Impacts of Global Warming: Reasons For Hope

1. Impacts of Global Warming:
Reasons For Hope
Robert Cahalan
Chief of NASA-Goddard Climate & Radiation Laboratory
Co-founder of Chesapeake Education, Arts, and Research Society
(CHEARS.org)
• Global disruptions of Earth's climate and biosphere are
leading to loss of biodiversity and ecosystem collapses,
depletion of fish and forests, loss of fresh water, ocean
acidification and species extinctions. What can be done to
address these challenges? Can individuals actually make a
difference? Is there a legitimate reason for hope?

2. Heritage .. Science
“Global warming is
the first environmental forecast based on physical reasoning—the greenhouse effect and its
intensification as IR atmospheric opacity increases—rather than on extrapolating observed
patterns of past behavior.
Anthropogenic warming was not unambiguously detected until nearly the end of the 20th
century, well after most experts knew it was coming.
Interestingly, forecast meteorologists, despite their familiarity with weather and the
atmosphere, are at least as skeptical of global warming as the general public; so, to some
extent, are geologists.”
– Steven Sherwood, Physics Today, October 2011 2

3. Models ensure consistency of observations with basic physical laws,
And forecast future scenarios that depend on assumed human choices.

4. Air Temperature Near Surface Glaciers
Specific (Troposphere) (Glacier Mass Balance)
Humidity
4 Sets of Data
Temperature Over Oceans
Snow Cover
(March-April,
Northern Hemisphere)
2 Sets of Data
Sea-Surface Temperature Sea-Level
Sea-ice Ocean Heat Land Surface Air
Content Temperature Over Land
3 Sets of Data
AGU – Predicting and Managing Extreme Events
Observations considered together form a convincing scenario of human-induced warming
adapted from Lubchenco (2011)

5. Earthobservatory.nasa.gov
847 stories in 2011
~3.2/business day
1,139 images
54 blog entries
10 in-depth features

6. The Climate is Changing
• Temperatures are rising
• Ice is melting
• Sea levels are rising
• The ocean is acidifying
Temperature rise, indicated by color (red=higher
rate of increase). Earth’s surface temperature has
risen ~1.3˚ F since 1850.
Image courtesy of the Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere
& Ocean, U. of Washington.

7. Temperatures are rising
Earth’s surface temperature has risen 0.6°C~1.1˚ F since 1950. The three major surface temperature data sets (NCDC,
GISS, and HadCRU) all show global temperatures have warmed by 0.16 – 0.17°C (0.28 – 0.30°F) per decade since
satellite measurements began in 1979.
Departure from average of annual global
temperatures between 1950 – 2011,
classified by phase of the El Niño-
Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The year
2011 was the warmest year on record
when a La Niña event was present. ENSO
is a natural episodic fluctuation in sea
surface temperature (El Niño/La Niña)
and the air pressure of the overlying
atmosphere (Southern Oscillation) across
the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Over a
period of months to a few years, ENSO
fluctuates between warmer-than-average
ocean surface waters (El Niño) and
cooler-than-average ocean surface waters
(La Niña) in that region. Image credit:
National Climatic Data Center.

8. Temperatures are rising
Earth’s surface temperature has risen 0.6°C~1.1˚ F since 1950. The three major surface temperature data sets (NCDC,
GISS, and HadCRU) all show global temperatures have warmed by 0.16 – 0.17°C (0.28 – 0.30°F) per decade since
satellite measurements began in 1979.
Departure from average of annual global
temperatures between 1950 – 2011,
classified by phase of the El Niño-
Southern Oscillation (ENSO). The year
E P 2011 was the warmest year on record
when a La Niña event was present. ENSO
is a natural episodic fluctuation in sea
surface temperature (El Niño/La Niña)
1957: IGY, SolarMax and the air pressure of the overlying
1967: Budyko GW atmosphere (Southern Oscillation) across
the equatorial Pacific Ocean. Over a
period of months to a few years, ENSO
fluctuates between warmer-than-average
ocean surface waters (El Niño) and
cooler-than-average ocean surface waters
(La Niña) in that region. Image credit:
National Climatic Data Center.

