Individual and Group-group and intergroup dynamics; managing group in an organization- intragroup behavior and intergroup behavior; self-change- resistance to change- nature of the change-transactional analysis

2. Group
A group refers to two or more people who share a common
meaning and evaluation of themselves and come together to
achieve common goals. In other words, a group is a collection of
people who interact with one another; accept rights and
obligations as members and who share a common identity.

3. Group Dynamics
Group dynamics deals with the attitudes and behavioral patterns
of a group. Group dynamics concern how groups are formed,
what is their structure and which processes are followed in their
functioning. Thus, it is concerned with the interactions and forces
operating between groups.

5. Process/Stages of Group Development/Evolution:

6. Forming.
This stage is usually characterized by some confusion and
uncertainty. The major goals of the group have not been
established. The nature of the task or leadership of the group has
not been determined (Luthans, 2005). Thus, forming is an
orientation period when members get to know one another and
share expectations about the group. Members learn the purpose of
the group as well as the rules to be followed.

7. Storming.
In this stage, the group is likely to see the highest level of
disagreement and conflict. Members often challenge group goals
and struggle for power. Individuals often vie for the leadership
position during this stage of development. This can be a positive
experience for all groups if members can achieve cohesiveness
through resolution.

8. Norming.
This stage is characterized by the recognition of individual
differences and shared expectations. Hopefully, at this stage the
group members will begin to develop a feeling of group cohesion
and identity. Cooperative effort should begin to yield results.
Responsibilities are divided among members and the group
decides how it will evaluate progress.

9. Performing.
Performing, occurs when the group has matured and attains a
feeling of cohesiveness. During this stage of development,
individuals accept one another and conflict is resolved through
group discussion. Members of the group make decisions through
a rational process that is focused on relevant goals rather than
emotional issues

10. Adjourning.
Not all groups experience this stage of development because it is
characterized by the disbandment of the group. Some groups are
relatively permanent (Luthans, 2005). Reasons that groups
disband vary, with common reasons being the accomplishment of
the task or individuals deciding to go their own ways. Members
of the group often experience feelings of closure and sadness as
they prepare to leave

11. Intergroup Dynamics
Intergroup dynamics refers to the behavioral and psychological
relationship between two or more groups. This includes
perceptions, attitudes, opinions, and behaviors towards one‟s own
group, as well as those towards another group.

12. Formal work group
A formal work group is made up of managers,
subordinates, or both with close associations among
group members that influence the behavior of
individuals in the group.

13. Informal work groups
Informal work groups are made up of two or more individuals
who are associated with one another in ways not prescribed by
the formal organization.

14. Social loafing refers to the tendency of individuals to put in
less effort when working in a group context. This phenomenon,
also known as the Ringelmann effect, was first noted by French
agricultural engineer Max Ringelmann in 1913. In one study, he
had people pull on a rope individually and in groups. He found
that as the number of people pulling increased, the group‟s total
pulling force was less than the individual efforts had been when
measured alone.

15. Team
“A team is a small number of people with complementary skills
who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals,
and approach for which they are mutually accountable.”

16. Types of Groups
Formal Groups
These are the type of work groups created by the organization
and have designated work assignments and rooted tasks. The
behavior of such groups is directed toward achieving
organizational goals.

17. These can be further classified into two sub-groups −
Command group − It is a group consisting of individuals who
report directly to the manager.
Interest group − It is a group formed by individuals working
together to achieve a specific objective. Example − A group of
workers working on a project and reporting to the same manager
is considered as a command group. A group of friends chilling
out together is considered as interest group or say members of a
club.

18. Informal Groups
These groups are formed with friendships and common interests.
These can be further classified into two sub-groups −
Task group − Those working together to finish a job or task is
known as task group.
Friendship group − Those brought together because of their
shared interests or common characteristics is known as
friendship group.

19. Why do people join groups
Security mirrors strength in numbers. Status pinpoints a
prestige that comes from belonging to a specific group.
Inclusion in a group is considered as important because it
provides recognition and status.
Self-esteem transmits people's feelings of self-worth.
Membership can sometimes raise feelings of self-esteem like
being accepted into a highly valued group.

