate Ideas for/by Communication to Others
Work with pupils to develop a chart of useful scientific terms. This could be
on permanent display in the classroom and pupils could be encouraged to
make additions as new scientific terms arise or are introduced. Have pupils
collect or develop a range of images that assist in understanding the
meanings of the terms or the context in which they are used. Pupils could
work on developing their own scientific dictionary for use in a particular
context of study. Scientific definitions could be written in their own words
or pupils could draw or collect visual images to help improve their
understanding of the terms encountered.
(c) Clarify and Consolidate Ideas for/by Communication to Others
Adopt teaching approaches that allow pupils to practise verbal, visual and
writing skills. It is important for pupils to have experiences of „doing‰
science and also of developing skills to communicate their findings to
others.

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES
Like it or not, science constitutes a significant part of human life. It impacts on
how people experience and understand the world and themselves. The rapid
advances in science and technology, newly established societal and cultural
norms and values, and changes in the climate and environment, as well as the
depletion of natural resources all greatly impact the lives of children and youths,
and hence their ways of learning, viewing the world, experiencing phenomena
around them and interacting with others.
Science educators must be aware of all these changes. They need to rethink the
science curriculum, the pedagogy and assessment in the science classroom today
as the practice of science education needs to be proactive and relevant to pupils
and prepare them for life in the present and in the future.
Contemporary issues facing science education in Malaysia are no different from
other countries.
In a report commissioned by UNESCO, Section For Science, Technical And
Vocational Education in 2008, titled Science Education Policy-Making: Eleven
Emerging Issues, Fensham listed the following issues concerning science
education (Table 2.4).
Table 2.4: Lists of Issues of Relating to Science Education
Issue A Science in Schooling and its Educational Purposes
Issue B Access and Equity in Science Education
Issue C Interest in, and about Science
Issue D How Technology Relates to Science in Education
Issue E The Nature of Science and Inquiry
Issue F Scientific Literacy
Issue G Quality of Learning in Science
Issue H The Use of ICT in Science and Technology Education
Issue I Development of Relevant and Effective Assessment in Science Education
Issue J Science Education in the Primary or Elementary Years
Issue K Professional Development of Science Teachers
Source: UNESCO (2008)
2.6

32
One of the issues that had and is still faced by science education in our country is
Issue C Interest in, and about science. Professor of Mathematics, CK Raju, a
visiting professor at the Mathematics department in Universiti Sains Malaysia
(USM), calls for a review of teaching methods for science stream subjects as a
way to raise pupilsÊ interest, following reports that the percentage of science
stream pupils had dropped to 29 per cent in 2012 (New Straits Times 19
February 2012).
The same issue is also commented by Prof. Datin Dr Azizan Baharuddin, the
Deputy Director-General of Institute of Islamic Understanding Malaysia. This
issue perhaps needs elaboration and continued engagement because in the
context of the K-economy and MalaysiaÊs developmental policies, science,
technology and innovation are critical drivers. The current data seems to show
that our manpower needs in important areas such as engineering, ICT, health
and agriculture are still far from adequate as our unfulfilled needs range from 30
percent to 50 percent. (The STAR, February 28, 2012).
ACTIVITY 2.7
1. Conduct a survey in your school on the interest in science.
2. Find out the reasons why pupils like or dislike science.
3. As a science teacher, list out different ways that you can adopt to
raise the interest of these pupils.
4. Choose any of the issues in Table 2.4. Research and find out the
current status of the issue in our country.
Knowing the goals of science education will make it easier for a curriculum
planner to plan the appropriate curriculum needed.
It also makes it easier for a teacher to plan how to teach and assess the
teaching and learning of science.

The goals can be classified into the following categories: scientific
knowledge, scientific methods, social issues, personal needs, and career
awareness.
What content to be taught in the science curriculum at any level is a
statement about the elements of science we choose to teach selected from a
much larger set of possibilities.
The content of science for primary school children should be interplay
among concepts, scientific reasoning, the nature of science, and doing
science.
The content of science curriculum should contain a skills section and a
content section.
The skills section would help children to work scientifically. This would
develop skills of enquiry during the investigative work.
Designing and making are the technological components of the Science
Curriculum.
Different countries have different ways of organising the basic concepts that
should be taught in primary science.
The science content should cover just enough concepts so that they become
„scientifically literate‰ as not all pupils are going to be working as scientists.
Inquiry-based method is always associated with science teaching and
learning.
Managing inquiry during a lesson is not the only thing that a science teacher
must do. She should first plan the lesson before acting as facilitator during
the lesson.
Formative assessment should also be carried out so that it can be used as
feedback for the teacher and pupils about learning.
Teaching methods used in teaching other subjects are also used in science
teaching when necessary.
Scientific literacy means that a person has the ability to describe, explain, and
predict natural phenomena.

