Final output in Ethics

1. CLAIRE ALCOBER
BSN-1A
ALBUM
IN
ETHICS

2. Difference between Moral and Non-moral Standards
Ethics and Morality
Morality and Human Existence
Man is the only Moral Being
Man as an Animal
Man as a Rational Animal
Intellect compared with Will
Concrete basis of Morality
Ethical teachings of Socrates
Ethical teachings of Plato
Ethical teachings of Aristotle
Christian Ethics: Ethical teachings of Jesus Christ
Christian Ethics: Ethical teachings of St. Augustine
Christian Ethics: Ethical teaching of St. Thomas Aquinas
Types of Moral Dilemma
Levels of Moral Dilemma
Understanding Human Freedom
Foundation of Human Acts
Moral Agent
TABLE OF CONTENTS

3. Elements of Interhuman
Love and Justice
Different Cross points in Human
Culture and Morality
What is Culture?
The Filipino Culture
Understanding the Act
Analysis of Human Acts
Moral Courage
Courage as Virtue
How is courage developed?

4. Introduction
Moral standards involve the rules people have about the kinds of actions they
believe are ethically right and wrong, as well as the values they place on the kinds of
objects they believe are morally good and morally bad. Some ethicists equate moral
standards with moral values and moral principles.
Non-moral standards refer to rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical
considerations. Either these standards are not necessarily linked to morality or by nature
lack ethical sense. Basic examples of non-moral standards include rules of etiquette,
fashion standards, rules in games, and various house rules. Technically, religious rules,
some traditions, and legal statutes (i.e. laws and ordinances) are non-moral principles,
though they can be ethically relevant depending on some factors and contexts.
Application
Moral standards involve serious wrongs or significant benefits. Moral standards
deal with matters which can seriously impact, that is, injure or benefit human beings. It is
not the case with many non-moral standards. For instance, following or violating some
basketball rules may matter in basketball games but does not necessarily affect one’s life
or well-being.
Moral standards are not the only rules or principles in society, but they take
precedence over other considerations, including aesthetic, prudential, and even legal
ones. A person may be aesthetically justified in leaving behind his family in order to
devote his life to painting, but morally, all things considered, that person was not
justified. It may be practical to lie to save one’s dignity, but it is morally wrong to do so.
When a particular law becomes seriously immoral, it may be people’s moral duty to
exercise civil disobedience
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MORAL
AND NON MORAL STANDARDS

5. Introduction
Ethics comes from the Greek word ethos which means, character or customs.
According to “The American ethos” or “The Business ethos”, people use the word ethos
to refer to the distinguish disposition, character, altitude of specific people, culture or
group. According to Solomon, the etymology of ethics suggests its basic concerns, the
individual character which includes what it means to be “a good person”. The difference
between Ethics and Morality is that morality refers to human conduct and values while
ethics refers to the study of those areas.
One can only become moral or a good person when one applies ethics. When one
does the theories of ethics one actually performs the theory, which means that one is
actually doing ethics. While ethics, as a theoretical science, provides principles or bases
of right or wrong and good or bad actions, morality actualizes the theory. As ethics
outlines theories of right and wrong and good or bad actions, morality is nothing else but
a doing of ethics.
Application
Ethics are very consistent within a certain context, but can vary greatly between
contexts. One example would be the work of a defense attorney. A lawyer’s morals may
tell her that murder is reprehensible and that murderers should be punished, but her ethics
as a professional lawyer, require her to defend her client to the best of her abilities, even
if she knows that the client is guilty.
ETHICS AND MORALITY

