1. Introduction
to
Phonological
Analysis
Roland
Raoul
KOUASSI

2. Readings
• Katamba,
Francis,
Introduc)on
to
Phonology
(Longman,
1989)
Chomsky,
Noam
&
Morris
Halle.
(1968).
The
Sound
Pa4ern
of
English.
New
York:
Harper
&
Row.
• Gussenhoven,
Carlos
&
Haike
Jacobs.
(2nd
ediKon)
(2005).
Understanding
Phonology.
London:
Arnold.
• Handbook
of
the
Interna/onal
Phone/c
Associa/on.
(1999).
Cambridge:
Cambridge
University
Press.
• Kenstowicz,
Michael.
(1994).
Phonology
in
genera)ve
grammar.
Oxford:
Blackwell.
• Maddieson,
Ian.
(1984).
Pa4erns
of
sounds.
Cambridge:
Cambridge
University
Press.
• Ogden,
David.
(2005).
Introducing
phonology.
Cambridge:
Cambridge
University
Press.
• Roca,
Iggy
&
Wyn
Johnson.
(1999).
A
Course
in
Phonology.
Oxford:
Blackwell.

3. The
6ield
of
linguistic
science
• Sounds
• Words
• Phrases
and
sentences
Meaning
• Speakers

4. Beyond
Language
and
across
6ields
• Link
to
mind
• Link
to
society
• Link
to
geography
• Link
to
neurology
• Link
to
forensic
science
....

5. Phonetics
• PhoneKcs
is
the
science
of
speech
sounds
• The
phoneKcian
invesKgates
physical
sounds
produced
through
the
vocal
organs
of
human
beings
during
communicaKon
• He
idenKfies
facts
such
as:
phonaKon
characterisKcs;
acousKc
phenomena;
auditory
facts
• Thus
the
three
main
branches
of
phoneKcs:
arKculatory;
acousKc;
auditory

6. Phonology
• InvesKgates
the
sound
system
and
the
systemaFc
use
of
these
sounds
to
encode
meaning.
• The
phonologist
tracks
down
those
sounds
that
are
part
of
the
linguisKc
knowledge
of
the
“ideal
competent
speaker”
• S/he
uncovers
the
sound
system
and
the
possible
sound
pa^erns,
located
in
the
human
brain,
and
which
help
create
and
discriminate
meanings.

7. THE
TASKS
OF
THE
PHONOLOGIST
• To
idenKfy
the
characterisKcs
of
parKcular
phonological
•
•
•
•
system,
To
specify
the
types
of
differences
that
can
be
found
in
general,
and
in
characterize
mulKple
pairs
of
elements
(e.g.,
voicing
separates
p
from
b)
To
formulate
general
laws
governing
the
relaKons
of
these
correlaKons
to
one
another
within
parKcular
phonological
systems
To
account
for
historical
change
in
terms
of
the
phonological
system
To
found
phoneKc
studies
on
an
acousKc
rather
than
an
arKculatory
basis,
since
it
is
the
producKon
of
sound
that
is
the
goal
of
linguisKc
phoneKc
events
and
that
gives
them
their
social
character

8. Tasks,
cont’d
• What
sounds
does
a
language
use
to
build
morphemes?
(INVENTORY)
• What
are
the
allowable
combinaFons
of
sounds?
(PHONOTACTICS)
• How
do
sounds
change
in
different
structural
contexts?
(ALTERNATIONS)
• Which
system
underlies
all
the
phoneFc
alternaFons?
(SOUND
SYSTEM
or
PHONOLOGICAL
SYSTEM)
• To
account
for
historical
change
in
terms
of
the
whole
phonological
system
but
not
single
sounds.
• o
formulate
general
laws
to
account
for
these
phenomena
(THEORIZATION)