20. Affiliation with groups can meet one's social needs. Work
groups significantly contribute to meet the need for friendships
and social relations.
Groups represent power. What mostly cannot be achieved
individually becomes possible with group effort. Power might be
aimed to protect themselves from unreasonable demands.
Informal groups provide options for individuals to practice
power.
People may join a group for goal achievement. Sometimes it
takes more than one person to accomplish a particular task.

21. Managing Team Effectively
Maintain good communication
Employees want to be kept in the loop about ongoing projects,
goals, and deadlines, so it‟s essential that you communicate well
with them and inform them about goings-on within the
organization. It‟s also essential that you encourage feedback and
that your staff feel that they can approach you with any
questions or issues they want to address, so making yourself
accessible to your staff is critical.

22. Build positive working relationships
It‟s important to get to know members of your team individually,
not only on a professional level but on a more personal level too.
When you put the effort in to get to know a bit more about how
your colleagues are doing and what they are interested in, it will
build a much better rapport among the team.

23. Acknowledge good work
Don‟t be one of these bosses who only gives feedback when
you‟ve got something to criticise!
By providing your staff with positive feedback it will help to
build their confidence and encourage them to get more involved
in the future, so it‟s vital that you acknowledge their
achievements and the effort that they are putting in. Encourage
creativity and ensure that everyone is clear about what is
expected of them.

24. Be real
Your team doesn‟t expect you to be superhuman, so if you‟re
feeling the pressure and need a helping hand, don‟t be afraid to
admit it and if you make a mistake, own up!
By showing the human side of yourself and allowing your staff to
get to know you a bit better, your team will feel more relaxed and
comfortable approaching you.

25. Be decisive
A good leader needs to be able to assert their authority and make
important decisions for the team. There is no space for flakiness
in a leadership role, so it‟s crucial that you stick to your guns and
go with what you feel is best the business.

26. Delegate jobs to the right people
Part of why it is vital that you establish a relationship with your
team and get to know them individually is so you can assess what
their strengths are. People perform better and are more engaged in
roles where they feel they are employing their best skills, so
delegating proper functions that suit each will have a significant
impact on the productivity of the team.

27. Manage conflict
When there is conflict in the workplace, it should not be ignored.
Turning a blind eye could lead to a negative atmosphere, which
could have implications for staff productivity and communication
among the team may suffer. When an issue arises, it‟s crucial that
it is addressed straight away before it builds.

28. Set a good example
Your staff will look to you for guidance and inspiration, so it‟s
essential that you set a good example to gain their respect. If you
expect them to behave professionally and commit to their work,
it‟s vital that you do so yourself. Make sure that you are doing
your job, continuing to develop your career and support your
team in doing so too.

30. Intergroup behaviour is any perception, cognition, or
behaviour that is influenced by people‟s recognition that
they and others are members of distinct social groups.

32. Approaches to Inter-Group Relationship:
Inter-Group relationship may be presented in two ways:
(i) as portrayed by Rensis Likert and
(ii) as stated by J. Thompson.

33. Likert’s Approach:
According to Likert an organisation encompasses a series of
overlapping groups. Each group is linked with the rest of the
organisation by persons who hold membership in more than one
group. These people are called „linking pins‟ as they forge link
between different groups. Though the success of decision making
depends upon group process and interaction, occurring at
different levels, yet everything revolves around the „linking pins‟.

34. Thompson’s Approach:
Though Likert theory is very well accepted but it is based on the
assumption that there exists equal interdependence among
different groups. Thompson suggests that there are three different
kinds of interdependence among groups.
These are:
(a) Pooled
(b) Sequential and
(c) Reciprocal

35. Pooled Interdependence:
Pooled Interdependence occurs when groups rely on each other only because
they belong to the same parent organisation. For example, the employees of
Bata Shoe Company, Working at Ludhiana have no Interaction with their
counterparts in Jammu, but both are interdependent because they are part and
parcel of the Bata Organisation.
Success or failure of one may be reflected in another through the medium of
the total organisation system. Pooled interdependence, does not need any
interaction between groups, hence conflict does not arise. Co-ordination may,
however, be forged through standardization and the rules formulated by the
parent office.