6. Introduction
Morality is present only in the context of humanity. There is no morality outside
the context of humanity. In simple terms, we can say that there is morality since there is a
human presence. Although morality and ethics are often seen as synonyms, some
philosophers have endowed these terms with different connotations. For example, in his
late ethical work The Metaphysics of Morals, Kant distinguished the two parts of the
metaphysics of morals: the doctrine of right and the doctrine of virtue. While the latter
concerns ethics, the former touches on legal relationships and falls roughly under the
categories of the philosophy of law or the metaphysical domain of law. Here, morality
seems to cover a domain that is more vast ruling over both ethics and philosophy of law.
Differing from Kant, Hegel argued that morality is, in the first place linked to the self’s
conceptions and intentions: In morality, “the subjective side, my perception and meaning,
is the prevailing moment.” In morality, self-determination should be thought of as sheer
restless activity which cannot yet arrive at something that is.
Application
Morality is related to every person that is living here on earth. We used morality
as a guide to the right conduct of every action and religion is always associated with this.
Every action and decisions I take and make I always think if my actions will be moral or
immoral that can be judge according to human existence and conditions. My actions and
words can be immoral or moral if I will not be cautious and be careful for my acts. I can
hurt somebody or anyone without knowing it. Therefore, I conclude that we must know
and learn what are the moral actions and decision we should do because this will be our
guide for a better life and as well as the future. We can respect and love each other if we
only know the right actions and if we have enough knowledge about it.
MORALITY AND HUMAN EXISTENCE

7. Introduction
Man is the only moral being by virtue because of many reasons. Man is a being of
his action. Man knows his acts, he knows he is responsible for his actions. Man has
intellect. His intellect enables him to know, to know what is right or wrong and good or
bad actions. Since he is capable of knowing, he is, therefore, mandated to face the
consequences of his actions. Thus, the morality of human acts can be applied only to
those who have the knowledge of right and wrong and good or bad actions. People who
are mentally challenged such as mongoloids are not considered as moral agents. The
same goes to infants and children who has not yet reached the age of reason. Man has
will. Man is free to act or not to act. A man’s will equips man with power to choose
either right and wrong and good or bad actions.
Application
Man was created as a moral being, capable of distinguishing between right and
wrong, and accountable to God. Whether a person likes it or not, he is a moral being and
thus with moral obligations such as the ability to distinguish right from wrong brings with
it moral obligations. He has been given a free will or the freedom of being either good or
bad. He tends to be highly gullible. He easily believes a lie. He is inclined towards error
and spiritual error can have grave consequences. Fleshly impulses and inclinations pull in
the direction of spiritual error. Man would do well to take his creator seriously. Each soul
will be judged in the Day of Judgement by moral considerations and no other. Personal
morality (righteousness, goodness, virtue) is the important thing in life. A man’s morality
is his measure. There is no other.
MAN IS THE ONLY MORAL BEING

8. Introduction
Man as an animal has knowledge. Brutes and ordinary grade of animals do
acquire knowledge through their senses. Their senses undoubtedly, are their
indispensable medium of knowledge. As an animal, man also acquires knowledge
through his senses.
Man as animal has an appetency. Brutes and ordinary forms of animals are driven
to seek for something out of their instincts. Instincts are natural biological drives of
animals. Thus, man, being an animal, is also subject of these drives. Just like any other
animal, man desires for food when hungry and seeks water when thirsty.
Application
The man is in the scheme of nature as “thinking animal”. The spirit which
distinguishes man as a rational being is “incapable of being destroyed” It is a special part
of the psyche (soul), which in turn is the force that animates the body. The soul is the
body “trained”, and contrary to the spirit of Plato, does not have a separate existence
from the body. Thus, it does not survive the death of the body. However, the soul has
both currency and potential. The soul is also effective, that is to say, the formal cause and
final body. In other words, the soul has a purpose, and carries with it the means to
achieve this end.
MAN AS AN ANIMAL

9. Introduction
It is being rational that makes a man. It
is only in the context that man is to be
understood as a moral being or a moral agent. It
is man’s being rational that makes him a unique
grade of animal. Being rational, man’s
knowledge does not stop in the senses since his
sensual knowledge is further processed by his
intellect in the form of abstraction. Man’s
perceptual knowledge helps him draw
judgements as he compares ideas so that eventually he engages in what is called
reasoning. Man, therefore does not just perceive things but also analyzes, assesses,
criticizes, or, in a word, intellectualizes things.
Application
As a rational animal, man strives for something not only through his instincts, but
also through his will. It is true that man has instinctive drives, but man can transcend all
his drives into a higher dimension. Man, therefore, is capable of injecting a dose of
discipline to his physiological drives because he has intellect and will.
MAN AS A RATIONAL ANIMAL