34
The use of scientific language and terminology enables scientists around the
world to communicate effectively with each other.
There are a number of ways language can make understanding science more
difficult, such as alternative meanings of words, pupils' lack of appropriate
vocabulary, the specialised vocabulary used by scientists, and English as a
second language.
Learners may develop an understanding of the meaning of certain words
that is different from the scientists' meaning for these words.
The language used by scientists to communicate their work reflects the
nature of science.
Scientific words in English may be divided into three groups: those taken
from the ordinary English vocabulary; those taken virtually unchanged from
another language; and those which have been invented.
Designing and making
Formative assessment
Inquiry-based
Nature of science
Scientific language
Scientific literacy
Scientific reasoning
Scientific skills
Aims and goals of science education. Retrieved from http://www.tki.org.
nzcurriculum/whats_happening/index_e.php
Carin, A., Sund, R. B. (1989). Teaching science through discovery (6th ed.).
Belmont: Thomson Wadsworth.
Content of science. Retrieved from http://www.curriculumonline.ie/en/
Primary_School_Curriculum/Social_Environmental_and_Scientific_Educat
ion_SESE_/Science/

Critical reflections on Malaysian science curriculum. Retrieved from http://
www.recsam.edu.my/cosmed/cosmed05/AbstractsFullPapers2005/Files%
5Csubtheme1%5CKAM.pdf
Esler, W.K., Esler, M. K. (2001). Teaching elementary science (8th ed.). Belmont:
Thomson Wadsworth.
Martin, D. J. (2006). Elementary science methods: A constructivist approach.
Methods for constructing understanding. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Perspectives on education primary science. Retrieved from http://www.
wellcome.ac.uk/stellent/groups/corporatesite/@msh_peda/documents/
web_document/wtd042076.pdf
Reimagining science Learning curve New Straits Times, 19 February 2012.
Retrieved from www.nst.com.my/channels/learning-curve/issues
reimagining-science-1.48634#xzz2jAaHEwtA.
Science in primary school. Retrieved from http://archivefuturelab.org.uk/
resources/publications-reports-articles/literature-reviews/Literature-
Review381
Scientific language. Retrieved from http://www.crystaloutreach.ualberta.ca/
en/ScienceReasoningText/ScientificLanguage.aspx
Skamp, K. (2004). Teaching primary science constructively. Southbank, Victoria:
Wadsworth Publishing Company.
WhoÊs getting it right and WhoÊs getting it wrong in the debate about science
literacy? Retrieved from http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/
whos_getting_it_right_and_whos_getting_it_wrong_in_the_debate_about_
science/

Topic
3
Historical
Development
of the Science
Curriculum
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the historical development of the science curriculum;
2. Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of Nature Study, Special
Project, Man and the Environment, KBSR and KSSR curricula; and
3. Compare and contrast the Nature Study, Special Project, Man and the
Environment, KBSR and KSSR curricula.
INTRODUCTION

TOPIC 3 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE SCIENCE CURRICULUM
37
The scenario above is a conversation between two parents outside a science
classroom. You must have heard similar conversations in your school too. Why
do you think there have been so many changes in the science curriculum?
Remember what you studied in Topic 1? We discussed philosophical,
psychological, social and economic considerations when developing a
curriculum. These factors are not constant. Society is constantly evolving. Social
and economic factors may change. There might be new psychological theories
that need to be addressed. Curriculum developers believe that the curriculum
has to be dynamic and responsive in order to remain current and relevant.
The Malaysian school science curriculumÊs main aim is national unity and to
produce a workforce that can contribute to the development of the nation. The
pattern of changes and development in science education in Malaysia is largely
based on National Education Policies and current trends in science teaching.
Study Table 3.1 which shows the different primary science curricula in Malaysia
and the years they were implemented.
Table 3.1: Historical Development of Primary Science Curricula in Malaysia
Science Curriculum Year of Implementation
Nature Study Before 1965
Primary Science curriculum 1965-1968
Primary Science Special Project 1968-1984
Man and The Environment
1985-1993
(Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah, KBSR)
Primary School Science
(Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah, KBSR)
1994-2010
Primary School Science (Revised in English) 2003
KSSR 2011
In this topic you will learn about the historical development of the primary
science curriculum in Malaysia. You will be able to compare the past science
curricula with the present science curriculum and understand the rationale for
the changes.

38
ACTIVITY 3.1
Try asking your parents, grandparents or even great grandparents about
their school days. Do they remember learning science? How did they
learn science? Read through the science curricula in Malaysia in this topic
and see if you can identify what curriculum they were using.
NATURE STUDY
3.1
At the end of the 19th century and until the middle of the 20th century, science
was taught as „Nature Study‰ in primary schools. The Nature Study curriculum
focused on knowledge of facts and laws of nature based on scientific
investigation of the natural world.
Pupils were asked to learn the facts and laws of nature through careful
observation and classification of nature. However, the curriculum ignored much
of the natural environment that had an impact on pupilsÊ lives. The teaching
approach mainly focused on textbooks and rote learning. There was a need to
teach science that linked together ideas from all fields of science and relate to
studentsÊ surroundings and everyday experiences.
The science curriculum was only made uniform and official after 1956 when the
Razak Report recommended that a single syllabus be implemented in schools.
The Nature Study curriculum was replaced by the Primary Science curriculum in
1965. This new curriculum was adapted for local needs from the Nuffield Junior
Science Project, United Kingdom (1964). The Primary Science curriculum focused
on mastery of scientific facts.
Many primary science teachers especially in rural schools had poor educational
backgrounds and had not received adequate teacher training in science content
and methodology. They had been trained as general subject teachers and as such
the teaching of science was textbook-centred focusing on rote learning and
memorisation. The academic achievement in science of pupils was weak
especially in the rural areas. Can you see that a change was needed to overcome
these problems?

