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Chapter 6
- 1. Chapter 6
Memory
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Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 2. Chapter 6 Overview
The structure of human memory
The nature of remembering
How reliable is memory?
Biology and memory
Forgetting
Improving memory
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 3. The Structure of Human
Memory
Memory is the process of encoding,
storage, consolidation, and retrieval of
information
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 6. What are the characteristics of the
sensory memory?
Briefly holds information from the
senses
– Visual information: for a fraction of a
second
– Auditory information: up to 2 seconds
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 7. What happens to information in
short-term memory?
Holds about seven (plus or minus two)
items for less than 30 seconds without
rehearsal
Also called working memory
– STM acts as a workspace for carrying out
mental activity
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 8. What happens to information in
short-term memory?
Displacement
– When STM is full, each new, incoming item
pushes out an existing item
Chunking
– Grouping bits of information into larger units,
which are easier to remember
Rehearsal
– Repeating information to maintain it in STM
Maintenance rehearsal
Elaborative rehearsal
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 9. What kinds of information are
stored in the subsystems of long-
term memory?
Long-term memory has a virtually
unlimited capacity that contains vast stores
of a person’s permanent or relatively
permanent memories
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 10. What kinds of information are stored in the
subsystems of long-term memory?
Declarative memory
– Stores facts and information, and life events
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Nondeclarative memory
– Stores motor skills, habits, simple conditioned responses
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 11. The Nature of Remembering
The processes that cause apparent
memory lapses, such as being unable
to recall a person’s name or a
telephone number, represent two of
the various principles that govern how
we go about remembering things.
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 12. What are the three methods used
by psychologists to measure
memory?
Recall
– Task in which a person must search memory to
produce required information
– Recall tasks are easier when retrieval cues are
provided
Recognition
– Task in which a person must identify information
as having been encountered before
Relearning
– Measures retention in terms of time saved when
relearning material compared to learning it
originally
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 13. What happens when information
must be recalled in the order in
which it was presented?
In the serial position effect recall is
better for the beginning and ending items
than for the middle items in the sequence
– Primacy effect
Tendency to recall the first items in a sequence more
easily than the middle items
– Recency effect
Tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more
easily than the middle items
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 14. How do environmental conditions
and emotional states affect
memory?
People recall material more
easily in the same
environment in which they
learned it
Godden and Baddeley
(1975)
– Participants memorized
words underwater or on land
– Words learned underwater
were best recalled
underwater
– Words learned on land were
best recalled on land
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 15. How do environmental conditions
and emotional states affect
memory?
State-dependent memory effect
– People tend to recall information better if they
are in the same emotional state as when the
information was encoded
– e.g., when feeling anxious while exposed to
snakes and spiders
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 16. What does research evidence say
about flashbulb memory?
Extremely vivid memory of an event that is
surprising, shocking, or highly emotional
– These memories are not as accurate as people
believe them to be
– But, about 5% of children are capable of eidetic
imagery
Ability to retain an image of a visual stimulus for
several minutes
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 17. How does culture influence
memory?
Culture may influence the ability to
remember certain kinds of material
– Elders of the Iatmul people of New Guinea
exhibit impressive memory for the oral history of
their people
– The Asur people of India, who do not use
artificial lighting, have exceptional memory for
locations
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 18. How Reliable is Memory?
Contrary to Canadian neurosurgeon,
Wilder Penfield, the human memory
does not really function like a tape
recorder or video recorder
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 19. What is meant by the statement
“Memory is reconstructive in
nature”?
People reconstruct memories, piecing them
together from a few highlights, using
information that may or may not be
accurate
Frederick Bartlett
– Reconstructive memory processes are influenced
by schemas
Integrated frameworks of prior knowledge and
assumptions
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 20. What conditions reduce the
reliability of eyewitness testimony?
Viewing photograph of a suspect before
seeing a lineup
When members of a lineup are viewed at
the same time, rather than one at a time
When the perpetrator’s race is different
from that of the witness
When a weapon has been used in the crime
When leading questions are used
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 21. What is the controversy regarding
the therapy used to recover
repressed memories of childhood
sexual abuse?