10. Introduction
Intellect and will are correlative faculties that are intrinsically endowed in man as
the moral agent. Since man is a moral being, man possesses intellect and will. Through
his intellect, man knows and can know right or wrong actions. Through his will man can
choose between good or bad actions. Man’s intellect makes him capable of understanding
right or wrong actions; his will makes him capable of doing his choice, either good or bad
actions. Man’s intellect enables him to search for truth while his will, for good. When
man is in possession of truth, then, he can practice what he knows while his exercise of
good makes him virtuous.
Application
Man is will-bound to choose what is right and what is good. This is the moral
imperative demanded in ethics. Moreover, this is highly emphasized in the Catholic
Christian moral tradition. However, whether or not man should choose what is wrong or
what is bad, a man still remains as a moral being since he has freedom.
INTELLECT COMPARED WITH WILL

11. Introduction
Morality is not mere cerebral affair; it is applied ethics. Therefore, it is also real
and concrete. It becomes real, perhaps, when one encounters moral experience. Moral
experience could ensue when one encounters a moral problem and a person encounters a
moral problem when the problem injuncts him of moral obligation.
Application
Not all experiences, obviously, are moral. It can be moral only when it makes one
entangled in a moral problem. In like manner, not all problems are moral. A problem can
be moral only when such a problem calls one on his obligation. Since man has will, man
can also entertain options on what to do with his obligation. In the context of the will, we
can speak the polarity in morality. By polarity in morality means that a man has freedom
to choose between good and bad or right or wrong responses to his obligation.
CONCRETE BASIS OF MORALITY

12. Introduction
Socrates is considered as the greatest moral
philosopher of Western civilization. His philosophy
is evidently ethical rather than ontological. His
epidemiology is always geared towards a moral
life, to the effect that whenever he speaks of truth,
he always sees to it that it is at the same time a
discourse of will and that whenever he speaks of
knowledge, he always makes it a point that his
audience will realize that knowledge is not an entity
for its own sake but a means of ethical action. Socrates taught that knowledge and truth
provoke the will to act for the good so that the agent can live right or good moral life.
Application
The correctness and wrongness of actions are based on existing principles, such
that one’s action is right or correct if it conforms with a given principle. On the other
hand, badness and wrongness of actions are based on the quality of the act. An action is
good if it bears a good quality and bad if it yields a bad quality. Socrates says that
knowing what is right means doing what is right. The tacit meaning of this is that no
person opts to do evil per se. For Socrates, a person does evil out of ignorance.
ETHICAL TEACHINGS OF SOCRATES

13. Introduction
Plato contends that happiness lies in
reason. In Plato’s vein of thought, man actualizes
himself if he tries to be rational. Plato posits that
there are two domains of reality, namely: the Ideal
and Phenomenal worlds. Ideal is described by
Plato as eternal, immutable, self-existing and
indestructible. For Plato, the zenith of Idea is
good which he describes as something beyond
truth, beyond essence, and therefore, is like the
sun that shines all throughout anything in existence. The phenomenal world on the other
hand is material, mutable, teleological, and destructible.
Application
Of three parts of the soul; spiritual, appetitive, and rational, Plato argues that the
rational part is the part that can establish balance in a person. Self-realization, therefore,
is attainable by nurturing reason properly. Eventually, this becomes the “ought” in
Platonic ethics. Plato develops the concept that the life of reason is the happiest and the
best form of life. For Plato, knowledge makes a well-balanced man, because the virtue
called wisdom arises in the rational soul. Reason establishes balance because it rules
passion and desires. When this happens, there is a harmonious man. A harmonious man is
a morally virtuous man who is rationally, biologically, and emotionally balanced. If one
wants to be happy, one should be a harmonious man: a man of virtue.
ETHICAL TEACHINGS OF PLATO