39
SPECIAL PROJECT (PROJEK KHAS)
In 1968, the Ministry of Education started a project called Primary School Special
Project. The main aim of this project was to raise the teaching standard of science
and mathematics in Malaysia. The development of the Special Project was a
historic event as it was the first large-scale curriculum reform undertaken by the
Ministry of Education.
The Primary School Special Project used new teaching approaches but the
content remained the same as it was assumed that the teachers had mastered the
content. The focus was to help teachers gain more confidence in using the inquiry
approach so as to be able to instil an interest and understanding in pupils of the
world around them.
In 1971, the Ministry of Education formulated the Primary School Syllabus for
Science. Its content did not differ much from the previous curriculum, except for
the aspects of the teaching-learning approach, strategy and methods. The Special
Project was introduced in schools for Standard 1 in 1970. Services and facilities
were provided to the teachers as support. Study Figure 3.1 which shows the
services and facilities given to science teachers under the Special Project.
Figure 3.1: Support given to science teachers under special project
3.2

40
The Primary Science Special Project was pupil-centred and activity-oriented.
Activity centres were set up to spread knowledge and resources to all schools.
However, there were too many teachers and not enough trainers and this
weakened the impact of this curriculum.
ACTIVITY 3.2
1. Analyse the Nature Study Curriculum. What were its strengths?
What was the rationale for its change?
2. What were the strengths of the Primary Science Special Project
Curriculum? What were its weaknesses?
MAN AND THE ENVIRONMENT
3.3
The Cabinet Committee for Review of Implementation of the Education Policy
(Jawatankuasa Kabinet Mengkaji Pelaksanaan Dasar Pendidikan) 1979,
recommended that the primary school curriculum be developed based on three
areas namely: communication; man and his surroundings; and individual self
development. Based on this, the Curriculum Development Centre (CDC)
formulated a new curriculum called the New Primary School Curriculum
(Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah) (KBSR). KBSR was a completely new
innovation with changes in content, pedagogy, pupil assessment, evaluation,
remedial and enrichment activities, and the role of teachers.
Alam dan Manusia
Man and His Environment (Alam dan Manusia) was one of the subjects in the
area of Man and his Surroundings. Unlike the Special Project, Alam dan Manusia
was only offered in Level One, that is, in Years Four, Five and Six. Alam dan
Manusia was planned to help students acquire knowledge and understanding of
man and his environment with emphasis on the Malaysian society and
environment. Alam dan Manusia was a humanistic curriculum that stressed on
integration of disciplines, enhancement of thinking skills, inquiry and problem-solving
skills and inculcation of moral values. It integrated elements that were
previously taught separately in subjects such as Geography, History, Civics,
Science and Health Science. This integration aimed not only to reduce the
number of subjects, but also ensure that students could understand certain topics
better and as a whole.

41
The CDC published teacherÊs guides called Buku Panduan Khas Alam dan
Manusia for Years Four, Five and Six. These teachersÊ guides specified the
curriculum in detail by listing objectives to be achieved by pupils for each topic.
It also contained suggested lesson plans and teaching-learning strategies. Dewan
Bahasa dan Pustaka also published Alam dan Manusia textbooks for each year.
Did you teach this curriculum or do you have any experience of it? What do you
think the constraints of this curriculum were? There were physical constraints
when implementing this curriculum such as large class size and lack of facilities.
There was also inadequate in-service training and professional support. Due to
this, teachers lacked competency in integrating subject content and using an
inquiry approach. Teachers were also stressed and overburdened.
ACTIVITY 3.3
What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Man and Environment
(Alam dan Manusia) Curriculum?
KBSR (INTEGRATED CURRICULUM FOR
PRIMARY SCHOOL) (KURIKULUM
BERSEPADU SEKOLAH RENDAH)
3.4
The Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah was revised based on the evaluation
findings and also the future needs and challenges of the country. Alam dan
Manusia was replaced by two new subjects, namely the Primary School Science
Curriculum and Local Studies (Kajian Tempatan) in 1994 with the
implementation of the Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools (Kurikulum
Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah), (KBSR).
The Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools was formulated to improve and
enhance the standard of education in primary schools and to achieve the
aspirations of the National Philosophy of Education (NPE). The aims of this
primary school science curriculum were to:
(a) Provide opportunities for pupils to learn about themselves and the
environment through everyday experiences and scientific investigations;
(b) Acquire knowledge and skills in science and technology;

