1. Sep. 2007, Volume 4, No.9 (Serial No.45) Sino-US English Teaching, ISSN1539-8072, USA
On the promotion of intercultural communication competence
ZHOU Bin1, CUI Fu-quan2
(1. Foreign Studies Department, Xi’ University of Architecture and Technology, Xi’ 710055, China;
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2. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Section, Xi’ Military Academy, Xi’ 710108, China)
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Abstract: The paper begins with the importance of intercultural communication in modern society, and then
mainly provides three ways to promote intercultural communication competence; namely, to know both yourself
and the target culture, to be objective, and to communicate actively. The main purpose of this paper is to help
people achieve effective and efficient communication in the process of intercultural communication.
Key words: intercultural communication; mutual comprehension; objectiveness; active communication
1. Introduction
Intercultural communication is communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbol
systems are different enough to alter the communication event (Samovar, Porter £¦Stefani, 2000). It is as true
that the world is shrinking and the contact of people from different cultural backgrounds has been increasing more
than ever before as that in the process of intercultural communication, there are lots of barriers such as language
differences, different values, cultural shock, which greatly affect human communication. It is, therefore, essential
for us to attach more importance to intercultural communication and cultivate sufficient intercultural awareness
and understanding.
According to ZHANG Ai-ling (2003), intercultural communication competence means being able to
communicate effectively and efficiently with people from different cultures to achieve mutual understanding and
to gain better cooperation. In this paper, the author would like to offer three ways to overcome the cultural barriers
and enhance communicative competence.
2. Main Ways to Enhance Intercultural Communication Competence
2.1 To know both yourself and the target culture
Sun Tzu said, “ Know the enemy, know yourself, and you can fight a hundred battles with no danger of
defeat.” Though intercultural communication is not a battle, it is very essential to know both yourself and the
target culture because it is favorable for us to achieve a better understanding.
2.1.1 To know yourself
Although the idea of knowing yourself is common, it is nevertheless crucial to improve intercultural
communication because what you bring to the communication event greatly influences the success or failure of
that event. What’ more, knowing yourself is also an effective way to have insight into other cultures. And the
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application of introspection should take three directions: know your culture, know your attitude, and know how
ZHOU Bin, male, M.A., lecturer of Foreign Studies Department, Xi’ University of Architecture and Technology; research field:
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applied linguistics.
CUI Fu-quan, male, M.A., associate professor of Foreign Language Teaching and Research Section, Xi’ Military Academy;
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research field: applied linguistics.
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2. On the promotion of intercultural communication competence
you act on these perceptions. Although these three concepts work in random, it might be useful to examine them
separately.
As is known, we all live in a certain culture with certain languages, symbol systems, and values, and one’ s
thought and behaviors are greatly influenced by these factors. So in the first place, you should have a clear
understanding of your own cultural patterns, not only its surface, such as houses, clothes, foods, etc, but also its
depth, such as values, beliefs, national characteristics, and so on.
In the second place, you are supposed to know your attitude. It goes without saying that a person’ attitude
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plays an important role in the process of communication. It is, therefore, essential for you to know your likes, your
dislikes, and the degree of your ethnocentrism to avoid these hidden personal premises.
In the third place, you should be aware of your communication style. If you perceive yourself in one way,
and people with whom you interact perceive you in another way, serious problems can arise. As we all know, our
most taken-for-granted behaviors are often hidden from consciousness. So you have to clearly know your
communication style— the manner in which you represent yourself to others.
2.1.2 To know the target culture
Intercultural communication is the communication between people from different cultures. So just knowing
yourself is far from enough. We should also know the other party in the communication event. For the first time
we communicate with a foreigner, it is usually rather difficult for us to know his personality, attitude, and his
communication style. What’ more, the other parties in our intercultural communication are always changing. So
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we can just, in advance, have a general understanding of their cultures which are suitable to most people in most
cases. But in the process of intercultural communication, we must be good at observing and detecting these
concrete details to know communicators themselves, because every individual is much more than his culture.
Firstly, to know the language and nonverbal symbols of the target culture.
Language and culture are closely related, each influencing and shaping the other. Language, as an intrinsic
part of culture, reflects culture, and culture also reflects language. So when we communicate with foreigners, we’ d
better know their language, including both its linguistic usage and its pragmatic one, or some problems may be
resulted. For example, when a non-English speaker first hears the English sentence “ Won’ you have some tea?”
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he or she listens to the literal meaning of the sentence and answers, “ , meaning that he or she wants some. The
No”
U.S. hostess, on the other hand, ignores the double negative because of common usage, and the guest gets no tea.