14. Introduction
If Plato, Aristotle’s master claims that
ethics or morality is a matter of nature- because
virtues for the former are innate- Aristotle claims
that ethics is a matter of planning, purpose, and
decision: a matter of character. For Aristotle, it is not
natural for man to be moral for man to be moral, but
for man to be moral is something demanded by
nature.
Application
Aristotelian ethical theory begins through an experimental inquiry, “What is the
fundamental object of human desire?” Here, Aristotle pragmatically posits the query:
“What is that which man ultimately looks for?” “Is it honor, wealth, achievement, or
sensual pleasure?” Aristotle believes that there is something fundamental behind fame,
riches, success and sensuality. This fundamental principle for him is happiness. Because
of this conviction, he sets forth to investigate the nature of happiness, its requisites and
conditions for its acquisition. A billionaire may already have everything that he/she wants
in the world from house, money, food, jewelries and such, but if that billionaire has no
family by its side, then we cannot say that he is happy and fulfilled.
ETHICAL TEACHINGS OF ARISTOTLE

15. Introduction
The moral paradigm used by our Lord
Jesus is similar to those of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle
like a personal call towards self-realization. It may be
argued, however, that His ethics contains different
nuances compared to those of the Greek triumvirate
since His is so radical, so demanding, yet, so fair,
because it is addressed to everyone whether one is a
king, a prince, a rich man, a pauper, or a slave. For
Jesus, there is only one Ethics which cuts across race,
nationality, talent, ability, educational background, sex,
status, and etc. His moral teaching recognizes no social
stratification. In other words, Jesus’ ethics does not discriminate between a slave and a
freeman, the rich and the poor, or the powerful and the weak.
Application
For Jesus, the core of ethics lies in man’s heart, not in man’s observance of the
law, or of man’ fidelity to traditional norms. According to Jesus, the moral man is he who
loves his neighbors and therefore loves God, for one cannot love God and hate his
neighbors at the same time. The commandment of Christ requires a Christian to love not
only the lovable persons like the rich, famous, powerful, good looking or generally, the
dignified ones but even the unlovables like the corrupt government officials, the
prostitutes, the dreaded criminals, and the like.
CHRISTIAN ETHICS:
ETHICAL TEACHINGS OF JESUS CHRIST

16. Introduction
The focal point of Augustine’s moral
imperative is God; and because love is the highest
attribute of God, love, eventually, is considered by
this so-called proponent of Medieval Philosophy as
the basis and the central point of his moral teaching.
Augustine believed that God is the starting point and
the terminal point of everything in existence. God is
the Creator and He created everything out of love.
Love, therefore, is the impetus that propelled God to
create. Through his argument, Augustine confidently
draws a categorical conclusion that man’s free will,
or freedom, is the primordial basis of the existence
of evil.
Application
In Augustinian ethics, human acts are nothing else but gestures of man’s free will.
But, whether man does good or evil, the moral idealistic “ought” remains the same: That
man should strive to have his moral upkeep. Despite his acceptance that man by nature is
imperfect because of his proclivity to author evil through his free will. Augustine insists
that man is capable of attaining perfection on the condition that man should keep himself
good.
CHRISTIAN ETHICS:
ETHICAL TEACHINGS OF ST. AUGUSTINE

17. Introduction
Aquinas is an avid follower of
Aristotelian philosophy, in general, and of
Aristotelian ethics, in particular- Christianized the
pagan moral philosophy of Aristotle. This suggests
that one cannot appreciate Thomistic ethics if one
does not appreciate Aristotelian ethics. Aquinas
takes the concept of virtues taught by Aristotle in
his Nichomachean ethics and integrates his
theological virtues to complement Aristotle’s
virtues. This means that to Aquinas, Aristotelian
ethics is incomplete in that it needs his theological
virtues as complements.
Application
According to Aquinas, every agent acts for an end. Human actions are always
geared toward ends. When these ends are attained, they also become the means for the
attainment of other ends. In other words, there is a series of ends in human actions. For
example, A eats. The end of A-why A eats- is to satisfy his hunger. But, when A has
eaten already, A will make use of the energy brought about by the food he ate. Thus, the
achieved end of A becomes the means of A’s attainment of further ends.
CHRISTIAN ETHICS:
ETHICAL TEACHINGS OF ST. TOMAS AQUINAS