42
(c) Enable pupils to apply these knowledge and skills based on scientific
attitudes; and
(d) Acquire noble values to make decisions and solve problems in everyday
life.
The curriculum also aimed to provide a strong foundation in science and
technology to prepare pupils for the learning of science in secondary school.
(Integrated curriculum for primary schools: Science syllabus, 2003)
Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah
The CDC developed the curriculum specifications called Huraian Sukatan
Pelajaran Sains Sekolah Rendah in 1993. The Huraian Sukatan Pelajaran Sains
Sekolah Rendah contained general and specific learning objectives and suggested
learning experiences. Besides this, CDC also published training packages called
Pukal Latihan Sains Rendah (PuLSaR). These training packages contained
modules on teaching-learning strategies accompanied by video cassettes.
Science was taught as both content and a process which included scientific
knowledge, scientific skills, thinking skills and scientific attitude and values. A
thematic approach was used. School-based assessment in the form of PEKA
(Penilaian Kemahiran Amali) was introduced to measure the pupilsÊ mastery of
science process skills and manipulative skills. The science curriculum
emphasised constructivism, the inquiry-discovery approach and the use of
technology.
Science Taught in English
In 2003, the science curriculum was revised and science was introduced as a
subject in Level One. The medium of instruction was English. Globalisation and
the need to keep abreast with the advances of science using technology as a
means to acquire knowledge had convinced the government to change its policy
of using English in the teaching of these two subjects. The teaching of Science
using English enables pupils to obtain various sources of information written in
English either in electronic or print form. This helps to keep them abreast with
the latest developments in science and technology. Pupils will be able to relate
their knowledge to the world beyond the school. Teachers were trained to teach
Science in English and textbooks and courseware were developed.
However in 2009, this policy was changed and the medium of instruction for
Science and Mathematics reverted to the Malay language (Bahasa Malaysia).

43
ACTIVITY 3.4
Answer the following questions based on your understanding of the
KBSR primary science curriculum.
(a) What is science education for?
(b) What kind of pupils and society do we want to produce?
KURIKULUM STANDARD SEKOLAH
RENDAH (KSSR)
3.5
The Primary School Standard Curriculum, KSSR (Kurikulum Standard Sekolah
Rendah) was introduced in 2011 as an effort to transform, restructure and
improve the current curriculum to ensure that students have the relevant
knowledge, skills and values to face the challenges of the 21st century. You will
learn more about the KSSR in Topic 6. Here we will look at how science is taught
in this new curriculum and the differences between the KBSR and KSSR.
KSSR was formulated based on a statement of standards. The statement of
standards consists of content standards and learning standards. This is shown in
Table 3.2 below:
Table 3.2: KSSR Standards
Content Standards Learning Standards
Specific statements on what the students
must know and can do, within a specific
period of schooling
Set criteria or indicators of education
quality and achievements which can be
measured for each content standard
Under KSSR, primary education is divided into two levels similar to KBSR: Level
One from Years One to Three, and Level Two from Years Four to Six. Level One
KSSR focuses on the mastery of the 4Ms (Reading, Writing, Counting and
Reasoning), basic information and technology (ICT) skills, social, emotional,
spiritual, cognitive, physical development, attitudes and values. Level Two
focuses on reinforcing and the application of 4Ms, basic ICT skills, social,
emotional, spiritual, cognitive, physical development, attitudes and values.

44
In Level One all knowledge disciplines are reorganised for more effective
curriculum management to form Basic Core Modules, Thematic Core Modules,
and Elective Modules. Study Table 3.3, the Thematic Core Modules were
introduced to reduce the number of subjects taken at Level One. These modules
comprise the themes of the World of Art and World of Science and Technology.
The World of Science and Technology (Dunia Sains dan Teknologi, DST) contains
elements of Science, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), and
Design and Technology (Reka Bentuk Teknologi, RBT).
Science is introduced in the Thematic Core Modules to provide basic knowledge
on the discipline of Science. There are two different standard documents for the
World of Science and Technology, that is Standard Document for Science
Curriculum and RBT, and the Standard Document for ICT. The Standard
Document for Science Curriculum contains the following themes: Life Science,
Physical Science, Materials Science, Earth and Space Science and Technology and
Sustainable Living (Kehidupan Lestari) (RBT).
Table 3.3: Organisation of Subjects in KSSR Level One
Basic Core Modules Thematic Core Modules Elective Modules
Malay Language
English Language
Chinese Language
Tamil Language
Mathematics
Physical Education
Health Education
Islamic Education/
Moral Education
World of Art
World of Science and
Technology
Arab Language
Chinese Language
(BCSK)
Tamil Language (BTSK)
Iban language
Kadazandusun
Language
In Level Two KSSR, the curriculum is organised into Core Subjects and Elective
Subjects. All subjects are carried out in a modular way. Science is introduced as a
Core Subject at this level.
The aim of the science curriculum is to inculcate interest and develop creativity
in pupils through experiences and investigations to master science knowledge,
scientific skills, thinking skills and scientific attitude and noble values.
Study Table 3.4 which shows the differences between the KSSR and KBSR.