9. Temperatures are rising
Quiz:
Approximately how
many of the top
10 hottest years on
E P record have occurred
in the past 10 years?
1957: IGY, SolarMax
1967: Budyko GW
(h) 0
(i) 1
(j) 5
(k) 10

10. Temperatures are rising
Quiz:
Approximately how
many of the top
10 hottest years on
E P record have occurred
in the past 10 years?
1957: IGY, SolarMax
1967: Budyko GW
(h) 0
(i) 1
(j) 5
(k) 10 (9)
The ten hottest years on record are,
in order 2010 and 2005 (tie), 1998,
2003, 2002, 2009, 2006, 2007, 2004,
and 2001.

11. & Precipitation
Temperatures are rising
^
Statewide ranks for the average March to August 2011 precipitation for the U.S.
States from Ohio to Vermont set new
records for the highest in 117 years, while
Texas and New Mexico set new records
for the lowest.
On the national scale in the U.S.,
entrenched political agendas are in denial
about our responsibility for global climate
change. However, in the northern New
England states, communities are adapting
to ongoing regional climate change,
because the change in the seasons, as well
as the increase in the frequency of
extreme precipitation events, are readily
apparent to state government and to
citizens with connections and roots in the
outdoors.
-- Alan K. Betts

12. Departures in temperature (deg C)
Sea Level ( mm) and Snow Cover (km2)
From the 1961 to 1990 average ^
& Sea Level
Temperatures are rising
^
IPCC 2007
& Snow is falling

13. How has Earth’s sea ice responded?
Rapid warming in the Arctic particularly has led to the opening up of sea routes in the
area. Both the Northern Sea Route (above Russia and Scandinavia) and the Northwest Passage
(above Alaska and Canada) have seen substantial increases in shipping over the past few years.
The Northern Sea route in particular is being targeted as a route for tanker and bulk traffic.
Shipping through the Northern Sea Route increased by three times between 2010 and 2011.
Due to procedural objections by mostly non-polar states and the industry lobby, the
International Maritime Organization (IMO), the United Nations body tasked with developing
shipping regulations, shelved the development of the environmental section of the Polar Code
until 2013, increasing the risk of harm to both the Arctic and Antarctic.
–World Wildlife Foundation

14. Quiz: Of the
total surface
area of Earth,
the 48 contiguous
states of the USA
has an area that is
closest to
what percentage?
(h) 1%
(i) 5%
(j) 10%
(k) 20%

15. Quiz: Of the
total surface
area of Earth,
the 48 continuous
states of the USA
has an area that is
closest to
what percentage?
(h) 1% (1.6%)
(i) 5%
(j) 10%
(k) 20%
Go to URL:
wolframalpha.com
Enter
“area of usa/world”
“area of (contiguous usa)/world”

16. Is global warming likely to have been induced by our Sun?

17. Solar Energy Input to Earth has an 11-year cycle, but no detectable trend :

18. Is global warming likely to have been induced by our Sun?
All regions warmed at
& near the surface.
Yet the
stratosphere cooled the
most at highest altitude:
This is not consistent with solar warming,
but is predicted by greenhouse warming. IPCC 2007

19. Heritage .. Denial
News headline –> “Global Warming - Sorry Al, it's the Sun!”
“According to Robert Cahalan, climatologist at NASA’s Goddard Space Flight
Center ‘For the last 20 to 30 years, we believe greenhouse gases have been the dominant
influence on recent climate change.’ This may not come as such a big surprise to those who
weren't so ready to swallow the Al Gore theory.” … blah, blah, blah! …
– Ian Brockwell, News Blaze, June 07, 2009
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20. The Role of Human Beings
Causes of Climate
Change
• It is very likely that most of the
climate change in the current era
is the result of human activities.
– Human activities have increased
concentrations of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere.
Figure adapted from Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science
– These gases trap heat and cause Basis. Working Group 1 Contribution to the 4th Assessment Report
of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Figure SPM.5.
the Earth to warm. Cambridge University Press.
During pre-industrial Holocene, CO2 remained within 10% of 280 ppm.
Since 1850, CO2 rapidly increased more than 30%, & forecast to double by 2100.
Doubling might be avoided if humans choose not to pursue “business as usual.”

21. Carbon isotopes show that new atmospheric CO2 is from fossil fuels.
Carbon from fossil fuels returned to the atmosphere in combustion is depleted in both 13C and 14C.

