Factors Affecting ESP Course Design

1. Factors Affecting ESP Course
Design: Learning
Theories and Needs Analysis
BABYLEN ARIT SONER
MA Applied Linguistics

2. Learning Expectations
We will be learning about…

3.  How language is to be
taught (learning theories) and
for whom it is meant at what
time and place (needs
analysis)

4. LEARNING THEORIES
Hutchinson and Waters (1987) speak
about “´learning theories´ which provide
the theoretical basis for the methodology,
by helping us to understand how people
learn”
It is the psychological processes involved
in language use and language learning.

5. The Cognitive Theory
• It involves activities “which engage
conscious mental processes such as
analyzing and understanding, and involved
learning and applying explicitly formulated
rules” Cunnningsworth (1984)
 Prefer to concentrate on analyzing
cognitive processes
 Believe in the non-observable behavior

6.  Focuses on the inner mental activities- opening
the black box of the human mind is valuable and
necessary for understanding how people learn.
 Mental processes such as thinking, memory,
knowing and problem-solving need to be explored.
 Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic
mental constructions.
 Learning is defined as a change in learner’s
schemata.

7.  It is a response to behaviorism, people are not
“programmed animals” that merely respond to
environmental stimuli; people are rational being
that require active participation in order to learn,
and whose actions are a consequence of thinking.
 Changes in behavior is observed, but only as an
indication of what is occurring in the learner’s
head.
 It also assumes that responses are the result of
insight and intentional patterning

8. Insight can be directed to:
(a) the concepts behind language
i.e. to traditional grammar.
(b) language as an operation - sets of
communicative functions

9. Example of method:
 The grammar translation method which is
essentially cognitive in that it requires a
clear understanding of rules and the
ability to apply the given rules to new
examples of language.

10. Behaviorism
 'learning is a mechanical process of habit
formation of a stimulus-response
sequence‘ in which the basic exercise
technique of a behaviorist methodology is
pattern practice, particularly in the form
of language laboratory drills

11.  is a learning theory that only focuses on
objectively observable behaviors and
discounts any independent activities of the
mind
 Defined learning as nothing more than the
acquisition of new behaviour based on
environmental conditions
 According to behaviourist thinking, it wasn’t
really necessary for learners to internalize
rules;
instead they should learn the right patterns of
linguistic behaviour, and acquire the correct
habits.

12. Conditioning- Universal learning
process
 Classical Conditioning
-occurs when a natural reflex responds to a
stimulus. We are biologically “wired” so that a
certain stimulus will produce a specific
response. One of the more common examples of
classical conditioning in the educational
environment is in situations where students
exhibit irrational fears and anxieties like fear of
failure, fear of public speaking and general
school phobia.

13.  Classical means “in a established
manner
Believes that individual learns when a
previously neutral stimulus is paired
with an unconditioned stimulus until
the neutral stimulus evokes a
conditioned response

14. Includes:
Unconditioned stimulus- one that
unconditionally, naturally and
automatically triggers a response
Unconditioned response- the
unlearned response that occurs
naturally in response to the
unconditioned stimulus

15. Conditioned stimulus- previously
neutral stimulus that, after becoming
associated with the unconditioned
stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a
conditioned response
Conditioned response- is the learned
response to previously neutral stimulus

16. Principles of Classical Conditioning
 Extinction- a process by which a
conditioned response is lost
through repeated presentation of
conditioned stimulus without the
unconditioned stimulus.

17.  Stimulus Generalization- a process by
which the conditioned response
transfers to other stimuli that is similar
to the original conditioned stimulus
 Discrimination- a process by which one
learns not to respond to similar stimuli
in an identical manner because of
previous experiences.