18. Introduction
The theory of Lawrence Kohlberg, Stages of Moral Development holds that moral
reasoning, the basis for ethical behavior, has six identifiable developmental stages, each
more adequate at responding to moral dilemmas than its predecessor. Kohlberg followed
the development of moral judgment far beyond the ages studied earlier by Piaget, who
also claimed that logic and morality develop through constructive stages. Expanding on
Piaget's work, Kohlberg determined that the process of moral development was
principally concerned with justice, and that it continued throughout the individual's
lifetime, a notion that spawned dialogue on the philosophical implications of such
research.
The six stages of moral development are grouped into three levels of morality:
pre-conventional, conventional, and post-conventional morality.
Application
Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
1. Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid punishment?)
2. Self-interest orientation (What's in it for me?) (Paying for a benefit)
Level 2 (Conventional)
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms) (The good boy/girl attitude)
4. Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality)
Level 3 (Post-Conventional)
5. Social contract orientation
6. Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience)
TYPES OF MORAL DILEMMA

19. Introduction
Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget
to explain the moral development of children. Kohlberg believed that moral development,
like cognitive development, follows a series of stages. He used the idea of moral
dilemmas—stories that present disagreeing ideas about two moral values—to teach 10 to
16 years old boys about morality and values.
Application
Throughout the pre-conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally
controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority gures, such as parents and
teachers. Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal
and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority gures, but
this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order. Throughout the post-conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is
dened in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws
are unjust and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing
realization that individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may
disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by
their own ethical principles.
LEVELS OF MORAL DILEMMA

20. Introduction
Freedom means that all
individuals are able to act differently and
against instinct. Thus, the only thing we
have in common is that we are
different. Strong freedom is the ability to
choose any option; we may do what we
are doing or we may choose not to do
what we are doing. This is Sartre’s
concept of human freedom. Freedom in the weak sense means merely that we can do
what we want.
Application
John Locke provided two definitions of human freedom, strong and the
weak. Strong freedom is the ability to choose any option; we may do what we are doing
or we may choose not to do what we are doing. This is Sartre’s concept of human
freedom. Freedom in the weak sense means merely that we can do what we want. The
two definitions seem similar until you think of it this way: if a prisoner wants to be in jail,
he is free in the weak sense and not the strong. For Locke and Sartre, weak freedom is no
freedom at all; the prisoner is not free, he is just lucky.
UNDERSTANDING HUMAN FREEDOM

21. Introduction
Human actions
can be of two types viz.
actus humanus
{deliberate actions} and
actus hominis
{undeliberate actions}.
Ethics is applicable to
only deliberate human
actions. They don’t apply to undeliberate human actions or the actions of the animals.
According to Thomas Aquinas, there are three basic criteria to apply a litmus test to an
action to decide whether it was deliberate or not deliberate. These include: Involvement
of knowledge; Presence of voluntariness; and freely done. If any of these elements is not
present, the action is not called deliberate.
Application
Knowledge is essential requirement for an action to be human and subject to test
of ethics. Absence of knowledge is ignorance. Ignorance may lead to undeliberate actions
and diminishes the humanness of an action. The ignorance may be of two kind viz.
ignorance of law and ignorance of act. Ignorance of law for a public servant is not
expected. For others, action that result in violation of law due to ignorance don’t qualify
to be considered as human actions. Although violation of law due to ignorance may lead
to punishment, it is considered human action liable for ethical scrutiny.
FOUNDATION OF HUMAN ACTS