23. Deep Time: Human Forced Changes are Rapid
Small human population
2000 generations ago
… Ice Ages … We are here.
Past 10,000 years: global temperature relative to peak pre-industrial Holocene.
Prior to 1850, Holocene was cooler than the Eemian interglacial.
Post-industrial Holocene – the Anthropocene – is warmer than the Eemian.
During the Eemian, Greenland melted, global sea level rose more than 20 feet.
An additional 1°C warming could push us over a “tipping point.”
adapted from Hansen & Sato (2011)

24. Rising Ocean CO2  Falling pH
• Oceans acidify • Corals and Shells Dissolve

25. "Bottom line: The ocean -C life support system
our
-- is in trouble; therefore so are we. Tipping points
are imminent, but there is time to reverse the
decline and secure an enduring place for
humankind within the systems that sustain us -- our
economies, health, security and most importantly,
life itself. Knowing is the key."
Sylvia Earle
at The Economist's World Oceans Summit

29. Survival of Species
“The Bog Turtle”
Formerly common throughout the Chesapeake Watershed.
Now one of the 25 most endangered turtles in the world.
This hand-sized turtle inspired our CHEARS logo.
“Maryland darter”
Only endemic vertebrate in Maryland.
Last seen in Deer Creek in 1988.
The IUCN has declared this fish species extinct.
The United States Fish and Wildlife Service has not,
and keeps it on the Endangered Species List.

30. Survival of Species
Millennium
Ecosystem
Assessment,
www.millennium
assessment.org
“Business As Usual” scenario for 2100:
Global warming ~ 3°C, Likely extinctions ~ 50%
“Alternative” scenario for 2100:
Global warming ~ 1°C, Likely extinctions ~ 10%

32. What can be done to address these challenges? Can individuals actually
make a difference? Is there a legitimate reason for hope?
Goddard Climate & Radiation Laboratory
branch CS roles, issues & concerns
Strengths
Challenges
Opportunities
Threats
Ash Wednesday Storm, March 6-8, 1962
--------------------
50 years ago, Ocean City was washing away
--------------------
– Baltimore Sun, March 5, 2012
Visit baltimoresun.com at http://www.baltimoresun.com

33. What are our chances?
The Power of Community:
How Cuba Survived Peak Oil
http://www.powerofcommunity.org/
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34. A possible future
• Montreal Protocol has already improved our Ozone Layer
• Now need new international cooperation for:
– Renewable energy development.
– Energy conservation/efficiency.
– Energy system transitions, land use change patterns, sea-level rise mitigation.
– Regional responses tuned to regional changes.
– Water quality, conservation, and distribution
– …
• A Sustainable Alternative: Human society taking coordinated action to
adapt to and mitigate expected climate changes.
“Above all, reducing the risk of climate change requires collective action.
It requires cooperation between countries, through international
frameworks that support the achievement of shared goals. It requires a
partnership between the public and private sector, working with civil
society and with individuals. It is still possible to avoid the worst impacts
of climate change, but it requires strong and urgent collective action.
Delay would be costly and dangerous.” [emphases added]
- The Stern review (2007)

35. Knowing is a key. But is knowing enough? We must
activate ourselves and others to move towards solutions.
Those of us in denial, our eyes must open. Those of us in
despair, sometime we cry, sometimes laugh in our despair.
To go on, to survive, we must find hope, and courage.
Let’s share with each other a dream of recovery. Let’s join
hands with each other, with all species. The collapse,
collapses, are arriving. Together, we shall survive.
“The now emerging failure of growth means our current model of
social and economic progress is now in the messy and painful
process of dying. The only choices we get to make are how and
when we change, not whether. We have to redesign the economy,
and with it much of our politics, personal expectations, and market,
to fit in with the immovable physical reality of a finite planet.”
– Paul Gilding
The Great Disruption: Why the Climate Crises Will
Bring On the End of Shopping and the Birth of a New World.