45
Table 3.4: The Differences between KSSR and KBSR
KSSR (2011 - Untill Today) KBSR (1983-2010)
Curriculum design is based on six areas:
Communication
Spiritual, Attitude and Values
Humanitarian
Physical and Aesthetical Development
Science and Technology
Curriculum design is based on three areas:
Communication
Man and his environment
Self-development of the individual
Curriculum Materials
Curriculum Standard documents
Curriculum Materials
Syllabus
Curriculum Specifications
Design of the Curriculum:
Modular
Design of the Curriculum:
Linear
Organisation of the Curriculum:
Level I (Years 1, 2 and 3)
Basic Core Modules, Thematic Core
Modules and Elective Modules
Level II (Years 4, 5 and 6)
Core and Elective Subjects
Organisation of the Curriculum:
Level I (Years 1, 2 and 3)
Core, compulsory and additional
subjects
Level II (Years 4, 5 and 6)
Core , Compulsory and Additional
subjects
Elements of creativity and innovation,
entrepreneurial, information technology
and communication
Elements of analytical and creative
thinking
skills
Focus:
4M (Reading, Writing, Counting and
Reasoning)
Focus:
3M (Reading, Writing and Counting)
Source: Official website of MOE. http://www.moe.gov.my/en/soalan-lazim-view?
id=146cat=30keyword=page=1
ACTIVITY 3.5
Study Table 3.4. Discuss the improvements in the KSSR curriculum and
its implications on the teaching of science.

46
Look at Figure 3.2 which shows the development of the science curricula in
Malaysia from 1983 until today.
Figure 3.2: The development of the science curricula in Malaysia
Each curriculum was formulated based on contemporary contents, current
learning strategies and the needs of the country. A lot of careful planning went
into the formulation of these curriculums. However, the success of any
curriculum not only depends on how well it is planned but also on the
implementation. You, the teacher, are the one who implements the curriculum.
As a teacher you must understand the philosophy and foundations of the
curriculum you are using so you can implement it effectively so that its objectives
and aims are attained.

47
SELF-CHECK 3.1
1. Compare and contrast the Special Project Science Curriculum,
Man and The Environment and the Primary School Science
Curriculum (KBSR) in the following aspects:
(a) Background of curriculum formulation
(b) Rationale for curriculum formulation
(c) What conclusion can you make?
2. Use a suitable graphic organiser to show the similarities and
differences between the following science curricula:
(a) Nature Study
(b) Special Project Science Curriculum.
(c) Man and the Environment
(d) Primary School Science Curriculum (KBSR)
(e) KSSR
Discuss the similarities and differences using the following
aspects:
(a) Rationale
(b) Strengths
(c) Weakenesses
The curriculum has to be dynamic and responsive in order to remain current
and relevant.
At the end of the 19th century and until the mid-20th century science was
taught as „Nature Study‰ in primary schools.
The Nature Study curriculum focused on knowledge of facts and laws of
nature based on scientific investigation of the natural world.

48
The Nature Study did not take into account the pupilsÊ natural environment.
The teaching approach mainly focused on textbooks and rote learning.
The Primary School Special Project was started in 1968. The main aim of this
project was to raise the teaching standard of science and mathematics in
Malaysia.
The Primary School Special Project used new teaching approaches but the
content remained the same.
Services and facilities were provided to the teachers as support under the
Special Project.
The Primary Science Special Project was pupil-centred and activity-oriented.
But there were too many teachers and not enough trainers.
Man and His Environment was one of the subjects offered in the New
Primary School Curriculum (Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah) (KBSR).
Alam dan Manusia stressed on integration of disciplines, enhancement of
thinking skills, inquiry and problem-solving skills and inculcation of moral
values.
The problems encountered in this curriculum were physical constraints such
as large class size and lack of facilities. There was also inadequate in-service
training and professional support. Teachers were also stressed and
overburdened.
Primary School Science Curriculum was implemented in 1994 under the
Integrated Curriculum for Primary Schools (Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah
Rendah), (KBSR).
The objectives of this primary school science curriculum were to provide
opportunities for pupils to learn about themselves and the environment
through everyday experiences and scientific investigations, to acquire
knowledge and skills in science and technology and to enable pupils to
apply these knowledge and skills based on scientific attitudes and noble
values to make decisions and solve problems in everyday life.
In the KSSR, Science is taught under the Thematic Core Modules at Level
One under the World of Art and World of Science and Technology.

49
The World of Science and technology (Dunia Sains dan Teknologi, DST)
contains elements of Science, Information Communication Technology
(ICT), and Design Technology (Reka Bentuk Teknologi, RBT).
Science is introduced under the Thematic Core Modules to provide basic
knowledge in the discipline of Science.
In Level Two KSSR, Science is introduced as a Core Subject.
The aim of the KSSR science curriculum is to inculcate interest and develop
creativity in pupils through experiences and investigations to master science
knowledge, scientific skills, thinking skills and scientific attitude and noble
values.
Kurikulum Baru Sekolah Rendah,
(KBSR)
Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah,
(KBSR)
Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Rendah,
(KSSR)
Man and the Environment
Nature Study
Primary Science curriculum
Primary Science Special Project
Bahagian Pembangunan Kurikulum. (2012). Kurikulum Standard Sekolah
Rendah Tahun Tiga. Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.
Buku Penerangan Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Rendah, Kementerian Pendidikan
Malaysia. Retrieved from http://web.moe.gov.my/bpk/v2/ index.php?
option=com_contentview=articleid=313Itemid=482lang=en.
.
Ministry of Education Malaysia. Integrated curriculum for primary schools.
Science syllabus. Retrieved from http://web.moe.gov.my/bpk/sp_
hsp/sains/kbsr/sp_science_primary_school.pdf.
Pusat Pembangunan Kurikulum. (2002). Huraian sukatan pelajaran Sains.
Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.

