1. Personality
Characteristics
Chapter 13

2. Individual Differences In
Happiness, Arousal, And Control
Why do different people have different
motivational and emotional states
even in the same situation?

3. Happiness
Emotional Set Point

4. Extraversion and Happiness
Figure 13.2
Components
of
Extraversion
Greater Greater
Sociability (than Venturesomeness
introverts) (than introverts)

5. Neuroticism and Happiness

7. AROUSAL
Arousal’s Contribution to Motivation
1. A person’s arousal level is mostly a function of how stimulating the environment is.
2. People engage in behavior to increase or decrease their level of arousal.
When underaroused, people seek out opportunities to increase their arousal levels,
3. because increases in environmental stimulation are pleasurable and enhance
performance whereas decreases are aversive and undermine performance.
When overaroused, people seek out opportunities to decrease their arousal levels,
4. because increases in environmental stimulation are aversive and undermine
performance whereas decreases are pleasurable and enhance performance.

8. Performance and Emotion

9. Insufficient Stimulation and
Underarousal

10. Excessive Stimulation and
Overarousal
Overstimulating,
Stressful
Environments
Emotional Disruption Cognitive Disruption Physiological Disruption
Anxiety, Confusion, Sympathetic,
Irritability, Forgetfulness, Nervous system,
Anger Impaired Concentration Hyperactivity
Human beings harbor motives for counteracting excessive
stimulation and overarousal.

11. CRITICISM Of The Inverted-u
Hypothesis
 Neiss’s Criticism
The inverted-U hypothesis is descriptive rather than explanatory
(it stops short of explaining HOW arousal facilitates or impairs
performance.
Inverted-U hypothesis applies only when arousal levels are
extreme (sensory deprivation studies)- does not apply to everyday
affairs in which arousal level changes very little

12. Sensation Seeking

13. Sensation Seeking
Search for New Experiences
• Sensation seekers continually search for novel experiences.
Risk Taking
• Sensation seekers see sensations and experiences being worth physical,
social, legal, or financial risks.
Biological Basis
• Sensation seekers have low levels of monoamine oxidase (MAO).
• Sensation seekers tend to have relatively high levels of dopamine; hence,
their biochemistry favors approach over inhibition.
• Sensation seekers tend to have relatively low levels of serotonin; hence,
their biochemistry fails to inhibit them from risks and new experiences.

14. Affect Intensity
Affect-stable individuals
Affect-intense individuals
Figure 13.5 Daily Mood Reports Graphed Over 80 Consecutive Days

15. Affect Intensity
Figure 13.6
Affective Reactions to Good and Bad Events by Affect-Intense and Affect-Stable Individuals

16. Control

17. Perceived Control
In order to perceive that one has control over a given
situation…
1. The self must be capable of obtaining the available
desired outcome
2. The situation in which one attempts to exercise control
needs to be at least somewhat predictable and responsive.

18. Perceived Control
Perceived
Control Beliefs • Goal setting
• Task choice
High Perceived • Effort
Control • Concentration
• Persistence in the face of
vs. difficulty
Low Perceived • Positive emotional states
• Problem-solving strategies
Control • Performance

19. High Perceived Control
 A person with high perceived control
 Initiates action
 Exerts effort
 Focuses concentration
 Persists in the face of difficulty
 During performance- keeps plans and strategies in mind,
maintains positive emotional state, monitors problem
solving strategies, and generates and monitors feedback
 Leads to strong performance and makes control over
outcomes possible

20. Low Perceived Control
 A person with low perceived control
 Seeks out relatively easy tasks
 Sets lower and vaguer goals
 Generates simple plans with fewer fall back strategies
 Concentration wanders
 Confidence is quick to drop
 Attention often turns to ruminating over why the task is
so difficult
 As effort decreases, cognitive and emotional
engagements decline, and discouragement sets in-
performance will suffer

21. Self-Confirming of High and
Low Engagement

22. Desire for Control
Attributions
Aspiration Response to
Persistence for Success and
Level Challenge
Failure
High DC Select harder More likely to
compared tasks; set goals React with Work at difficult attribute success to
with Low more greater effort task longer self and failure to
DC realistically unstable source
High DC Higher goals are Difficult tasks Difficult tasks Motivation level
Benefit achieved are completed are completed remains high
May develop
May attempt
High DC performance- May invest too May develop an
goals too
Liability inhibiting much effort illusion of control
difficult
reactions
Figure 13.7 Influence of Desire for Control during Achievement-Related Performance (Burger, 1985)

23. Losing Control
 High DC individuals exhibit distress, anxiety,
depression, dominance, and assertive coping
in situations where their control is threatened
or lost
 Ex. Visiting the Dentist, Crowding