36. Emergent Species
Hiding in Plain Sight, a New Frog Species With a 'Weird' Croak Is Identified in New York City
– ScienceDaily (Mar. 14, 2012)
Catherine E. Newman, Jeremy A. Feinberg, Leslie J. Rissler, Joanna Burger, H. Bradley Shaffer.
A new species of leopard frog (Anura: Ranidae) from the urban northeastern US. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 2012;
63 (2): 445 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2012.01.021

37. Let us ask the right questions, and
begin to listen to Nature in a new way.
“How do we love all the children of all species for all time? …Consider a tree.
Design something that makes oxygen, sequesters carbon, fixes nitrogen, distills
water, accrues solar energy as fuel, builds complex sugars as food, creates
microclimates, changes colors with the seasons, and self replicates.”
– William McDonough
Author of “Cradle to Cradle” (with M. Baumgardt)
Talk at www.ted.com in Feb 2005.

38. “..When I was less than a year old, before I could talk, …, I was in
a pram outside the grocery store. … A dragonfly began swooping
around me, and I screamed – so a well-intentioned passerby hit the
dragonfly to the ground with his newspaper, and crushed it with
his foot. I continued to scream all the way home. … But being
afraid of something did not mean I wanted it killed. If I close my
eyes I can see, with almost unbearable clarity, the glorious
shimmering and still quivering wings, the blue ‘tail’ gleaming in
the sunlight, the head crushed on the sidewalk. Because of me it
had died, perhaps in pain. I screamed in helpless outrage. And
from a terrible sense of guilt. Perhaps I have subconciously lived
my whole life trying to assuage that guilt. Perhaps the dragonfly
was part of some plan, to bring a message to a little child, all those
years ago. If so, all I can say is: ‘Message received and
understood.’ ”
– Jane Goodall
Reason For Hope – A Spiritual Journey

42. Alarming ‘dead zone’ grows in the Chesapeake
By Darryl Fears, July 24, 2011
A giant underwater “dead zone” in the Chesapeake Bay is growing at an
alarming rate because of unusually high nutrient pollution levels this
year, according to Virginia and Maryland officials. They said the
expanding area of oxygen-starved water is on track to become the bay’s
largest ever.
This year’s Chesapeake Bay dead zone covers a third of the bay,
stretching from the Baltimore Harbor to the bay’s mid-channel region in
the Potomac River, about 83 miles, when it was last measured in late
June. It has since expanded beyond the Potomac into Virginia, officials
said.

43. THE DISMAL DECLINE OF THE BAY HAS LED THESE PROUD SMITH ISLAND WATERMEN
AND WOMEN TO GIVE UP WORK ON THE BAY, LEAVE THEIR ISLAND HOMES, AND GO
TO WORK AT THE STATE PISON IN PRINCESS ANNE, MD ENDING GENERATIONS OF
THEIR FAMILIES MAKING A LIVING FROM THE BAY’S ONCE BOUNTEOUS
RESORUCRCES, ESPECIALLY OYSTERS AND CRABS. THE POLLUTION OF THE BAY HAS
DESTROYED THEIR ANCIENT LIVELIHOODS.
Photo: National Geographic Magazine, June 2005, Why Can’t We Save the Bay? By Tom Horton

45. CBSNews.com February 29, 2012 6:15 PM
PITTSBURGH — GenOn Energy Inc. plans to close five of its older coal-fired power plants in Pennsylvania over the
next four years.
The company, based in Houston, said Wednesday that tough new environmental rules make it unprofitable to operate
the plants, which generate a total of 3,140 megawatts of electricity. The plants are in Portland, Shawville, Titus, New
Castle and Elrama. Two plants in Ohio and one in New Jersey will also be closed. The company said the timeframes
are subject to further review based on market conditions.
The Sierra Club said in a statement that closing the plants will prevent about 179 premature deaths, 300 heart
attacks and 2,800 asthma attacks each year.
"Above all, this is a win for public health and for families who have been breathing polluted air from these outdated
plants," said Bruce Nilles, Senior Director of the Sierra Club's Beyond Coal campaign.
But Sen. Pat Toomey, a Republican, said that as many as 315 people could lose their jobs.
"I am dismayed by the news that hundreds of Pennsylvanians will lose their jobs because of this impending wave of
federal regulations. While I fully support sensible, existing power plant regulations to protect our air, the cumulative
effect of these new rules, which are some of the costliest in the EPA's history, is overwhelming."
Tougher air quality rules from the Environmental Protection Agency are forcing some companies to choose between
costly upgrades, closing older plants or building new power plants that can also run on cleaner-burning natural gas.
Nilles said building a wind farm is cheaper than building a new coal plant.
"What matters now is ensuring that GenOn does the right thing and transitions these workers into the growing clean
energy sector," he said.
GenOn said initial plans are for the Elrama, Pa. and Niles, Ohio plants to close in June, and the rest in 2015.