50
Poh, S. H. (2003). Pedagogy Science 1: Science curriculum. Kuala Lumpur:
Kumpulan Budiman.
Razak Report, 1956. Malaysia Fact Book. Retrieved from http://malaysiafact
book.com/Razak_Report_1956 .
Sharifah Maimunah Syed Zin (1990) Curriculum Innovation: Case Studies Of
Man and the Environment in the Malaysian Primary School Curriculum
PhD thesis, University of East Anglia (unpublished).
Tan, J. N. (1999). The Development and Implementation of the Primary
School Science Currriculum in Malaysia. Unpublished PhD thesis of the
University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom.
Wong, Francis Hoy Kee, Yee Hean Gwee (1980). Official Reports on Education:
Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States, 1870-1939. Singapore:
Pan Pacific Book Distributors.

Topic
4

KBSR Science
Curriculum I
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. State the aims of primary school science;
2. List the objectives of primary school science;
3. Describe the scientific skills that are listed in the science curriculum;
4. Identify thinking skills encompassed in any given scientific skill;
5. Explain various teaching methods used in science teaching and
learning; and
6. Relate between KBSR Science Curriculum with National Philosophy,
National Science Philosophy and Vision 2020.
INTRODUCTION
Science is always viewed as a difficult subject, full of abstract concepts that need
to be remembered. But if we start introducing science as early as possible and
with the right approach, children will end up being innovative scientists
contributing to the nation.
Young children are naturally curious and constantly exploring the world around
them. Classroom science provides the opportunity for children to extend this
natural curiosity and building of theories. With the help of teachers, children can
develop a greater appreciation and understanding of the natural world.

5 2 TOPIC 4 KBSR SCIENCE CURRICULUM I
In this topic we will study the KBSR Science Curriculum. We will look at the
aims, objectives, scientific skills, scientific attitudes and values, the teaching and
learning strategies that can be used in the science classroom. Lastly, we will
discuss how the National Philosophy, Science Education Philosophy and Vision
2020 relate to one another.
KBSR SCIENCE CURRICULUM
4.1
Science is being offered as one subject in primary schools in Malaysia. It has
undergone a few changes in the last few years. It was first introduced as KBSR
Science under the Man and His Environment component of the curriculum in
1994. When it was first introduced, the subject was taught in Years Four, Five and
Six. Later, the subject was taught starting from Year One to Year Six. Then, in
2003, the government introduced Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran Sains dan
Matematik Dalam Bahasa Inggeris (PPSMI) (the teaching and learning of science
and mathematics in English).
The policy was the result of a Cabinet meeting on July 19, 2002 under the
administration of the fourth prime minister, Tun Dr Mahathir bin Mohamad.
According to the Ministry of Education, the policy would run in stages, starting
with the 2003 school session, pioneered by all students of Year One at primary
education level, and Form One at the secondary education level. The teaching of
science in English was then fully implemented in secondary schools in 2007, and
in primary schools in 2008. Under this policy, the science curriculum itself did
not change, only the language of instruction. But in 2009 this policy was
discontinued.
CURRICULUM SPECIFICATIONS OF KBSR
SCIENCE SYLLABUS
4.2
In this subtopic, we will look at the KBSR curriculum specifications.
4.2.1 Aims and Objectives
The aims of the primary school science curriculum are to provide opportunities
for pupils to learn about themselves and the environment through everyday
experiences and scientific investigations, to acquire knowledge and skills in
science and technology and to enable pupils to apply these knowledge and skills
based on scientific attitudes and noble values to make decisions and solve
problems in everyday life. It is hoped that this curriculum will develop the

TOPIC 4 KBSR SCIENCE CURRICULUM I
53
potential of individuals in an overall and integrated manner so as to produce
Malaysian citizens who are scientifically and technologically literate, competent
in scientific skills, practise good moral values, capable of coping with the changes
in scientific and technological advances and be able to manage nature with
wisdom and responsibility for the betterment of mankind.
Emphasis is given to the mastery of scientific skills needed to study and
understand the world. Scientific skills refer to process skills and manipulative
skills.
The curriculum also aims to provide a strong foundation in science and
technology to prepare pupils for the learning of science in secondary school.
(a) Level One
The aim of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level one is to
develop studentsÊ interest in science and to nurture their creativity and
their curiosity.
The objectives of the Primary School Science Curriculum for Level One are
to:
(i) Stimulate pupilsÊ curiosity and develop their interest in the world
around them;
(ii) Provide pupils with opportunities to develop science process skills
and thinking skills;
(iii) Develop pupilsÊ creativity;
(iv) Provide pupils with basic science knowledge and concepts;
(v) Inculcate scientific attitudes and positive values; and
(vi) Create awareness on the need to love and care for the environment.
(b) Level Two
The aims of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level two are to
produce human beings who are experienced, skilful and morally sound in
order to form a society with a culture of science and technology and which
is compassionate, dynamic, and progressive so that people are more
responsible towards the environment and are more appreciative of natureÊs
creations.