Repression
– Process in which traumatic memories are buried
in the unconscious
Some therapists use hypnosis and guided
imagery to help clients recover repressed
memories of childhood sexual abuse
Critics argue that these therapists
sometimes implant false memories in their
clients
– Research indicates that imagining a fictitious
event can lead to false memory of the event
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 22. Biology and Memory
A person’s store of memories must exist
physically somewhere in the brain. Neuronal
processes are also involved in the storage of
information in the brain. Trauma and
disorders that affect brain structures,
neuronal health, or both can seriously
impair memory function.
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 23. What roles do the hippocampus and
the hippocampal region play in
memory?
The hippocampus plays an important role
in forming episodic memories
Formation of semantic memories involves
the hippocampus and other parts of the
hippocampal region
The hippocampus is also involved in
navigational skills
– Posterior of hippocampus is larger in taxi drivers
than in general population
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 24. Why is long-term potentiation
important?
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
– An increase in the efficiency of neural
transmission at the synapse that lasts for hours
of longer
LTP may be the basis for learning and
memory at the level of neurons
When LTP is disrupted, long-term memories
are not formed
– Consolidation failure
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 25. How do hormones influence
memory?
The strongest and most lasting memories are
usually fueled by emotion
Presence of epinephrine (adrenalin) and
norepinephrine (noradrenalin) in the bloodstream
activate the amygdala and help imprint powerful,
enduring memories for threatening events
Excessive levels of cortisol can interfere with
memory
Estrogen appears to improve working memory
efficiency
– But post-menopausal estrogen replacement may
increase risk of dementia
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 26. What kinds of memory loss are
experienced by those who have
amnesia or dementia?
Amnesia
– Partial or complete loss of memory due to loss of
consciousness, brain damage, or some
psychological cause
Anterograde amnesia
– Inability to form new long-term memories
– Case of H. M.
Retrograde amnesia
– Loss of memory for experiences that occurred
shortly before a loss of consciousness
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 27. What kinds of memory loss are
experienced by those who have
amnesia or dementia?
Dementia
– Mental deterioration characterized by impaired memory
and intellect and by altered personality and behavior
– Individuals with dementia can lose episodic and semantic
memories
– Can result from cerebral arteriosclerosis, chronic
alcoholism, strokes
Alzheimer disease
– A form of dementia caused by degeneration of brain cells
– A high IQ plus lifelong intellectual activity may delay or
lessen Alzheimer symptoms
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 28. Forgetting
Most people think of forgetting as a
problem to be overcome, but it’s
actually not always unwelcome. Still,
when you need to remember
particular information, forgetting can
be very frustrating.
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 29. What did Ebbinghaus discover
about forgetting?
Ebbinghaus found
that the largest
amount of forgetting
occurs very quickly,
then it tapers off
This relationship
between time and
forgetting is called
the curve of
forgetting
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 30. What causes forgetting?
Source: Nickerson & Adams, 1979)
Can you recognize the real penny?
Encoding failure occurs when information was
never put into long-term memory
Decay theory holds that memories, if not used,
fade with time and eventually disappear
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 31. What causes forgetting?
Proactive interference
– Information already stored in memory interferes with
remembering newer information
Retroactive interference
– New learning interferes with remembering previously learned
information
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 32. What causes forgetting?
Motivated forgetting
– Forgetting through suppression or repression to
protect self from painful or unpleasant
information
Sometimes we forget because we don’t want to
remember something
Prospective forgetting
– Not remembering to carry out some intended
action
Retrieval failure
– Not remembering something one is certain of
knowing
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 33. Improving Memory
There are no magic formulas for
improving your memory.
Remembering is a skill that like any
other requires knowledge and
practice.
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon
- 34. How can organization,
overlearning, spaced practice and
recitation improve memory?
Organization
– Putting information in categories, sequences, sizes, or shapes to
make retrieval easier
Overlearning
– Practicing or studying material beyond the point where it can be
repeated once without error
– Overlearned material is remembered better and longer and is
more resistant to interference
Spaced practice
– Learning in short practice sessions with rest periods in between
– A better study technique than massed practice
Recitation
– Reciting, or practicing, what you have learned
– Students recall more if they use more recitation
Copyright © 2008 Allyn & Bacon