22. Introduction
A moral agent is a person who has the ability to discern right from wrong and to
be held accountable for his or her own actions. Moral agents have a moral responsibility
not to cause unjustified harm. Traditionally, moral agency is assigned only to those who
can be held responsible for their actions. Children, and adults with certain mental
disabilities, may have little or no capacity to be moral agents. Adults with full mental
capacity relinquish their moral agency only in extreme situations, like being held hostage.
By expecting people to act as moral agents, we hold people accountable for the harm they
cause others.
Application
All members of the moral community are subjects of moral worth, but not all
subjects of moral worth are part of the moral community. For example, animals, art,
artifacts of culture, and the environment are not members of the moral community
although they should also be protected from unjustified harm. Moral agent, subject of
moral worth, and moral community are not static categories. In some situations, a person
is a moral agent and is a subject of moral worth in others. Non-human subjects of moral
worth generally require a human steward, someone to protect them from harm, to be
recognized as a subject.
MORAL AGENT

23. Introduction
The inter human involves relating to others as partners in a living intersubjective
event bringing about a context where I-Thou relationship may emerge. It is usual to
ascribe what takes place between men to the “social” realm, thereby blurring a basically
important line of division between two essentially different areas of human life. We may
not speak of social phenomenon wherever the life of a number of men, lived with one
another, bound up together, brings in its train shared experiences and reactions. The
difference between the two realms became very palpable on one occasion, when one had
to attend a procession through a large town of movement to which one did not belong.
Application
It is true that there have been groups in history which included highly intensive
and intimate relations between two of their members, as for instance, in the homosexual
relations between Japanese Samurai or among Doric warriors, and these were
countenanced for the sake of the stricter cohesion of the group. But in general, it must be
said that the leading elements in groups especially in the later course of human history,
have rather been inclined to suppress the personal relation in favor of the purely
collective element.
ELEMENTS OF INTERHUMAN

24. Introduction
Love is woven tight with Justice. Love is more than tender words, a good feeling,
a satisfied mind, thinking that all is good. Love rests in action, what we do, how we
witness to the seamlessness of our lives, one with the other. As unity splinters, then love
begins its tug towards justice, or as Martin Luther King Jr. put it, “Justice at its best is
love correcting everything that stands against love.”
Justice is never far from love, nor is love far from justice. They are two fingers (5
fingers: Faith, Hope, Love, Justice and Peace) on the one hand of Grace. Grace is always
alive at the heart of things. She beckons us home to God and towards one another.
Application
We live to the One. What God has joined together, let no one separate. Here, in
God, we are free and alive, co-equals, holy and blessed. . Love is woven tight with
Justice. Love is more than tender words, a good feeling, a satisfied mind, thinking that all
is good. Love rests in action, what we do, how we witness to the seamlessness of our
lives, one with the other. Love knows that this life is for every human being. Love
recognizes rights for all. True love is that which joins and will stand firm when
temptations arise to separate and deny rights to some. True love will stand firm when we
try to make our neighbors into the “Others” and as we cast the “Others” we have created
into the role, “Enemy.”
LOVE AND JUSTICE

25. Introduction
The principles of biomedical ethics such autonomy, non-maleficence,
beneficence, and justice are of paradigmatic importance for framing ethical problems in
medicine and for teaching ethics to medical students and professionals. In order to
underline this significance, Tom L. Beauchamp and James F. Childress base the
principles in the common morality, such as they claim that the principles represent basic
moral values shared by all persons committed to morality and are thus grounded in
human moral psychology.
Application
A “moral” core and a “non-moral” core for both social domains, which is partially
domain-overlapping and partially domain-specific. In medicine, the moral core consists
of respect, loyalty, responsibility and honesty; in business & finance, it consists of
respect, fairness, loyalty, responsibility and non-maleficence. These values have been
classified together in almost all cases. In medicine, the non-moral core consists of cost-
effectiveness, reputation and performance; in business & finance, it is composed of the
values reputation, competition, performance and profitability. Note that both the moral
and non-moral cores share a high degree of overlap between the medicine and business &
finance domain: respect, loyalty and responsibility for the moral core, and reputation and
performance for the non-moral core.
DIFFERENT CROSSPOINTS IN HUMAN