36. (b) Sequential Interdependence:
It means that the work of one group depends on the performance
of another. For instance, the finished Job i.e., output of one group
becomes the input of another group. However, both groups are
sustained by the organisation. The interdependence is both pooled
and sequential. This type of interdependence may be regulated by
proper planning and controlling the chances are that conflicts
between the groups are higher than pooled interdependence.

37. Reciprocal Interdependence:
Reciprocal interdependence means that each group is dependent on each other.
The operations of each group precede and act as pre-requisite to the
functioning of other. For example, management and union relationship, where
both depend on each other. Because each group relies on other to perform its
job effectively, any problems between them may result in reduced productivity
or decreased satisfaction. Reciprocal interdependence ought to be coordinated
by mutual adjustment between the groups. It requires greater communication
and understanding to avoid possible conflict.

38. Intragroup dynamics, also referred to as in group, within-group,
or commonly just „group dynamics‟ are the underlying processes
that give rise to a set of norms, roles, relations, and common
goals that characterize a particular social group.
Examples of groups include religious, political, military, and
environmental groups, sports teams, work groups, and therapy
groups.

39. Organisational change
Organisational change refers to the alteration of structural
relationships and roles of people in the organization. It is largely
structural in nature. An enterprise can be changed in several
ways. Its technology can be changed, its structure, its people and
other elements can be changed. Organisational change calls for a
change in the individual behaviour of the employees.

40. Causes of Organisational Change:
(A)External Pressures:
i. Change in Technology and Equipment:
Advancements in technology is the major cause (i.e., external
pressure) of change. Each technological alternative results in
new forms of organization to meet and match the needs.
ii. Market Situation:
Changes in market situation include rapidly changing goals,
needs and desires of consumers, suppliers, unions etc. If an
organization has to survive, it has to cope with changes in
market situations.

41. iii. Social and Political Changes:
Organisational units literally have no control over social and
political changes in the country. Relations between government
and business or drive for social equality are some factors which
may compel for organisational change.

42. (B) Internal Pressures (Pressures for Change from Within the
Organisation):
i. Changes in the Managerial Personnel:
One of the most frequent reasons for major changes in the
organisation is the change of executives at the top. No two
managers have the same style, skills or managerial philosophies.
ii. Deficiencies in the Existing Organization:
Many deficiencies are noticed in the organisations with the
passage of time. A change is necessary to remove such
deficiencies as lack of uniformity in the policies, obstacles in
communication, any ambiguity etc.

43. iii. Other Factors:
Certain other factors such as listed below also demand a change
in the organisation.
Employee‟s desire to share in decision-making
Employee‟s desire for higher wage rate
Improvement in working conditions, etc.

44. Process of Organisational Change:

45. Unfreezing:
The essence of unfreezing phase is that the individual is made to
realize that his beliefs, feelings and behaviour are no longer
appropriate or relevant to the current situation in the organisation.
Once convinced, people may change their behaviour. Reward for
those willing to change and punishment for others may help in
this matter.

46. Changing:
Once convinced and ready to change, an individual, under this
phase, learns to behave in new ways. He is first provided with the
model in which he is to identify himself. Gradually he will accept
that model and behave in the manner suggested by the model. In
another process (known as internalisation), the individual is
placed in a situation where new behaviour is demanded of him if
he is to operate successfully.

47. Refreezing:
During this phase, a person has to practice and experiment with
the new method of behaviour and see that it effectively blends
with his other behavioral attitudes. Reinforcement, for creating a
permanent set in the individual, is provided through either
continuous or intermittent schedules.