18.  Behavioral or Operant conditioning
-occurs when a response to a stimulus is
reinforced. Basically, operant conditioning is a
simple feedback system: If a reward or
reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus,
then the response becomes more probable in the
future.
-Learning based on reinforcement and
punishment
-Operant conditioning deals with the
modification of “voluntary behavior” or operant
behavior

19. Includes:
 Reinforcement- a consequence of behavior that
increases the likelihood that it will be repeated
 Punishment- a consequence of behavior the
decreases the likelihood of repetition
 Aversive stimulus- a consequence that a person
avoids
 Shaping- teaching of new skills or behavior by
reinforcing learner to help him reach goals

20.  Cue- signal as to what behavior will be reinforced or
punished
 Reinforcer- any consequence that strengthens a
behavior
 Primary reinforcer- sometimes called an unconditioned
reinforce, is a stimulus that does not require pairing to
function as a reinforce and most likely has obtained this
function through the evolution and its role in species’
survival like sleep, food, air, water and sex
 Secondary reinforcer- sometimes called a conditioned
reinforce, is a stimulus or situation that has acquired its
function as a reinforcer after pairing with a stimulus which
functions as a reinforcer.

21. Classification of reinforcement:
 Verbal- praise, encouragement
 Physical- touches, pats, hugs
 Non-verbal- smiles, winks, warm looks
 Activity- being allowed to play games, listen
to music,
 Token- points, stars, chips
 Consumable- cookies, foods

22. Five contexts of operant
conditioning
 Positive reinforcement- occurs when a behavior
(response) is followed by a favorable stimulus
(commonly seen as pleasant) that increases the
frequency of that behavior. It consists of giving a
reward like food, stars, bonus, and praise
 Negative reinforcement- occurs when a behavior is
followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus
(commonly seen as unpleasant) thereby increasing
that behavior’s frequency. It consists of taking away
something that the individual doesn’t like.

23.  Positive punishment- (punishment by contingent
stimulation) occurs when a behavior is followed by an
aversive stimulus, such as introducing a shock or loud
noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior
 Negative punishment- (punishment by contingent
withdrawal) occurs when a behavior is followed by the
removal of a favorable stimulus, such as taking away a
child’s toy following an undesired behavior, resulting in a
decrease in that behavior.
 Extinction- occurs when a behavior that had previously
been reinforced is no longer effective.

24. Criticisms on Behaviorism
 Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of learning,
since it disregards the activities of the mind.
 Behaviorism does not explain some learning–such as the
recognition of new language patterns by young children–
for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.
 Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced
patterns to new information.
For instance, a rat can shift its behaviour to respond to
changes in the layout of a maze it had previously mastered
through reinforcements.

25. Mentalism
 This theory is of the opinion that thinking is rule-
governed
 Chomsky sees learners as thinking beings who are
capable of coping with infinite range of possible
situations from a finite range of experience. The mind
uses individual experiences to formulate hypothesis.
For instance, knowing that words that end in‘–y’ take
‘–ies’ to form their plural, while those that end in ‘–f’
will change to ‘–ives’, the learner given these rules can
form a lot of plurals even of words they have never
seen before.

26. Constructivism
 Constructivism is an educational philosophy
which holds that learners ultimately
construct their own knowledge that then
resides within them, so that each person's
knowledge is as unique as they are

27.  Constructivists are more likely to allow for
experimentation and exploration in the
classroom and place a greater emphasis on
the experience of the learner

28.  Constructivist learning is based on students'
active participation in problem-solving and
critical thinking regarding a learning activity
which they find relevant and engaging. They
are "constructing" their own knowledge by
testing ideas and approaches based on their
prior knowledge and experience, applying
these to a new situation, and integrating the
new knowledge gained with pre-existing
intellectual constructs.

29. Key Precepts
 situated or anchored learning, which presumes
that most learning is context dependent, so that
cognitive experiences situated in authentic
activities such as project-based learning;
 cognitive apprenticeships, or case-based learning
environments result in richer and more
meaningful learning experiences;

30.  social negotiation of knowledge, a process by
which learners form and test their constructs in a
dialogue with other individuals and with the larger
society
 collaboration as a principal focus of learning
activities so that negotiation and testing of
knowledge can occur.