26. Introduction
A culture in guiding the moral growth of its members. Does not systematically
explore what the proper role of a culture is in the area of moral growth, and it recognizes
that precisely what this role should be is rightly subject to debate. At the same time, it
takes it for granted that because, the social universe that children encounter inevitably,
and for better or for worse, influences their moral growth, a community needs to view
itself as responsible for the moral growth of its members.
Application
The points to two different, albeit inter-related, questions: first, what
role does culture play in moral development?; and second, argues that while this
communal responsibility cannot be adequately discharged through special-purpose
institutions like schools, such institutions, if thought of in the right way, may be capable
of playing a significant role in the process of moral growth. The reasons for this view will
emerge through our inquiry into the role that, intended or not, culture does play in the
moral development of its members. Before embarking on this inquiry, and because terms
like "culture" and "moral development" are far from self- explanatory.
CULTURE AND MORALITY

27. Introduction
Culture refers to the cumulative deposit of knowledge, experience, beliefs, values,
attitudes, meanings, hierarchies, religion, notions of time, roles, spatial relations,
concepts of the universe, and material objects and possessions acquired by a group of
people in the course of generations through individual and group striving. It is the
systems of knowledge shared by a relatively large group of people. Culture is symbolic
communication. Some of its symbols include a group's skills, knowledge, attitudes,
values, and motives. The meanings of the symbols are learned and deliberately
perpetuated in a society through its institutions.
Application
Cultural differences manifest themselves in different ways and differing levels of
depth. Symbols represent the most superficial and values the deepest manifestations of
culture, with heroes and rituals in between. The position that the ideas, meanings, beliefs
and values people learn as members of society determines human nature. People are what
they learn. Optimistic version of cultural determinism place no limits on the abilities of
human beings to do or to be whatever they want. Some anthropologists suggest that there
is no universal "right way" of being human. "Right way" is almost always "our way"; that
"our way" in one society almost never corresponds to "our way" in any other society.
Proper attitude of an informed human being could only be that of tolerance.
WHAT IS CULTURE?

28. Introduction
The culture of the Philippines
comprises a blend of traditional
Filipino and Spanish Catholic
traditions, with influences from
America and other parts of Asia. The
Filipinos are family oriented and
often religious with an appreciation
for art, fashion, music and food. Filipinos are also hospitable people who love to have a
good time. This often includes getting together to sing, dance, and eat. The annual
calendar is packed with festivals, many of which combine costumes and rituals from the
nation’s pre-Christian past with the Catholic beliefs and ideology of present day.
Application
Filipinos are also hospitable people who love to have a good time. This often
includes getting together to sing, dance, and eat. The annual calendar is packed with
festivals, many of which combine costumes and rituals from the nation’s pre-Christian
past with the Catholic beliefs and ideology of present day. Rizal Park in Manila is one of
the most politically significant sites in the Philippines. It was the location for the
executions of early revolutionaries, the 1946 declaration of independence, and the 1986
rallies of Marcos and Corazon Aquino that led to the EDSA revolution.
THE FILIPINO CULTURE

29. Introduction
An act that is performed only by a human being and thus is proper to man. Not
every act that a human being does is a distinctively human act. Some acts that human
beings do are performed also by animals, e.g., vegetative acts and acts of perception and
of emotion. When a human being does such acts, they are called acts of man but not
human acts. Acts of man, therefore, are acts shared in common by man and other
animals, whereas human acts are proper to human beings.
Application
An act performed by a human being distinctively a human act is that it is
voluntary in character, that is, an act in some way under the control or direction of the
will, which is proper to man. One can therefore identify the human act with the voluntary
act. A voluntary act proceeds either from the will itself, for example, an act of love or of
choice or from some other human power that can in some way be moved by the will,
whether an act of the intellect, of sense cognition, or of emotion; even an act of some
bodily member as commanded by the will can be a voluntary act.
UNDERSTANDING THE ACT