9. Phonetics
vs.
phonology
PhoneFc
string
Phonological
Orthographic
string
string
[əˈpɪɚ]
/æpiæ/
Appear
[ˈstɑ:ɾɚ]
/stærtɜ/
Starter
[kˈm̩ɛnsmn̩t]
/kɔmɛnsmɛnt/
commencement
[ˈpʰi:pɫ]
/pi:pl/
People
[ˈgɑ:tʃə]
/gɔt
ju/
Got
you
[awiʃəˈhæpn̩əs]
/ai
wiʃ
ju
hæpinis/
I
wish
you
happiness

10. A
History
of
Phonology

11. Pre-­‐structuralism
• Shiva
Sutras,
(The
Shiva
Sutras
are
a
brief
but
highly
organized
list
of
phonemes)
• In
ancient
India,
by
the
Sanskrit
grammarian,
Panini
(4th
cent.
BC)
in
his
text
of
Sanskrit
phonology
• The
Shiva
Sutras
describe
a
phonemic
notaKonal
system
• The
notaKonal
system
introduces
different
clusters
of
phonemes
significant
in
Sanskrit
morphology
• The
Shiva
Sutras
were
part
of
Panini’s
3,959
rules
of
Sanskrit
morphology
in
the
grammar
known
as
Ashtadhyayi
(अ"ा$यायी
Aṣṭādhyāyī,
meaning
"eight
chapters

12. Pre-­‐structuralism,
cont’d
• The
Polish
scholar
Jan
Baudouin
de
Courtenay,
(together
with
his
former
student
Mikolaj
Kruszewski)
coined
the
word
phoneme
in
1876
• This
can
be
seen
as
the
starKng
point
of
modern
phonology
• In
1916,
Ferdinand
de
Saussure’s
posthumous
book
is
published:
Cours
de
linguis)que
generale

13. Structural
Phonology
• 1920-­‐1940:
the
Prague
LinguisKc
Circle:
Roman
Jakobson
and
Nikolai
Trubetzkoy
• At
the
InternaKonal
Congress
of
LinguisKcs,
held
in
1928,
the
members
of
the
Prague
LinguisKc
Circle
presented
the
famous
Proposi/on
22
or
Prague
Circle
Manifesto:
this
marked
the
beginning
of
a
new
science:
phonology
•
In
1939,
the
Principles
of
Phonology
of
Prince
Nikolai
Sergeyevich
Trubetzkoy
is
published.
It
retakes
and
enriches
the
ideas
in
the
Manifesto.
• It
is
considered
the
foundaKon
of
the
Prague
School
of
phonology

14. Critics
of
Structural
Phonology
• On
the
phonological
representaKon
• On
the
phonemic
unit.

15. Post-­‐Structural
Phonology
• Started
with
Roman
Jakobson:
1939-­‐1949
• He
pointed
to
the
limited
number
of
“differenKal
qualiKes”
or
“disKncKve
features”
that
appeared
to
be
available
to
languages:
the
disKncKve
feature
theory
• Jakobson,
Roman;
Fant,
Gunnar;
and
Halle,
Morris.
(1952).
Preliminaries
to
speech
analysis:
The
dis)nc)ve
features
and
their
correlates.
Cambridge,
MA:
MIT
Press.
1952

16. Generative
Phonology
• In
1968
Noam
Chomsky
and
Morris
Halle
published
The
Sound
Pa4ern
of
English
(SPE),
the
basis
for
GeneraKve
Phonology
• In
this
view,
phonological
representaKons
are
sequences
of
segments
made
up
of
disKncKve
features.
• These
features
were
an
expansion
of
earlier
work
by
Roman
Jakobson,
Gunnar
Fant,
and
Morris
Halle
• GeneraKve
phonology
is
a
component
of
GeneraKve
Grammar

18. A
Generative
and
Transformational
Grammar
Model
(Based
on
David
W.
Lightfoot,
1982)

19. Phrase
structure
rules
Lexicon
Initial
Phrase
Marker
Transformational
Rules
(Movement
Rules)
Surface
Structure
Phonological
Rules
Semantic
Interpretation
Rules
Logical
Form
Phonetic
Representation
Semantic
Representation