46. What are our chances?
Beware of false hopes.
• Geoengineering will save us. – But isn’t that partly responsible for our problems?
• Elect a politician who “gets it.” – Will he or she “get it” after being elected?
• Peak Oil and Gas will save us. – Or will it cause a major shift to Coal?
• The next generation will fix it. – Didn’t the previous generation say that?
• China needs to change. – Isn’t their per capita energy use still far below USA’s?
• Africa/India should stop overpopulating. – With war, desertification, famine?
• Corporations are causing it.– Who put them in charge?
• God has promised Earth for our use. – Has that worked well in recent years?
False hopes shift responsibility away from us.
We need to ask “What can we do?”
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47. What are our chances?
How To Build Community:
The Syracuse Cultural Workers
Turn off your TV*Leave your house
Know your neighbors
Look up when you are walking Start A Tradition*Ask A Question
Greet people*Sit on your stoop Hire Young People for Odd Jobs
Organize a Block Party
Plant Flowers Bake Extra and Share
Use your library*Play together Ask For Help When You Need It
Buy from local merchants Open Your Shades*Sing Together
Share what you have Share Your Skills
Help a lost dog Take Back the Night
Take children to the park Turn Up The Music
Garden Together Turn Down The Music
Listen Before You react To Anger
Support Neighborhood Schools Mediate A Conflict
Fix it even if you didn't break it Seek To Understand
Have Pot Lucks*Honor Elders Learn From New And
Pick Up Litter* Read Stories Aloud Uncomfortable Angles
Dance in the Street Know That No One is Silent
Talk to the Mail Carrier Though Many Are Not Heard
Listen to the Birds* Put up a Swing Work To Change This
Help Carry Something Heavy
Barter For Your Goods
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http://syracuseculturalworkers.com

48. What are our chances?
Turning false hopes around:
• One person turning out a lightbulb 1 hour a day
– may appear to make little difference
• One billion persons turning out a lightbulb …
– …for 1 hour a day for a year, can power a medium sized city in the USA for a year.
– See http://pumas.nasa.gov and search for “think globally.”
– Human population increased by 1 billion in the past 12 years !!!
• Solar Energy so far has made little dent in USA energy usage
• There’s a ‘Moore’s Law’ that’s rapidly making solar cheaper than fossil fuels
– In the early 2020’s fossil fuels begin to lose
• Is there enough solar energy to fill the increasing needs?
• Solar is in abundance, and also wind, geothermal, and other, widely distributed.
– Humans use 15 TW,
– About 90,000 TW solar is absorbed by land & oceans, or about 30,000 by land, or 2000 X human usage.
– All Coal & Oil doesn’t need to be replaced by a single renewable, just new coal by > 10 renewables.
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49. What are our chances?
Turning around:
49

50. What are our chances?
My personal reason for hope:
• Known Unknown – 96% of all mass/energy
• Sensitivity to initial conditions – The ubiquity of chaos
• Resiliance – Nature’s remarkable ability to heal and adapt
• Peak oil and gas – The Power of Community, urban permaculture
• The Japanese Cedar – For 7000 years it clung to the soil, protected birds
• Our Elders – Pete Seeger (Calipso), Jane Goodall (Roots and Shoots)
• Our Children – Adapting to and changing the world they have inherited
• Our Tree of Life – Relearning our interconnectedness
• Non-Coal Alternatives – Solar, Wind, Geothermal, monitor their impacts
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51. What are our chances?
Musicians United to Sustain the Environment
Songs For The Earth: A Tribute To Rachel Carson
http://www.musemusic.org/
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52. What are our chances?
Turning around:
“We are made of water, flowing water, Sun and salt, winds that blow. Though my bones were
formed in the mountain, it’s through my blood this river flows.” – Tom Wisner, song lyrics
52