Nonverbal communication also plays an important role in intercultural communication. For example, in the
United States, making a circle with one’ thumb and index finger while extending the others is emblematic of the
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word “ ; in Japan it signifies “
Ok” money” and among Arabs this gesture is usually accompanied by a baring of
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teeth, and together they signify extreme hostility. This same gesture has a vulgar connotation in Mexico and
Germany, and to the Tunisian it means “ ll kill you”(Samovar et al., 2000).
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Secondly, to know their cultural values and national characteristics.
Formally, a value may be defined as an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of
existence is personally or socially preferable to another (Rokeach, 1973). Although each of us has a unique set of
individual values, there are also values that tend to pervade a culture. These are called cultural values. In different
cultures there are different cultural values.
Thirdly, to know taboos in the target culture.
Taboos are bans or prohibitions on something that are regarded for religious or other reasons as not to be
done, said, touched, and used, etc. Almost every culture has its taboos. For example, the Muslims don’ eat pork.
t
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3. On the promotion of intercultural communication competence
The figure 13 is not always mentioned in western countries, and figure 4 is not mentioned in some Asian countries,
because it has the similar sound with “ (death)”in Chinese. In intercultural communication, we must be careful
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and try to avoid offending people with certain taboos.
There are still many other aspects we should get to know in advance, whether of ourselves or of the target
cultures. And we can learn them in our daily life, through mass media, from our social experiences, and so on.
2.2 To be objective
In intercultural communication, our observations and conclusions are restricted by our personal and cultural
orientations. How, for instance, do we make sense of someone’ loud speaking if we come from a culture that
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values silence? We might make the mistake to think “ How could someone be so noisy and boring?”
In order to solve this problem, we must learn to be objective in the process of intercultural communication.
To be objective, we must first avoid three subjective inclinations.
2.2.1 To avoid ethnocentrism
Sumner, generally credited with introducing the term to the study of culture, defined ethnocentrism as “ the
technical name for the view of things in which one’ own group is the center of everything, and all others are
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scaled and rated with reference to it”(Sumner, 1940).
Anthropologists generally agree that ethnocentrism is inevitable and unconscious, and it is found in almost
every culture. It might be the major barrier to intercultural communication. The negative impact of ethnocentrism
on intercultural communication is clearly highlighted by Steward and Bennett: First, ethnocentric beliefs about
one’ own culture shape a social sense of identity which is narrow and defensive. Second, ethnocentrism normally
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involves the perception of members of other cultures in terms of stereotypes. Third, the dynamic of ethnocentrism
is such that comparative judgments are made between one’ own culture and other cultures under the assumption
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that one’ own is normal and natural. As a consequence, ethnocentric judgments usually involve invidious
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comparisons that ennoble one’ culture while degrading those of others (Steward & Bennett, 1991).
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2.2.2 To avoid stereotypes
Lippmann, who called attention to the concept of stereotype as early as 1922, indicated that “ stereotypes
were a means of organizing our images into fixed and simple categories that we use to stand for the entire
collection of people”(Lippmann, 1957). The reason may be human being’ psychological need to categorize and
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classify our big and complex world. The negative effect on intercultural communication is clearly described by
Alder: Stereotypes become counterproductive when we place people in the wrong groups, when we incorrectly
describe the group norm, when we inappropriately evaluate the group or category, when we confuse the stereotype
with the description of a particular individual, and when we fail to modify the stereotype based on our actual
observations and experience (Alder, 1991).
Inevitably, stereotyping is another serious barrier in intercultural communication. We should consider
different people and different things from different perspectives, but not always from our personal ones. In other
words, we must be objective enough so as not to over-generalize or over-simplify something.
2.2.3 To avoid prejudices
Psychologist Plotnik and Mollenauer defined prejudices as “ unfair, biased, or intolerant attitude towards
another group of people” (1986). Prejudiced attitudes include irrational feelings of dislike and even hatred for
certain groups. These attitudes are not always based on direct and firsthand knowledge. For example, a prejudiced
employer might say: “ Workers from rural areas are not as competent as those from cities.” or “ employees from
other cities than Guangzhou are difficult to communicate with.”But in fact, people’ capability has nothing to do
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4. On the promotion of intercultural communication competence
with the place where they come from.
2.3 To communicate actively
As we know, theory is something, but practice is everything. The purpose of knowing is to serve as doing
something. So we should communicate actively to enhance our intercultural communication competence. And in
this process, we should pay attention to the following four items.