20. Autosegmental
Phonology
• A
theoreKcal
framework
for
phonological
analysis
devised
by
John
A.
Goldsmith
in
his
PhD
dissertaKon
in
1976
at
MIT
• In
autosegmental
phonology,
representaKons
consist
of
more
than
one
linear
sequence
of
segments.
• Each
linear
sequence
consKtutes
a
)er;
and
each
Ker
is
autonomous
(autosegments)
and
related
to
the
other
Kers
by
associa)on
lines.
• Autosegmental
phonology
is
therefore
a
mul)linear
or
nonlinear
theory
• The
working
hypothesis
of
autosegmental
phonology
is
that
a
large
part
of
phonological
generalizaKon
can
be
interpreted
as
a
reconstrucKon
or
reorganizaKon
of
the
autosegments
in
representaKon

21. Parameter

22. Faari,
in
Margi
(Nigeria)

23. Some
Structural
Phonology
Tenets
• The
phoneme:
• It
is
the
smallest
contrasKve
unit
in
the
sound
system
of
a
language;
the
smallest
unit
that
serves
to
disKnguish
between
meanings
of
words.
• The
Phonological
RepresentaFon:
• In
the
analysis
of
the
phonological
facts,
structural
phonologists
proposed
a
phonological
representa)on
which
is
to
account
for
the
surface
phoneKc
string.
This
representaKon
is
linear
and
concatenate.
This
concatenaKon
was
built
with
phonemic
units.
• The
organizaFon
of
the
sound
system:
• Based
on
the
concept
of
Opposi)on

24. Opposition
• A
phonic
property
can
only
be
disKncKve
in
funcKon
insofar
as
it
is
opposed
to
another
phonic
property
• OpposiKons
of
sound
capable
of
differenKaKng
the
lexical
meaning
of
two
words
in
a
parKcular
language
are
phonological
or
phonologically
disKncKve
or
disKncKve
opposiKons
(/v/
vs
/f/)
• In
contrast,
those
opposiKons
of
sound
that
do
not
have
this
property
are
phonologically
irrelevant
or
nondisKncKve.
(/r/
vs
[]

25. Types
of
Oppositions
• Bilateral:
the
basis
for
comparison,
that
is,
the
sum
of
the
properKes
common
to
both
opposiKon
members,
is
common
to
these
two
opposiKon
members
alone.
It
does
not
recur
in
any
other
member
of
the
same
system
• Mul/lateral:
the
basis
for
comparison
of
a
mulKlateral
opposiKon,
on
the
other
hand,
is
not
limited
exclusively
to
the
two
respecKve
opposiKon
members.
It
also
extends
to
other
members
of
the
same
system
• Propor/onal:
if
the
relaKon
between
its
members
is
idenKcal
with
the
relaKon
between
the
members
of
another
opposiKon
or
several
other
opposiKons
of
the
same
system.

26. Types
of
Oppositions,
cont’d
• Isolated:
if
the
phonemic
system
does
not
have
any
other
pair
of
phonemes
whose
members
would
be
related
to
each
in
the
way
as
the
opposiKon
is
• Priva/ve:
one
member
is
characterized
by
the
presence,
the
other
by
the
absence,
of
a
mark.
(the
marked
vs.
the
unmarked)
• Gradual:
the
members
are
characterized
by
various
degrees
or
gradaKons
of
the
same
property
• Equipollent:
both
members
are
logically
equivalent,
that
is,
they
are
neither
considered
as
two
degrees
of
one
property
nor
as
the
absence
or
presence
of
a
property.
Most
frequent
in
any
system

27. Types
of
Oppositions,
cont’d
• Constant
dis/nc/ve
opposi/on:
...in
posiKons
of
relevance:
the
capacity
of
differenKaKng
meaning
and
maintain
this
opposiKon
• Neutralizable
opposi/on:
...in
posiKons
of
neutralizaKon
in
some
contexts.
• An
Archiphoneme
is
used
in
this
case.
• Examples:
• ɔ
and
ɔ̃
→ɔ
/
-­‐Nasals
(in
French)
• forKs
consonant
and
lenis
consonant
→forKs
consonant
/-­‐#
(in
German,
Russian…)
Examples
in
Russian:
Zub
(tooth);
Drug
(friend);
Kod
(code);
Krov
(blood)