48. Resistance to Organisational Change:
Resistance to change is perhaps one of the baffling problems a
manager encounters because it can take many shapes. People may
resign, they may show tardiness, loss of motivation to work,
increased absenteeism, request for transfer, wild-cat strikes,
shoddy work, reduction in productivity etc.
Classification of Resistance to Change:
Resistance to change may be classified as:
1. Industrial Resistance
2. Organisational Resistance

49. Classification of Resistance to Change:
Resistance to change may be classified as:
1. Industrial Resistance
2. Organisational Resistance

50. 1. Industrial Resistance:
Individual resistance may be there because of the following
reasons:
A. Economic Reasons:
(a) Obsolescence of Skills:
When a person feels that with the introduction of newer
processes, his skills will just become obsolete, he will resist the
change. For example, a twenty years experienced accountant is
quite likely to resist the introduction of a computer for preparing
the wage bills because he feels that might affect his pay and
position.

51. (b) Fear of Economic Loss:
People resist change if it opens the possibility of lowering their
income directly or indirectly.

52. B. Personal Reasons:
(a) Ego Defensiveness:
A sales manager may turn down the suggestions of a salesman
simply because the manager perceives that his ego may be
deflated by accepting the suggestion.
(b) Status Quo:
Most of the people feel comfortable with status quo and strongly
resist change as it may involve uncertainty and risk.

53. (c) Fear of Unknown:
Change presents unknown and unknown poses a constant threat
and sores people. For fear of unknown, a manager may refuse
promotion that requires his relocating in another state.

54. C. Social Reasons:
(a) Social Displacement:
Introduction of change (e.g., relocating) may result in breaking
up of work groups and thus result in disturbance of the existing
social relationships of people.
(b) Peer Pressure:
Whenever change is unwilling to the peers, they force the
individual subordinate employees who are bent of accepting the
change, to resist it.

55. 2. Organizational Resistance:
Resistance may also be present at organizational level. Some
organizations are so designed that they resist innovations. Some
of the reasons of organizational resistance are:

56. (a) Threats to Power and Influence:
Some people (especially sitting at the top levels) resist change
because they feel that a change might affect their position, power
and influence in the organization.
(b) Organizational Structure:
Some organization structures (e.g., bureaucratic structure) have
inbuilt mechanism for resistance to change.

57. (c) Resource Constraints:
Non-availability of financial, material and human resources may
also act as a resistance to change.
(d) Sunk Cost:
In some companies, heavy capital is blocked in the fixed or
permanent assets. If such an organization wishes to introduce
change, then difficulty arises because of these sunk costs.

58. Overcoming Resistance to Organisational Change:
Change creates tension and emotional turmoil in the minds of
employees. Change thus results in resistance quite frequently,
negative reactions doom the success of the change program
especially when a manager is unable to handle it properly.
Some of the techniques to handle the change properly and to
deal with resistance to change are:

59. (a) Education and Communication:
One of the easiest techniques to overcome resistance to change is
to educate the people who resist it. In many cases, people do not
properly understand the change and hence become afraid of its
consequences and resist change.

60. (b) Participation and Involvement:
If subordinates are allowed to participate and involve themselves
in the change process (decision-making regarding the
implementation of the change), their misunderstandings about the
consequences of change are cleared, they generally feel satisfied
and do not oppose change.

61. (c) Support:
Support may be facilitative and emotional. Managers sometimes
deal with potential resistance by being supportive. This includes
listening, providing emotional support, providing training in new
skills etc.
(d) Incentives:
Offering incentive is another fruitful way to overcome resistance
to change.

62. (e) Manipulation:
Managers generally indulge in manipulation when all other tactics
have failed to overcome resistance to change.
(f) Coercion:
At times, there is no way except to deal with resistance coercively.
People are forced to accept change by threatening them with loss
of their jobs, promotion possibilities and so forth.

63. Phases of the Change Process:

64. Transactional Analysis
The Transactional Analysis refers to the psychoanalytic process
wherein the interpersonal behaviors are studied. In other words, a
social psychological model that talks about the personal growth
and personal change, i.e., identifying the ego states of each
individual to understand their behaviors and altering them to
solve the emotional problems.

66. Johari Window
A psychological tool that helps an individual to understand his
relationship with himself and with other group members is called
as a Johari Window. The Johari Window model is made up of
four quadrants that explain the overall relationship of an
individual with himself and with other group members. These
are as follows:

68. Open Self:
This quadrant shows the behavior, motives, attitudes, knowledge
skills of an individual that he is aware of and is willing to share it
with others. The open self is characterized as a state wherein the
individual is open and straight forward to himself and others
about what he is doing, how is he doing and what are his
intentions.