The objectives of the Primary School Science Curriculum for level two are
to:
(i) Develop thinking skills so as to enhance intellectual ability;
(ii) Develop scientific skills and attitude through inquiry;
(iii) Enhance natural interest in their surroundings;
(iv) Gain knowledge and understanding of scientific facts and concepts to
assist in understanding themselves and the environment;
(v) Solve problems and make responsible decisions;
(vi) Handle the latest contributions and innovations in science and
technology;
(vii) Practise scientific attitudes and noble values in daily lives;
(viii) Appreciate the contributions of science and technology towards the
comfort of life; and
(ix) Appreciate arrangement and order in nature.
ACTIVITY 4.1
Choose science activities that you have done before. Which objectives
were included in the activities?
4.2.2 Scientific Skills
You have also explored scientific skills in detail in HBSC2203 Tools in Learning
Science. Thus in this section we will just mention and list them briefly. Science
emphasises inquiry and problem-solving. In inquiry and problem-solving
processes, scientific and thinking skills are utilised. Scientific skills are important
in any scientific investigation such as conducting and carrying out projects.
Scientific skills encompass science process skills and manipulative skills.
(a) Science Process Skills
Science process skills enable students to formulate their questions and find
the answers systematically. Descriptions of the science process skills are as
shown in Table 4.1.

55
Table 4.1: Description of Science Process Skills
Observing Using the senses of hearing, touch, smell, taste and sight to find
out about objects or events.
Classifying Using observations to group objects or events according to
similarities or differences.
Measuring and
Using Numbers
Making quantitative observations by comparing with a
conventional or non-conventional standard.
Making Inferences Using past experiences or previously collected data to draw
conclusions and come up with explanations of events
Predicting Making a forecast about what will happen in the future based on
prior knowledge gained through experiences or collected data.
Communicating Using words or graphic symbols such as tables, graphs, figures
or models to describe an action, object or event.
Using space-time
relationship
Describing changes in parameters with time. Examples of
parameters are location, direction, shape, size, volume, weight
and mass.
Interpreting data Giving rational explanations about an object, events or pattern
derived from collected data.
Defining
operationally
Defining all variables as they are used in an experiment by
describing what must be done and what should be observed.
Controlling variables Naming the fixed variables, manipulated variables, and
responding variables in an investigation.
Making Hypotheses Making a general statement about the relationship between a
manipulated variable and a responding variable to explain an
observation or event. The statement can be tested to determine
its validity.
Experimenting Planning and conducting activities including collecting,
analysing and interpreting data and making conclusions.
SELF-CHECK 4.1
What are the basic skills encompassed in the experimenting skill?

(b) Manipulative Skills
Manipulative skills in scientific investigation are psychomotor skills that
enable students to:
(i) Use and handle science apparatus and substances;
(ii) Handle specimens correctly and carefully;
(iii) Draw specimens, apparatus;
(iv) Clean science apparatus; and
(v) Store science apparatus.
4.2.3 Thinking Skills
Thinking is a mental process that requires an individual to integrate knowledge,
skills and attitude in an effort to understand the environment.
One of the objectives of the national education system is to enhance the thinking
ability of students. This objective can be achieved through a curriculum that
emphasises thoughtful learning. Teaching and learning that emphasises thinking
skills is a foundation for thoughtful learning.
Thoughtful learning is achieved if students are actively involved in the teaching
and learning process. Activities should be organised to provide opportunities for
students to apply thinking skills in conceptualisation, problem-solving and
decision-making.
Thinking skills can be categorised into critical thinking skills and creative
thinking skills. A person who thinks critically always evaluates an idea in a
systematic manner before accepting it. A person who thinks creatively has a high
level of imagination, is able to generate original and innovative ideas, and
modify ideas and products.
Thinking strategies are higher order thinking processes that involve various
steps. Each step involves various critical and creative thinking skills. The ability
to formulate thinking strategies is the ultimate aim of introducing thinking
activities in the teaching and learning process.

57
(a) Critical Thinking Skills
A brief description of each critical thinking skill is as follows (Table 4.2):
Table 4.2: Critical Thinking Skills
Attributing Identifying criteria such as characteristics, features, qualities and
elements of a concept or an object.
Comparing and
Contrasting
Finding similarities and differences based on criteria such as
characteristics, features, qualities and elements of a concept or
event.
Grouping and
Classifying
Separating and grouping objects or phenomena into categories
based on certain criteria such as common characteristics or features
Sequencing Arranging objects and information in order based on the quality or
quantity of common characteristics or features such as size, time,
shape or number.
Prioritising Arranging objects and information in order based on their
importance or priority
Analysing Examining information in detail by breaking it down into smaller
parts to find implicit meaning and relationships.
Detecting Bias Identifying views or opinions that have the tendency to support or
oppose something in an unfair or misleading way.
Evaluating Making judgments on the quality or value of something based on
valid reasons or evidence.
Making
Conclusions
Making a statement about the outcome of an investigation that is
based on a hypothesis.
(b) Creative Thinking Skills
A brief description of each creative thinking skill is as follows (Table 4.3):