30. Introduction
Human act is an act that is performed only by a human being and thus, is proper
to man. Not every act that a human being does is a distinctively human act. Some acts
that human beings do are performed also by animals, e.g., vegetative acts and acts of
perception and of emotion. When a human being does such acts, they are called acts of
man but not human acts. Acts of man, therefore, are acts shared in common by man and
other animals, whereas human acts are proper to human beings. What makes an act
performed by a human being distinctively a human act is that it is voluntary in character,
that is, an act in some way under the control or direction of the will, which is proper to
man. One can therefore identify the human act with the voluntary act.
Application
A voluntary act proceeds either from the will itself. For example, an act of love or
of choice or from some other human power that can in some way be moved by the will,
whether an act of the intellect, of sense cognition, or of emotion; even an act of some
bodily member as commanded by the will can be a voluntary act.
ANALYSIS OF HUMAN ACTS

31. Introduction
Moral courage as the ability to exhibit fortitude and a constant determination to
exert professional skepticism. This includes challenging others who are behaving
inappropriately, and to resist the exploitation of professional opportunity for private
benefit rather than the public interest. Courage requires strength, and may not be easy
when you are not placed in a senior role with the powers to enact and influence direct
change. However, it is possible for all of us to resist influences or agendas that favors
immoral and unethical acts, such as doctoring financial results or hiding pitfalls for the
‘good’ of the company.
Application
All individuals in the accountancy and finance business will face pressure in their
lives to cut corners or turn a blind eye to unethical or inappropriate behavior, but
demonstrating moral. Even if you are not a senior officer, how willing would you be to
confront a tricky situation? If you witness illegal accounting practices, who would you
report these to, if at all? How willing are you to be tarred by the same brush as those
committing less than savory practices in your workplace? This is not to say that the task
would not be difficult; it’s important to make small inroads towards ethical practices and
become an influencer; it could be a case of refusing to adopt a practice that you know to
be suspect, and demonstrating to the rest of your colleagues that you will push forward
with the principles of the profession.
MORAL COURAGE

32. Introduction
Courage also known as bravery,
fortitude, will, and intrepidity, is the
ability to confront fear, pain, risk/danger,
uncertainty, or intimidation. Physical
courage is courage in the face of
physical pain, hardship, death, or threat
of death. Moral courage" is the ability to
act rightly in the face of popular
opposition, shame, scandal, or
discouragement. The virtue of courage helps us to take the initiative to make changes in
our lives and/ or to accept changes brought before us. Courage can often lead us to a
spiritual awakening and/ or enlightenment.
Application
Courage can allow you to shed old patterns, especially those patterns that are
harmful to your body or soul. This virtue allows you to reach new levels of being. No
matter who you are, no matter what has already happened to you, no matter what you
have done, it is still possible to have a “new beginning”.
COURAGE IS VIRTUE

33. Introduction
Courage, according to Aristotle, is the mean between fear and recklessness.
Cowards are debilitated by excessive fear, especially of things that should not be feared.
Reckless men take unnecessary risks with excessive confidence in the face of danger. The
courageous man, however, strikes a balance between irrational fear and foolhardy
recklessness. The courageous man fears that which should be feared, but he endures his
fear with confidence for the right reason. That right reason, according to Aristotle, is for
the sake of honor and nobility.
Application
Moral courage means standing up for a person’s own ethics and principles, even
when it is not convenient, and most of all, when it could actually be to a person’s loss. To
prepare ourselves for times when our moral courage will be sorely tested, we should
practice what we preach in the small decisions we make every day. When we are tempted
to lie to our boss to save our own skin, we should not do that. When the cashier gives us
more change than we are supposed to get, let them know. When someone pressures us to
reveal confidential information, tell that person to think about possible situations which
can put the both of them into danger or might as well, tell that person to stop.
Moral courage thrives on empathy and compassion, the ability to understand the
needs and hurts of others. If I ever work in a community wherein there are numerous
homeless people and it is poverty-stricken, I will have the courage to fight for certain
policies and programs in order to help improve their lives. Thus, the best way to develop
moral courage is through offering regular service to others. When we work with people
face to face, we gain the courage not to turn away and to fight for the right thing for
them.
HOW IS COURAGE DEVELOPED?