28. Identifying
Phonological
Units
• The
minimal
pair
process
• A
minimal
pair
or
phonemic
microsystem
is
a
pair
of
words
that
have
different
meanings
by
differing
in
form
at
one
and
only
one
specific
syntagma/c
or
structural
posi/on.
• So:
• i.
Two
words
• ii.
One
difference
in
form
• iii.
This
difference
occurs
at
the
same
structural
posiKon
• iv.
This
difference
brings
about
a
difference
in
the
signified
/
meaning
/
semanKc
content

29. Examples
• Baule:
asiɛ
vs
asiɛ̰
• French:
banque
vs
bac
• English:
lot
vs
let;
• Spanish:
gasto
(cost)
vs
gusto
(taste)
• Russian:
Dom
(house)
vs
Dym
(fume);
Son
(dream)
vs
Syn
(son)

30. Identifying
Phonological
Units,
cont’d
• The
CommutaFon
Process
• In
linguisKcs
commutaKon
is
the
subsKtuKon
of
a
unit
for
another
in
order
to
observe
several
consequences
or
verify
a
set
of
previously
stated
hypotheses.
• This
operaKon
aims
at
deducing
the
disKncKveness
of
a
unit
or
a
set
of
units
• In
phonology,
commuKng
is
subsKtuKng
one
sound
for
another
a
test
the
relevance
of
the
difference
•
Examples:
•
[tʌʧ]
[tɪʧ]
;
[lɔːd]
vs
[læd]

31. Identifying
Phonological
Units,
cont’d
• The
PermutaFon
Process:
• PermutaKon
is
a
reciprocal
posiKon
change.
• It
is
a
process
through
which
two
units
exchange
their
syntagmaKc
contexts
of
occurrence.
• Examples:
• [pæt]
vs
[tæp]
• [tɛk]
vs
[kɛt]
• [taɪm]
vs
[maɪt]
• [təʊn]
vs
[nəʊt]

32. PHONOLOGICAL
OPERATIONS
• AssimilaKon
Processes
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Vowel
ReducKon
to
Schwa
Weak
syllable
deleKon
Final
Consonant
DeleKon
(let
vs
let
go)
MonophthongizaKon
(example
of
Ebonics
ɑɪ→ɑː)
Unreleasing
of
stops.
AspiraKon
VelarizaKon
PalatalizaKon
LabializaKon
(/d/
in
day
vs
in
do)
NasalizaKon
(a
in
at
vs
in
ant)
Flapping

33. The
Syllable
• The
syllable
is
the
basic
unit
of
speech
studied
on
both
the
phoneKc
and
phonological
levels.
• Linguists
generally
agree
that
syllables
have
a
linear
structure.
It
is
made
of
several
consKtuents.
• The
basic
structure
of
the
syllable
is
made
of
an
onset
and
a
rhyme.

34. σ
Onset
Rhyme

35. • The
Rhyme
is
also
composed
of
a
Nucleus
and
a
Coda.
σ
Onset
Rhyme
Nucleus
Coda

36. Phonological
Features
• All
features
are
privaKve
(ie.
binary).
This
means
that
a
phoneme
either
has
the
feature
eg.
[+VOICE]
or
it
doesn't
have
the
feature
eg.
[-­‐VOICE]
• There
is
a
difference
between
PHONETIC
and
PHONOLOGICAL
FEATURES
• DisKncKve
Features
are
Phonological
Features.
• PhoneKcs
Features
are
surface
realisaKons
of
underlying
Phonological
Features.
• A
phonological
feature
may
be
realised
by
more
than
one
phoneKc
feature,
eg.
[flat]
is
realised
by
labialisaKon,
velarisaKon
and
pharyngealisaKon
• A
small
set
of
features
is
able
to
differenKate
between
the
phonemes
of
any
single
language
• DisKncKve
features
may
be
defined
in
terms
of
arKculatory
or
acousKc
features,
but
Jakobson's
features
are
primarily
based
on
acousKc
descripKons