31. Current `traditional' instruction is structured
through:
 the transition of the teacher's role from "sage
on the stage" (fount/transmitter of knowledge)
to "guide on the side" (facilitator, coach);
 teaching "higher order" skills such as problem-
solving, reasoning, and reflection

32.  enabling learners to learn how to learn;
 more open-ended evaluation of learning
outcomes; and
 cooperative and collaborative learning
skills.

33. Humanism and Affective Factors
 Humanism, a paradigm that emerged in the 1960s,
focuses on the human freedom, dignity, and
potential. A central assumption of humanism,
according to Huitt (2001), is that people act with
intentionality and values.
 Humanists also believe that it is necessary to study
the person as a whole, especially as an individual
grows and develops over the lifespan. It follows
that the study of the self, motivation, and goals are
areas of particular interest.

34.  A primary purpose of humanism could be
described as the development of self-
actualized, autonomous people.
 In humanism, learning is student centered
and personalized, and the educator’s role is
that of a facilitator
 Affective and cognitive needs are the key, and
the goal is to develop self-actualized people in
a cooperative, supportive environment

35. Affective factors - are emotional factors
which influence learning and can have a
negative or
positive effect to the learners.
 Negative affective factors are called
affective filters and are an important idea in
theories about second language acquisition. For
instance, A learner's attitude to English, to
the teacher, to other learners in the group and to
herself are all affective factors and have impact on
how well she learns.

36.  Teachers can reduce negative factors and
develop positive ones by doing activities to
build a positive group dynamic, by including
students in deciding aspects of the course
and choosing activities that are motivating
for the age and interests of the learners.

37. Affective Factor of Motivation
 Instrumental motivation is the reflection
of the external needs of the learner. The
learners learn a language not because they
want but because they need the language for
something such as for study or work
purposes, to transact business with the
owners of the language, and learning a
language for exam purpose and not for
leisure, etc.

38.  Integrative motivation derives from the
desire on the part of the learners to be
members of the speech community that
uses a particular language. Integrative
motivation, according to Hutchinson and
Waters (1987), “is an internally generated
want rather than an externally imposed
need”

39. Needs Analysis

40.  What does the learner need/want to
do with the target language?
X What are the linguistic elements the
learner needs to master?

41. WHAT IS NEEDS ANALYSIS?
-the process of determining the needs for which a
learner or group of learners requires a language and
arranging the needs according to priorities.
 According to Iwai et al. (1999), the term needs analysis
generally refers to the activities that are involved in
collecting information that will serve as the basis for
developing a curriculum that will meet the needs of
a particular group of students.

42.  -the process of establishing what and how of a
course (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998)
 “the systematic collection and analysis of all
subjective and objective information necessary to
define and validate defensible curriculum
purposes that satisfy the language learning
requirements of students within the context of
particular institutions that influence the learning
and teaching situation”
Brown (1995)

43.  “needs analysis is the requirement for fact-
finding or the collection of data” Jordan
(1997)
 it is “a vital pre-requisite to the specification
of language learning objectives”
Brindley (cited in Johnson 1989)

44. Needs analysis is neither unique to
language teaching nor within language
training but it is often seen as being
“the corner stone of ESP and leads to a
much focused course” (Dudley- Evans
& St. John, 1998)

45. Before beginning a needs analysis, one must first
answer the following crucial question:
1. “Will the students use English at the university or in their
jobs after graduation?"
If the answer is no, then ESP is not a reasonable
option for the university's English language programme.
The university will have to justify its existence and improve
the programme via other means.
If the answer is yes, however, then ESP is probably the
most intelligent option for the university curriculum. ESP
begins with some basic questions to survey what will be
needed.
1. Will students use English at the university or in their
jobs after graduation? In what situations? For what
purposes?

46. 2. What language skills will be required (reading,
writing, listening, speaking)?
3. What are the significant characteristics of the
language in these situations (lexicon, grammar, spoken
scripts, written texts, other characteristics)?
4. What extralinguistic knowledge of academia, specific
disciplines, specific vocations, or specific professions is
required for successful English usage in these areas?