69. Blind Self:
The blind self shows the state of an individual known to others
but not known to him. It usually happens, when an individual or a
subject copies the behavior of some significant personalities
unconsciously since his childhood.

70. Hidden Self: This quadrant of the Johari window shows the
state of an individual known to him but not known to the others.
This is generally seen in the individuals who are introvert and do
not like to share their private lives with anyone. The individual
keeps his feelings, ideas or thoughts to himself and do not
disclose it in front of the others.

71. Unknown Self:
The unknown self is the mysterious state of an individual neither
known to him, nor others know about it. Often the feelings,
thoughts or ideas go so deep down the individual that it becomes
difficult for the individual as well for the other people to
understand it.

72. Ego States
The Ego States are an important aspect of transactional analysis
that talks about how a person feels, behave or think at any point
of time.

73. According to Dr.Eric Berne, people usually interact with each
other in terms of three psychological and behavioral patterns
classified as parent ego, adult ego and child ego, often called as a
PAC Model. This classification is not made on the basis of the
age group of an individual rather these are related to the ways in
which an individual behaves. Thus, it is observed that a person of
any age group may possess varying degrees of these ego states.

74. Parent Ego:
The parent ego, refers to the behavior and attitude of an
emotionally significant individual who acted with quite a maturity
when he was a child. He possesses the parental traits of being
overprotective, dogmatic, distant, indispensable and upright and
behaves very judiciously at any time.
.

75. There are two types of a parent ego: critical and nurturing.
The critical parent ego is one when an individual shows the
critical and evaluative behavior while interacting with the others.
Whereas the nurturing parent ego is one, when individual shows
the kind and nurturing behavior, not only towards children but
towards all with whom he interacts.

76. Adult Ego:
The adult ego shows the logical thinking and reasoning ability of
an individual. The person behaving or interacting with adult ego
seeks all the information properly, validate it using his reasoning
skills and then provide it to the other people. The person
possessing the adult ego can be judged through his discussions
and the way he thinks about a situation before arriving at the
conclusion.

77. As the individual grows, he updates his parent data to identify
what is valid or not valid, similarly the child data is also updated
to determine which feeling should be expressed and which should
be left unspoken. In this way, the adult ego helps an individual to
control his emotional expressions appropriately.

78. Child Ego:
The child ego, refers to the state of an individual when he
behaves illogically and takes quick actions to satisfy the
immediate needs without thinking much about its consequences.
The creativity, depression, conformity, dependence, hate, fear,
etc. are some of the main characteristics of this ego state. The
child ego represents the childhood state when an individual has
not become social and is in its initial stage of development.

79. The child ego can be natural, adaptive and rebellious. The natural
child is sensuous, impulsive, affectionate and does things that
come naturally. Whereas the adaptive child is one, who is trained
and instructed by parents to behave in a manner taught by them.
The rebellious child is one who is not allowed to open up and
experiences anger, fear and frustration.

80. Life Positions
The Life Positions refers to the specific behavior
towards others that an individual learns on the basis of
certain assumptions made very early in the life.

82. I am O.K., You are O.K.:
This life position shows that an individual has several O.K.
experiences with others. This means, an individual encountered
no severe problems or issues with others in his childhood and had
a normal relationship with them. People with such life positions
about themselves and others around him can solve any problem
very easily and realizes the significance of others being in his
life. This position is based on the adult ego.

83. I am O.K., You are not O.K.:
This life position is created when an individual was too much
ignored when he was a child. Here, an individual believes that he
is right, and all the others around him are wrong. These are the
individual who possesses the rebellion child ego and put blame
on others for anything that goes wrong with them.

84. I am not O.K., you are O.K.:
This life position gets created when an individual feels that others
do things better than him. He feels inferior to others and believes
that others can do many things which he cannot do by himself.
These kinds of people always complain about one thing or the
other and remain highly dissatisfied with their lives.