37. Characteristics
of
features
•
•
•
•
Features
establish
natural
classes
Binarity
Economy
PhoneKc
interpretaKon

38. MAJOR
CLASS
FEATURES
Vowels
oral
stops
Affricates
nasal
stops
FricaKves
Liquids
semi-­‐vowels
syll
cons
son
cont
delrel
+
-­‐
+
+
0
-­‐
+
-­‐
-­‐
-­‐
-­‐
+
-­‐
-­‐
+
-­‐
+
+
-­‐
0
-­‐
+
-­‐
+
0
-­‐
+
+
+
0
-­‐
-­‐
+
+
0

39. MAIN
FEATURES
• syllabic
/
non-­‐syllabic
[syll]:
Syllabic
sounds
consKtute
a
syllable
peak
(sonority
peak).
[+syll]
refers
to
vowels
and
to
syllabic
consonants.
[-­‐syll]
refers
to
all
non-­‐syllabic
consonants
(including
semi-­‐vowels).
• consonantal
/
non-­‐consonantal
[cons]:
Consonantal
sounds
are
produced
with
at
least
approximant
stricture.
That
is
consonantal
sounds
involve
vocal
tract
constricKon
significantly
greater
that
that
which
occurs
for
vowels.
[+cons]
refers
to
all
consonants
except
for
semi-­‐vowels
(which
o•en
have
resonant
stricture).
[-­‐cons]
refers
to
vowels
and
semi-­‐vowels.
• sonorant
/
obstruent
[son]:
Sonorant
sounds
are
produced
with
vocal
tract
configuraKon
that
permits
air
pressure
on
both
sides
of
any
constricKon
to
be
approximately
equal
to
the
air
pressure
outside
the
mouth.
Obstruents
possess
constricKon
(stricture)
that
is
sufficient
to
result
in
significantly
greater
air
pressure
behind
the
constricKon
than
occurs
in
front
of
the
constricKon
and
outside
the
mouth.
[+son]
refers
to
vowels
and
approximants
(glides
and
semi-­‐
vowels).
[-­‐son]
refers
to
stops,
fricaKves
and
affricates.

40. MAIN
FEATURES,
cont’d
• coronal
/
non-­‐coronal
[cor]:
"Coronal
sounds
are
produced
by
raising
the
tongue
blade
toward
the
teeth
or
the
hard
palate;
noncoronal
sounds
are
produced
without
such
a
gesture."
(HC)
This
feature
is
intended
for
use
with
consonants
only.
[+cor]
refers
to
dentals
(not
including
labio-­‐dentals)
alveolars,
post-­‐alveolars,
palato-­‐alveolars,
palatals.
[-­‐cor]
refers
to
labials,
velars,
uvulars,
pharyngeals.
• anterior
/
posterior
[ant]:
"Anterior
sounds
are
produced
with
a
primary
constricKon
at
or
in
front
of
the
alveolar
ridge.
Posterior
sounds
are
produced
with
a
primary
constricKon
behind
the
alveolar
ridge."
(HC)
This
feature
is
intended
to
be
applied
to
consonants.
[+ant]
refers
to
labials,
dentals
and
alveolars.
[-­‐ant]
refers
to
post-­‐alveolars,
palato-­‐alveolars,
retroflex,
palatals,
velars,
uvulars,
pharyngeals.
• labial
/
non-­‐labial
[lab]:
Labial
sounds
involve
rounding
or
constricKon
at
the
lips.
[+lab]
refers
to
labial
and
labialized
consonants
and
to
rounded
vowels.
[-­‐lab]
refers
to
all
other
sounds.
• distributed
/
non-­‐distributed
[distr]:
"Distributed
sounds
are
produced
with
a
constricKon
that
extends
for
a
considerable
distance
along
the
midsaggital
axis
of
the
oral
tract;
nondistributed
sounds
are
produced
with
a
constricKon
that
extends
for
only
a
short
distance
in
this
direcKon."
(HC)
[+distr]
refers
to
sounds
produced
with
the
blade
or
front
of
the
tongue,
or
bilabial
sounds.
[-­‐distr]
refers
to
sounds
produced
with
the
Kp
of
the
tongue.
This
feature
can
disKnguish
between
palatal
and
retroflex
sounds,
between
bilabial
and
labiodental
sounds,
between
lamino-­‐
dental
and
apico-­‐dental
sounds.