2.3.1 To consider the physical and human setting
Communication is a systematic process. In addition to communicators themselves in the communication
event, other elements also greatly influence the results of communication, such as the place, occasion, time, and so
on.
In different places, people may have different responses. For example, when communication events happen
in one’ own country, the host may feel more relaxed. On the contrary, the guest may feel more or less
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uncomfortable.
In terms of occasion, it is self-evident that we may wear different clothes on different occasions, and show
different manners. And as for the time, people in different cultures have different time orientations. In America,
people value informal and monochronic time and they are future-oriented; whereas Chinese people value formal
and polychronic time and they are past-oriented.
2.3.2 To show your respect and be tolerant
On the one hand, everyone has the need to be respected. So in intercultural communication, we should accept
and respect others as well as their cultures such as values, customs, and taboos. On the other hand, sometimes
some unsuitable words may be used in a communication event, or some of others’behaviors may make us feel
uncomfortable. As usual, people always make these mistakes unconsciously because of lacking enough
understanding. In these cases, we should be tolerant with others. Meanwhile, we should try our best to avoid these
similar mistakes in the process of intercultural communication. The Chinese traditional thought can, in a sense,
reflect this point. As Mencius says, “ Benevolence is what makes a human being human being.”
2.3.3 To develop empathy
We have mentioned that every culture is ethnocentric. The next suggestion is helpful to overcome
ethnocentrism and enhance intercultural communication competence. That is to develop empathy— “ able to see
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things from the point of view of others”(Samovar et al., 2000). As the famous Native American proverb goes,
“ should not judge a person until we have walked two moons in his moccasins.”But how to develop empathy?
We
First, both you and your communication partner should be expressive (unless you are interacting with
someone from a culture that values silence), and your expressive behavior can also promote others to be more
expressive.
Second, you should constantly remind yourself to pay attention to the spontaneous emotional expressions of
others. We can’ expect individuals from other cultures to offer us verbal and nonverbal messages about their
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internal state. So we should detect others’emotions through observing their expressions and specific behaviors
carefully.
Third, we should put ourselves into others’ shoes. We should consider others from their perspectives. This is
good for us to understand some cultural differences and to promote a smooth intercultural communication.
2.3.4 To be open and flexible
We have mentioned that communication is systematic; it is also a dynamic one. It is transitory, ongoing, and
irreversible. In other words, there is nothing permanent except change. So we must be open and flexible.
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5. On the promotion of intercultural communication competence
Openness doesn’ mean you talk to every stranger you encounter, rather it implies that you are willing to
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accept change and are not closed to new ideas (Samovar et al., 2000).
Flexibility means that developing a collection of interpersonal tactics. You need to be flexible and adapt your
communication style to various conditions, people and situations. You should be reflective instead of impulsive
when interacting with a culture that moves at a slower pace. For example, an American teacher can’ sit on the
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desk in the Chinese class, but it is allowed in America.
3. Conclusion
We have mentioned three main approaches to enhance intercultural communication competence. Certainly,
there are still some other ways to enhance this ability. But anyhow, we should obey some basic principles in
intercultural communication.
Firstly, we should obey the law and basic ethics. We should not deprive freedom and pleasure of others; we
should not cheat and deceive. Secondly, we should be mindful of the consequences of our words and actions.
At the basic core, we should keep in mind that the main purpose of intercultural communication is to achieve
mutual benefit. We shouldn’ always want to win big, to humiliate the opposition, even to gain all of the
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advantages. Rather, successful intercultural communicators are conducted in a cooperative climate in which both
sides can emerge as winners.
References:
Adler, N. J. 1991. Intercultural dimensions of organizational behavior (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: PWSKENT.
Lippman, W. 1957. Public opinion. New York: Macmillan.
Plotnik, R. & Mollenauer, S. 1986. Introduction to psychology. New York: Random House.
Roger,E.M.& Steinfatt, T.M. 1999. Intercultural communication. Illionis: Waveland Press Inc.
Rokeach, M. 1973. The nature of human values. New York: Free Press.
Sumner, W. G. 1940. Folkways. Boston: Ginnand.
Stewart, E. C. & Bennett, M. J. 1991. American cultural patterns. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Samovar, L. A., Porter, R. E. & Stefani L. A. 2000. Communication between cultures (3rd ed.). Foreign Language Teaching and
Research Press.
ZHANG Ai-ling, et al. 2003. Intercultural communication. Chongqing: Chongqing University Press.
(Edited by Robert, Jessica and Doris)
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