1. Introduction to the
Study of Motivation
Chapter 1

2. Motivation
involves those processes that give behavior its energy and direction.
Behavior is relatively strong,
Intense, and persistent.
Behavior is aimed toward achieving a particular purpose or goal .

3. Motivational Science
Reality Representation
(In all its complexity)
Theory Hypothes
(As created by es
motivational
psychologists) (As derived from the
theory)
Applications; Application
Recommendations
(How to support and enhance Data
motivation and emotion in
applied settings) (To test the adequacy of
each hypothesis)
Figure 1.1 illustrates the function and utility of a good theory.

4. Table 1.1 Motivational Reasons to Exercise
Source of
Why Exercise? Motivation Illustration
Fun, enjoyment Intrinsic motivation Children exercise spontaneously—they run and
jump and chase, and they do so simply for the sheer fun of it.
Personal challengeFlow Athletes get “in the zone” when their sport
optimally challenges their skills.
Forced to do so External regulation Students exercise because their coach tells them to do so.
Paid to do so Extrinsic Motivation A coach or instructor is paid to exercise and to help others exercise.
Accomplish a goal Goal Runners see if they can run a mile in 6 minutes or less.
Value its health Value People exercise to lose weight or to strengthen the benefits strengthen
the heart.
Inspired to do so Possible self People watch others exercising and becomes inspired to do the same.
A standard of Achievement Snow skiers race to the bottom of the mountain trying to beat their
excellence strivings previous best time.
Satisfaction from Perceived competence As exercisers make progress, they feel more competent, more effective.
a job well done
An emotional kick Opponent process Vigorous jogging can produce a runner’s high (a rebound to the pain).
Good mood Positive affect Beautiful weather can pick up exercisers’ moods and invigorate exercise
spontaneously, as they skip along without knowing why.
Alleviate guilt Introjection People exercise because they think that is what they should, ought to, or
have to do to feel good about themselves.
Relieve stress Personal control After a stressful day, people go to the silence depression gym, which they
see as a structured, controllable environment.
Hang out with friends Relatedness Exercise is often a social event, a time simply to enjoy hanging out with
friends.

5. Two Perennial Questions
Why does behavior
What causes behavior? vary in its intensity?
“Why does a person behave one way
in a particular situation at one time yet
“Why did she do that?” behave in a different way at another time?”
“Why do people do what they
do?” “What are the motivational differences
among individuals, and how do such
differences arise?”

6. Specific questions
that constitute
the core problems
to be solved in
motivation study

7. Needs
The subject matter of
motivation concerns those
processes that give behavior Cognition
its energy and direction.
The four processes capable
of giving behavior strength
and purpose Emotions
—its energy and direction—
External events

8. Hierarchy of the Four Sources of Motivation
Motivatio
n
Internal Motives External Motives
Needs Cognition Emotions
Figure 1. 2

9. Measuring Motivation:
Expressions of Motivation
Br ain &
Behavior Engagemen Physiology Self-
t Activation report
s

10. Behavioral
Expressions
of Motivation

11. Four Interrelated Aspects of engagement
.
Engagement
Behavioral Emotional Cognitive
Voice
Engagement Engagement Engagement
• Interest • Sophisticated • Offers Suggestions
• Attention
• Enjoyment Learning Strategies • Makes
• Effort
• Low Anger • Active Self- Contributions
• Persistence
• Low Frustration Regulation • Asks Questions
Figure 1.3

12. Brain & Physiological Activity as Expressions of Motivation
Brain activity Activation of brain structures such as the amygdala (fear) or
prefrontal cortex (setting goals).
Hormonal activity Chemicals in saliva or blood, such as cortisol (stress) or
catecholamines (fight‑or‑flight reaction).
Cardiovascular Contraction and relaxation of the heart and blood vessels
activity (attractive incentives, difficult/challenging tasks).
Ocular activity Eye behavior—pupil size (extent of mental activity), eye blinks
(changing cognitive states), and eye movements (reflective
thought).
Electrodermal Electrical changes on the surface of the skin (expression of threat
activity or stimulus significance).
Skeletal activity Activity of the musculature, as with facial expressions (specific
emotion) and bodily gestures (desire to leave).
Table 1.3

13. Themes in the Study of Motivation
Motivation includes
both approach and
avoidance tendencies.

14. Motives vary over time & Influence
The Ongoing Stream of Behavior
Motivation is a dynamic process-always changing, always rising and falling—
rather than a discrete event or static condition.
Table 1.4 How Motives Influence Behavior for a Student Sitting at a Desk
Environmental Aroused Motive-Relevant Motive’s Urgency
Event Motive Course of Action Attention-Getting Status
Book Interest Read chapter. *
Cola Thirst Drink beverage. *
Familiar Voices Affiliation Talk with friends. ***
Headache Pain avoidance Take aspirin. *****
Lack Of Sleep Rest Lie down, nap. *
Upcoming Achievement Practice skill. **
Competition
Note: The number of asterisks in column 4 represents the intensity of the aroused motive. One asterisk denotes
the lowest intensity level, while five asterisks denote the highest intensity level.

15. Figure 1.4
Stream Of Behavior And The Changes In The Strength Of
Its Underlying Motives

16. Framework To Understand
The Study Of Motivation
Energizing &
Sense of Directing
Antecedent Motive “Wanting to” • Behavior
Conditions Status
Urge to • Engagement
Approach vs. • Physiology
Avoid
• Self-Report
Needs Cognitions Emotions
Figure 1.5

17. Using Motivational Theories
to Solve Practical Problems
Practical Given What I know About Proposed Solution/
Problem Human Motivation & Emotion Intervention, if any
*Student dropout *Theories *Do I have a strong reason
to believe that my proposed
*Mediocre *Empirical findings intervention will produce
positive benefits?
Performance
*Practical experience *Do no harm