41. MAIN
FEATURES,
cont’d
• high
/
non-­‐high
[high]:
"High
sounds
are
produced
by
raising
the
body
of
the
tongue
toward
the
palate;
nonhigh
sounds
are
produced
without
such
a
gesture."
(HC)
[+high]
refers
to
palatals,
velars,
palatalized
consonants,
velarized
consonants,
high
vowels,
semi-­‐vowels.
[-­‐high]
refers
to
all
other
sounds.
Note,
however,
the
discussion
above
on
how
this
feature
is
used
in
combinaKon
with
[mid]
to
describe
the
disKncKon
between
four
contrasKve
vowel
heights.
• mid
/
non-­‐mid
[mid]:
Mid
sounds
are
produced
with
tongue
height
approximately
half
way
between
the
tongue
posiKons
appropriate
for
[+high]
and
[+low].
This
vowel
height
feature
is
only
required
when
a
language
has
four
levels
of
height
contrast
and
remains
unspecified
for
languages
with
fewer
vowel
height
contrasts.
[+mid]
refers
to
vowels
with
intermediate
vowel
height.
[-­‐mid]
refers
to
all
other
sounds.
• low
/
non-­‐low
[low]:
"Low
sounds
are
produced
by
drawing
the
body
of
the
tongue
down
away
from
the
roof
of
the
mouth;
nonlow
sounds
are
produced
without
such
a
gesture."
[+low]
refers
to
low
vowels,
pharyngeal
consonants,
pharyngealized
consonants.

42. MAIN
FEATURES,
cont’d
• back
/
non-­‐back
[back]:
"Back
sounds
are
produced
with
the
tongue
body
relaKvely
retracted;
nonback
or
front
sounds
are
produced
with
the
tongue
body
relaKvely
advanced."
(HC)
[+back]
refers
to
Velars,
uvulars,
pharyngeals,
velarized
consonants,
pharyngealized
consonants,
central
vowels,
central
semi-­‐vowels,
back
vowels,
back
semi-­‐vowels.
[-­‐back]
refers
to
all
other
sounds.
• front
/
non-­‐front
[front]:
This
is
an
addiKonal
vowel
feature
added
to
assist
in
the
descripKon
of
the
vowel
systems
of
languages
such
as
Australian
English.
To
describe
the
central
vowels
of
Australian
English
its
necessary
to
define
them
as
[-­‐
back,
-­‐front].
• conFnuant
/
stop
[cont]:
"ConKnuants
are
formed
with
a
vocal
tract
configuraKon
allowing
the
airstream
to
flow
through
the
midsaggital
region
of
the
oral
tract:
stops
are
produced
with
a
sustained
occlusion
in
this
region."
(HC)
For
some
reason
it
has
been
tradiKonal
to
include
lateral
consonants
as
stops
in
disKncKve
feature
theory.
Since
laterals
can
have
approximant,
fricaKve
or
stop
(click)
stricture
there
seems
to
be
no
jusKficaKon
in
including
all
laterals
with
the
stops,
and
in
this
course
laterals
are
not
necessarily
stops
(as
is
the
case
for
the
lateral
clicks)
but
can
also
be
conKnuants
(as
is
the
case
for
the
lateral
approximants
and
fricaKves.
[+cont]
refers
to
vowels,
approximants,
fricaKves.
[-­‐cont]
refers
to
nasal
stops,
oral
stops.