Table 4.3: Creative Thinking Skills
Generating Ideas Producing or giving ideas in a discussion.
Relating Making connections in a certain situation to determine in a certain
situation to determine a structure or pattern of relationship.
Making
Inferences
Using past experiences or previously collected data to draw
conclusions and come up with explanations of events.
Predicting Making a forecast about what will happen in the future based on
prior knowledge gained through experiences or collected data.
Making
Generalisations
Making a general conclusion about a group based on observations
made on, or some information from, samples of the group.
Visualising Recalling or forming mental images about a particular idea,
concept, situation or vision.
Synthesising Combining separate elements or parts to form a general picture in
various forms such as writing, drawing or artefact.
Making
Hypotheses
Making a general statement about the relationship between a
manipulated variable and a responding variable to explain an
observation or event. The statement can be tested to determine its
validity.
Making
Analogies
Understanding a certain abstract or complex concept by relating it
to a simpler or concrete concept with similar characteristics.
Inventing Producing something new or adapting something already in
existence to overcome problems in a systematic manner.
ACTIVITY 4.2
Refer to the curriculum specifications. What are the thinking skills
encompassed in:
(a) Observing?
(b) Classifying?
(c) Making inference?
(d) Measuring and using numbers?

59
4.2.4 Scientific Attitudes and Noble Values
Science learning experiences can be used as a means to inculcate scientific
attitudes and noble values in students. These attitudes and values encompass the
following:
(a) Having an interest and curiosity in the environment;
(b) Being honest and accurate in recording and validating data;
(c) Being diligent and persevering;
(d) Being responsible about the safety of oneself, others, and the environment;
(e) Realising that science is a means to understand nature;
(f) Appreciating and practising clean and healthy living;
(g) Appreciating the balance of nature;
(h) Being respectful and well mannered;
(i) Appreciating the contribution of science and technology;
(j) Being thankful to God;
(k) Having analytical and critical thinking skills;
(l) Being flexible and open-minded;
(m) Being kind-hearted and caring;
(n) Being objective;
(o) Being systematic;
(p) Being cooperative;
(q) Being fair and just;
(r) Daring to try;
(s) Thinking rationally; and
(t) Being confident and independent.

The inculcation of scientific attitudes and noble values generally occurs through
the following stages:
(a) Stage 1: Being aware of the importance and the need for scientific attitudes
and noble values.
(b) Stage 2: Giving emphasis to these attitudes and values.
(c) Stage 3: Practising and internalising these scientific attitudes and noble
values.
ACTIVITY 4.3
1. Think of science activities that you can do.
2. What are suitable attitudes and noble values that can be
incorporated in those activities?
4.2.5 Teaching and Learning Strategies
Teaching and learning strategies in science curriculum emphasise thoughtful
learning. Thoughtful learning is a process that helps students acquire knowledge
and master skills that will help them develop their minds to the optimum level.
Thoughtful learning can occur through various learning approaches such as
inquiry, constructivism, contextual learning and mastery learning.
Learning activities should therefore be geared towards activating studentsÊ
critical and creative thinking skills and not be confined to routine or rote
learning. Students should be made aware of the thinking skills and thinking
strategies that they use in their learning. They should be challenged with higher
order questions and problems and be required to solve problems utilising their
creativity and critical thinking. The teaching and learning process should enable
students to acquire knowledge, master skills and develop scientific attitudes and
noble values in an integrated manner.
Inquiry-discovery emphasises learning through experiences. Inquiry generally
means to find information, to question and to investigate a phenomenon that
occurs in the environment. Discovery is the main characteristic of inquiry.
Learning through discovery occurs when the main concepts and principles of
science are investigated and discovered by students themselves. Through

61
activities such as experiments, students investigate a phenomenon and draw
conclusions by themselves. Teachers then lead students to understand the science
concepts though the results of the inquiry. Thinking skills and scientific skills are
thus developed further during the inquiry process. However, the inquiry
approach may not be suitable for all teaching and learning situations. Sometimes,
it may be more appropriate for teachers to present concepts and principles
directly to students.
The use of variety of teaching and learning methods can enhance studentsÊ
interest in science. Science lessons that are not interesting will not motivate
students to learn and subsequently will affect their performance. The choice of
teaching methods should be based on the curriculum content, studentsÊ abilities,
studentsÊ repertoire of intelligences, and the availability of resources and
infrastructure. Different teaching and learning activities should be planned to
cater for students with different learning styles and intelligences.
The following are brief descriptions of some teaching and learning methods.
(a) Experiment
An experiment is a method commonly used in science lessons. In
experiments, students test hypotheses through investigations to discover
specific science concepts and principles. Conducting an experiment
involves thinking skills, scientific skills and manipulative skills.
In the implementation of this curriculum, besides guiding students to carry
out experiments, where appropriate, teachers should provide students with
the opportunities to design their own experiments. This involves students
drawing up plans as to how to conduct experiments, how to measure and
analyse data and how to present the results of their experiment.
(b) Discussion
A discussion is an activity in which students exchange questions and
opinions based on valid reasons. Discussions can be conducted before,
during or after an activity. Teachers should play the role of facilitator and
lead a discussion by asking questions that stimulate thinking and getting
students to express themselves.
(c) Simulation
In simulation, an activity that resembles the actual situation is carried out.
Examples of simulation are role play, games and the use of models. In role
play, students play out a particular role based on certain pre-determined
conditions. Games require procedures that need to be followed. Students
play games in order to learn a particular principle or to understand the

HBSC3303 School Science Curriculum

HBSC3303 School Science Curriculum

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