47. OUTCOME OF NEEDS ANALYSIS
 Should be a list of goals and objectives for
the parties involved, which should “serve as
the basis for developing tests, materials,
teaching activities, and evaluation
strategies” (Brown, 1995)

48. Development
 Needs analysis came to be as a result of the fact
that in ESP, the learners have different specific and
specifiable communication needs, which informed
the development of courses to meet these varying
needs.
 Needs analysis was firmly established in the mid-
1970s as course designers came to see learners'
purposes rather than specialist language as the
driving force behind ESP.

49.  In the earlier periods needs analysis was mainly
concerned with linguistic and register analysis,
and as Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) suggest,
needs were seen as discrete language items of
grammar and vocabulary.
 With the publication of Munby’s Communicative
Syllabus Design (1978) needs analysis moved
towards placing the learner’s purposes in the
central position within the framework of needs
analysis. Consequently, the notion of target needs
became paramount and research proved that
function and situation were also fundamental.

50.  In his work Munby (1978) introduced
Communicative Needs Processor (CNP). As
Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 54) say:
With the development of the CNP it
seemed as if ESP had come of age. The
machinery for identifying the needs of any
group of learners had been provided: all the
course designers had to do was to operate it.

51. In Munby’s CNP, the target needs and
target level performance are
established by investigating the target
situation, and his overall model clearly
establishes the place of needs analysis
as central to ESP, indeed the necessary
starting point in materials or course
design (West, 1998).

52. Munby’s overall model is made up of the
following elements:
 1. Participants: information about the identity and
language of the learners: age, sex, nationality, present
command of target language, other languages known
and extent of command;
 2. Communication Needs Processor: investigates
the particular communication needs according to
sociocultural and stylistic variables which interact to
determine a profile of such needs;

53. 3. Profile of Needs: is established through the
processing of data in the CNP;
4. In the Meaning Processor “parts of the
socioculturally determined profile of
communication needs are converted into semantic
subcategories of a predominantly pragmatic kind,
and marked with attitudinal tone” (Munby, 1978:
42);

54. 5. The Language Skills Selector: identifies
“the specific language skills that are
required to realize the events or activities
that have been identified in the CNP”
(Munby, 1978: 40);
6. The Linguistic Encoder: considers “the
dimension of contextual appropriacy”
(Munby, 1978: 49), one the encoding stage
has been reached;

55. 7. The Communicative Competence
Specification: indicates the target
communicative competence of the
participant and is the translated profile of
needs.

56.  From the mentioned elements of the Munby model, the
predominant one or at least the one that has been
referred to by other researchers of needs analysis is the
Communication Needs Processor (CNP) which is the
basis of Munby’s approach to needs analysis and
establishes the profile of needs through the processing
of eight parameters the processing of which gives us a
detailed description of particular communication needs
(Munby, 1978).

57. The parameters specified by Munby (1987) are:
• Purposive domain: this category establishes the type
of ESP, and then the purpose which the target
language will be used for at the end of the course.
• Setting: the physical setting specifying the spatial and
temporal aspects of the situation where English will be
used, and the psychological setting specifying the
different environment in which English will be used.

58. • Interaction: identifies the learner’s interlocutors and
predicts relationship between them.
• Instrumentality: specifies the medium, i.e., whether
the language to be used is written, spoken, or both;
mode, i.e., whether the language to be used is in the
form of monologue, dialogue or any other; and
channel of communication, i.e., whether it is face to
face, radio, or any other.

59.  Dialect: dialects learners will have to understand
or produce in terms of their spatial, temporal, or
social aspect.
• Communicative event: states what the
participants will have to do productively or
receptively.

60.  Communicative key: the manner in which
the participants will have to do the activities
comprising an event, e.g. politely or
impolitely.
• Target level: level of linguistic proficiency
at the end of the ESP course which might be
different for different skills.