43. MAIN
FEATURES,
cont’d
• lateral
/
central
[lat]:
"Lateral
sounds,
the
most
familiar
of
which
is
[l],
are
produced
with
the
tongue
placed
in
such
a
way
as
to
prevent
the
airstream
from
flowing
outward
through
the
center
of
the
mouth,
while
allowing
it
to
pass
over
one
or
both
sides
of
the
tongue;
central
sounds
do
not
invoke
such
a
constricKon."
(HC)
[+lat]
refers
to
lateral
approximants,
lateral
fricaKves,
lateral
clicks.
[-­‐lat]
refers
to
all
other
sounds.
• nasal
/
oral
[nas]:
"Nasal
sounds
are
produced
by
lowering
the
velum
and
allowing
the
air
to
pass
outward
through
the
nose;
oral
sounds
are
produced
with
the
velum
raised
to
prevent
the
passage
of
air
through
the
nose."
(HC)
[+nas]
refers
to
nasal
stops,
nasalized
consonants,
nasalized
vowels.
[-­‐nas]
refers
to
all
other
sounds.
• tense
/
lax
[tense]:
The
tradiKonal
definiKon
of
this
feature
claims
that
[+tense]
vowels
involve
a
greater
degree
of
constricKon
then
[-­‐
tense]
(lax)
vowels.
Tense
vowels
need
not
be
any
different
to
lax
vowels
in
terms
of
constricKon

44. MAIN
FEATURES,
cont’d
• sibilant
/
non-­‐sibilant
[sib]:
Sibilants
are
those
fricaKves
with
large
amounts
of
acousKc
energy
at
high
frequencies.
[+sib]
refers
to
[s
ʃ
z
ʒ].
[-­‐sib]
refers
to
all
other
sounds.
• spread
glo^s
/
non-­‐spread
glo^s
[spread]:
"Spread
or
aspirated
sounds
are
produced
with
the
vocal
cords
drawn
apart
producing
a
nonperiodic
(noise)
component
in
the
acousKc
signal;
nonspread
or
unaspirated
sounds
are
produced
without
this
gesture."
(HC)
[+spread]
refers
to
aspirated
consonants,
breathy
voiced
or
murmured
consonants,
voiceless
vowels,
voiceless
approximants.
[-­‐
spread]
refers
to
all
other
sounds.
It
should
be
stressed
that
during
the
occlusion
of
both
voiceless
aspirated
and
voiceless
unaspirated
(0
VOT)
stops
the
glo“s
is
open.
The
difference
is
during
the
period
following
release
where,
for
aspirated
stops,
the
glo“s
stays
open
much
longer
than
for
unaspirated
stops.
• constricted
glo^s
/
non-­‐constricted
glo^s
[constr]:
"Constricted
or
glo^alized
sounds
are
produced
with
the
vocal
cords
drawn
together,
prevenKng
normal
vocal
cord
vibraKon;
nonconstricted
(nonglo^alized)
sounds
are
produced
without
such
a
gesture."
(HC)
[+constr]
refers
to
ejecKves,
implosives,
glo^alized
or
laryngealized
consonants,
glo^alized
or
laryngealized
vowels.
[-­‐constr]
refers
to
all
other
sounds.
• voiced
/
voiceless
[voice]:
"Voiced
sounds
are
produced
with
a
laryngeal
configuraKon
permi“ng
periodic
vibraKon
of
the
vocal
cords;
voiceless
sounds
lack
such
periodic
vibraKon."
(HC)
[+voice]
refers
to
all
voiced
sounds.
[-­‐voice]
refers
to
all
voiceless
sounds.

45. Conclusion
• In
this
course,
students
have
learned
the
basic
concepts
and
processes
of
phonological
analysis.
They
are
advised
to
apply
on
other
examples
in
English,
but
also
encouraged
to
invesKgate
their
first
languages.