53. What are our chances?
Turning around:
53

54. What can we do?
My personal opinion as a citizen:
• Think Globally, Act Locally – http://pumas.nasa.gov on “learning to think
globally”
• Change your home – Manage to work with nature in your own life
• Carbon Footprint - Calculate and control your energy/carbon –> mindfulness
• Talk to your neighbors – Help your community work with nature
• Shop local – Give local businesses your feedback
• “Cradle to Cradle” (McDonough and Braungart) –
Redesign businesses& institutions to work with nature
• Consume wisely – Find products that do less harm, or do good
• The Bog Turtle – Adopt a species to help it pull back from extinction
• Educate Our Children – To adapt to and change the world they inherit
• Support Non-Coal Alternatives – Solar, Wind, Geothermal, monitor their impacts
“Little things lead to bigger things – that’s what seeds are all about.
… Who knows where some good little thing you’ve done may
bring results years later that you never dreamed of.” 54
– Pete Seeger (“Democracy Now” on 5/4/2009)

55. Climate Challenges
Will we wipe out … Or ride the wave?
Little drops of water, “Some force within me rejected death at the
little grains of sand,
last moment and then guided me, blind and
Make the mighty ocean
and the pleasant land.
stumbling – quite literally a dead man
So the little minutes, walking – into camp and the shaky start of
humble though they be, my return to life …”
Make the mighty ages Beck Weathers, Left for Dead on Everest, 1996
of eternity.
– Julia A. Fletcher Carney
(1824-1908)

56. Holocene Lasted 10,000 Years. Will the Anthropocene?
Adapt, Mitigate, Observe – Persist!
Great Basin National Park, Nevada, USA
Proposed Site for “Clock of the Long Now”
Bristlecone Pine
Do We Have the Persistance of Our Ancestors?
Passage Grave, Newgrange, Ireland, c5000 Years Before Present
Continues to keep accurate time to date.

57. • Rio de Janiero
Nominated Woman Sailor of the Year 2004
• Buenos Aires
March 21, 2004 Brian Thompson’s Watch Captain’s Log:
“When we arrive off Rio we will have to avoid a low-
pressure area that will be parked 500 miles offshore. We can choose
to go inshore to the west, or offshore to the east. At the moment we
are undecided on the option but during the night we will have to make
the choice. As more up to date weather info comes in it should
Cheyenne
become a clearer decision..”
Steve Fossett (skipper) USA
Adrienne Cahalan (navigator) AUS
David Scully (watch captain) USA
Brian Thompson (watch captain) GB
Jacques Vincent (watch captain) FRA
Guillermo Altadill ESP
Mike Beasley NZL
CATARINA Fraser Brown NZL
Mark Featherstone GB
South Atlantic hurricane. Damian Foxall IRE
First ever recorded ! Nick Leggatt ZA
Justin Slattery IRE
March 2004 Paul Van Dyke USA

58. NASA’s Kepler mission found a candidate planet, 99% similarity with Earth.
Orbits an unremarkable red star in constellation Cygnus, is known as KOI-494.01.
KOI-494 is approximately 1250 light-years from Earth. Even sustaining acceleration at
Earth-surface-normal acceleration (“1 g”) and taking advantage of the time dilation
predicted by Einstein’s Special Relativity Theory, a traveler would age almost 14 years
enroute to KOI-494.
For observers remaining behind on Earth about one and a quarter millenia would pass
during this trip (that’s approximately the time from the founding of Islam until now.)
Getting to KOI-494.01 will be quite a challenge!

59. Oh my children, where air we going on this mighty river of earth,
a-borning, begetting, and a-dying, the living and the dead riding
the waters? Where air it sweeping us? – James Still, “River of Earth”

60. Heritage
I shall not leave these prisoning hills
Though they topple their barren heads to level earth
And the forests slide uprooted out of the sky.
Though the waters of Troublesome, of Trace Fork,
Of Sand Lick rise in a single body to glean the valleys,
To drown lush pennyroyal, to unravel rail fences;
Though the sun-ball breaks the ridges into dust
And burns its strength into the blistered rock
I cannot leave. I cannot go away.
Being of these hills, being one with the fox
Stealing into the shadows, one with the new-born foal,
The lumbering ox drawing green beech logs to mill,
One with the destined feet of man climbing and descending,
And one with death rising to bloom again, I cannot go.
Being of these hills I cannot pass beyond.
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– James Still (1906-2001), Knott County, Kentucky

61. Thank you!
61