61. 1. Why is language needed?
• for study;
• for work;
• for training;
• for a combination of these;
• for some other purposes, e.g.
status, examination, promotion
cf. Munbian
purposive domain
2. How will the language be used?
• Medium: speaking, writing, reading,
etc.;
• Channel: e.g. telephone, face to face;
• Types of text or discourse: e.g.
academic text,
lectures, catalogues, etc
cf. Munbian
instrumentality

62. 3. What will the content areas be?
• Subjects: e.g. medicine, biology,
commerce, shipping, etc.;
• Level: technician, craftsman,
postgraduate, etc.
cf. Munbian
Communicative
event
4. Where will the language be used?
• Physical setting: e.g. office, lecture
theater, hotel, workshop, library;
• Human context: alone, meetings,
demonstrations, on telephone;
• Linguistic context: e.g. in own country,
abroad.
cf. Munbian
Setting (physical and
psychological)

63. 5. When will the language be used?
• Concurrently with the ESP course or
subsequently;
• Frequently, seldom, in small
amounts, in large chunks.

64. What is needs?
Narrow or Product –Oriented Needs”
The learner’s needs are seen as the language they
will use in a particular communication situation. It is
the target language behavior, that is, what the learners
have to be able to do at the end of the language course.
1

65.  It is the target language behavior, that is,
what the learners have to be able to do at the
end of the language course. Widdowson
(cited in Robinson 1991) calls this “goal
oriented needs” while Berwick (1989) used
the term “objective needs”.

66. “Broad or Process-Oriented Needs”
 This involves analyzing the needs of the learner as
an individual in the learning situation.
 In this kind of interpretation, the teacher tries to
identify and take into account both the affective
and cognitive variables which affect learning such
as learner’s attitudes, motivation, awareness,
personality, wants, expectations and learning
styles. This is also called ‘subjective needs’ by
Widdowson (1978).
2

67. Although there are various ways of interpreting
‘needs’, the concept of ‘learner needs’ is often
interpreted in two ways:
 · as what the learner wants to do with the language
(goal-oriented definition of needs) which relates to
terminal objectives or the end of learning; and
 · what the learner needs to do to actually acquire the
language (a process-oriented definition) which relates
to transitional/means of learning.

68. Classification of Needs
 Necessities are what the learners have to
know in order to function effectively in the
target situations. By observing the target
situations and analyzing the constituent
parts of them, we can gather information
about necessities.

69.  Lacks are the gap between the existing
proficiency and the target proficiency of
learners.
Wants are what the learners feel they need.

70. Stakeholders in Needs Analysis
 A. Student: needs – present, current, subjective,
felt, learning, learner-centred, wants/likes, lacks,
deficiency analysis, present situation analysis (PSA)
and process oriented.
 B. Course Designer and Teacher: purposes/needs-
perceived needs, process-oriented, PSA, strategy
analysis, means analysis, constraints, learning-centred.

71.  C. Employer/Sponsor: demands – product-
oriented, PSA and TSA, language audits
 D. Target Situation: (Subject/department)
needs – target, future, objective, target-
centred, goal-oriented, aims, necessities,
TSA, language analysis

72. Approaches to Needs Analysis
 1. Target Situation Analysis (TSA)- the target needs and
target level performance are established by investigating
the target situation.
 tries to establish what the learners are expected to be like at the
end of the language course
 2. Present Situation Analysis (PSA)-may be posited as a
complement to target situation analysis for it attempts to
identify what they are like (learners) at the beginning of
the language course.
 "a PSA estimates strengths and weaknesses in language, skills,
learning experiences." If the destination point to which the
students need to get is to be established, first the starting
point has to be defined, and this is provided by means of PSA.