85. I am not O.K., you are not O.K.:
This kind of life position is created by those who lacks interest in
living. They feel life is not worth living and are the ones who
have been neglected by their parents in their childhood and were
brought up by the servants. Such kind of people commits suicide
or homicide to end their lives.

86. Life Script
The Life Script refers to the meaning that one attributes
to the events that happened to him at the early stage of
life. Psychologists believe that an individual‟s life script
gets created in his childhood when he learns things
unconsciously from the transactions between father,
mother and the child.

87. Whenever an individual face any situation, he acts with reference
to the script created as a result of the past experiences and the
way he views his life positions, i.e.
I am O.K you are O.K,
I am not O.K. you are O.K.,
I am O.K. you are not O.K.,
I‟m not O.K. you are not O.K.

88. An individual can determine his life script by understanding how
his thoughts, behavior, ideas, etc. get influenced due to his past
experiences.
Every individual has a life script.
A script is a complete plan of living that offers two structures: a
structure that defines a winner or looser and the structure of
authoritative warning or order, prescriptions and consent.

89. The life scripts can be changed with the time since these are not
inborn but rather learned. The life script resembles the drama or a
movie script that includes the characters, dialogues, actions,
plays, etc. and move towards the climax and ultimately reach the
end with the closure of curtains.

90. Analysis of Transactions
The interactions between people give rise to the Social
Transactions, i.e. how people respond and interact with each
other depends on their ego states. The transactions routed
through ego states of persons can be classified as
complementary, crossed and ulterior.

91. Complementary Transactions:
A transaction is said to be complementary when the person
sending the message gets the predicted response from the other
person. Thus, the stimulus and response patterns from one ego
state to another are parallel. These are:

92. Adult-Adult Transaction: The manager acts with the adult ego
state, who tries to clarify and inform employees about the issues
and has a concern for the human needs and facts and figures. I
am O.K. you are O.K is his life position. This is an ideal
transaction.

93. Adult-Parent Transaction: Here, the manager tries to
implement the information being processed by him, but rather the
employees with the parent ego stick to the clichés and the rules of
the past. The employee tries to control the manager with his
parent ego but is temporary.

94. Adult-Child Transaction: Here the employee possesses the child
ego state, and this can be effective only if the manager knows
about it and let his employees to be in this state to be creative.

95. Parent-Parent Transaction: Here the manager is in the parent
ego, and his life position is I am O.K. you are not O.K.
Reprimand, reward, criticism, rules, praise, etc. will be the
sources used by him. This transaction is effective only if the
employee supports him and join forces with him.

96. Parent-Adult Transaction: Here, both manager and employee
might be frustrated. The manager may feel devastated if the
employee does not perform as directed while, the employee may
feel irritated because the manager is not acting with the adult ego.

97. Parent-Child Transaction: This is the ideal situation if the
manager acts with adult ego while the employee is in child ego.
The employee may find this transaction advantageous as it
eliminates the responsibility and pressure on them.

98. Child-Parent Transaction: The manager in the child ego might
not contribute efficiently towards the effectiveness of
management. Although the child ego is characterized by
creativity, it does not suffice the role of a manager. Here, the
employee controls the manager.

99. Child-Adult Transaction: There is a lack of rationality when a
manager acts with a child ego. Here, the employee in the adult
ego gets discouraged as he wants to make logical and realistic
decisions, but the manager may land up to the unrealistic
decisions made on the basis of whims, fancies and emotions.

100. Child-Child Transaction: The manager acting with child-child
ego is inefficient to lead his employees successfully and hence
turn out to be the liability to the firm.

101. Non-Complementary Transactions: A transaction is said to be
non-complimentary or crossed when the person sending the
message does not get the predicted response, or the stimulus and
response lines are not parallel.
In the above transaction, The manager is trying to interact on an
adult-to-adult basis, but the employee responds on the child-to-
parent basis, this would block the communication, and no further
transaction could be done.

103. Ulterior Transaction: This is the most complex transaction
because the communication has the double meaning. Such as, on
the surface level the communication may have a clear adult
message, but it may carry some hidden message on the
psychological level and gets misinterpreted.