73.  3. Pedagogic Needs Analysis- an umbrella term
to describe the following three elements of needs
analysis- deficiency analysis, strategy analysis or
learning needs analysis, and means analysis.
Deficiency Analysis
is concerned with the necessities that the learner
lacks;

74.  Strategy Analysis or Learning Needs
Analysis
 this type of needs analysis has to do with
the strategies that learners employ in
order to learn another language
 This tries to establish how the learners
wish to learn rather than what they need
to learn
 seeks to establish the learners preferences in
terms of learning styles and strategies, or
teaching methods;

75. Framework for analysis of learning
needs
1. Why are the learners taking the course?
 • compulsory or optional;
 • apparent need or not;
 • Are status, money, promotion involved?
 • What do learners think they will achieve?
 • What is their attitude towards the ESP course? Do
they want to improve their English or do they resent
the time they have to spend on it?

76.  2. How do the learners learn?
 • What is their learning background?
 • What is their concept of teaching and
learning?
 • What methodology will appeal to them?
 • What sort of techniques bore/alienate
them?

77.  3. What sources are available?
 • number and professional competence of
teachers;
 • attitude of teachers to ESP;
 • teachers' knowledge of and attitude to subject
content;
 • materials;
 • aids;
 • opportunities for out-of-class activities.

78.  4. Who are the learners?
 • age/sex/nationality;
 • What do they know already about English?
 • What subject knowledge do they have?
 • What are their interests?
 • What is their socio-cultural background?
 • What teaching styles are they used to?
 •What is their attitude to English or to the cultures
of the English speaking world?

79. Means Analysis
 provides “information about the environment in which
the course will be run” and thus attempts to adapt to
ESP course to the cultural environment in which it will
be run.
 One of the main issues means analysis is concerned
with is an “acknowledgement that what works well in
one situation may not work in another” and so ESP
syllabi should be sensitive to the particular cultural
environment in which the course will be imposed

80. Conducting Needs Analysis (Sources
and Procedure)

81. Methods of data collection for needs
analysis
 Structured interview generates both qualitative and
quantitative data. It consists of prepared questions to
which the answers are noted or recorded, allowing follow-
up of points arising.
 Unstructured interviews is time-consuming, has no fixed
format, allowing in-depth coverage of issues than the use of
pre-determined questions, categories and response
options.
 Participant observation
 Non participant observation means there is no
involvement with the people or activities studied
(collecting data by observation alone)

82.  Questionnaires might be designed for broad
coverage of representative members and
numbers of each category. It is the chief
instrument for collecting quantitative data
and also the most formal.

83. Steps in Needs Analysis
1. Purpose of analysis
2. Delimit student population
3. Decide upon the approach(es)
4. Acknowledge constraints/limitations
5. Select methods of collecting data
6. Collect data
7. Analyze and interpret results
8. Determine objectives
9. Syllabus, content, material, methods, etc.
10. Evaluate procedure and results; implement
decision

84. STUDENT NEEDS ANALYSIS
1. Why are you studying English?
2. Where do you expect to use English in the future (e.g. what context or
situation)?
3. Order the following language skills from 1 (important) to 6
(unimportant):
Reading ____
Listening ____
Vocabulary ____
writing ____
speaking ____
grammar ____
4. What percentage (%) of class time do you think should be spent on each
skill?
5. What do you expect to learn from this class?
6. What are your language strengths and weaknesses?
7. Do you have a preferred learning style? If so, what is it?
8. Do you prefer to learn individually, in pairs or in a group?
9. Would you prefer to learn American or British English? or both?
10. Do you like using a textbook? Why or why not?

85. The Purpose of Needs Analysis
(1) To find out what language skills a learner needs in order
to perform well at the target situation
(2) To help determine if an existing course adequately
addresses the needs and potential students
(3) To determine which student from a group are most in
need of training in particular language skills
(4) To identify a change of direction that people in a
reference group feel is important.
(5) To identify a gap between what students are able to do
and what they need to be able to do
(6) To collect information about a particular problem
learners are experiencing.

86. CONCLUSION
WHO, WHY, WHERE,
WHEN
Needs Analysis
HOW
Learning
Theories
WHAT
Language
Description
ESP Course Design
Nature of
particular
target and
learning
situation
Syllabus Methods

87. THANK YOU!