1. Pollution, Pollutants and
their Effects
Prof. S.N.Upadhyay
Visiting Professor, RGIPT, Rae Bareli
(Ex-Director & Professor, IIT BHU,
Varanasi)

2. Introduction
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3. Our body is made of five elements
(‘Panch Tatva’, ‘Panch Mahabhoot’). Our
activities and life are controlled by these
elements.
All of us have equal rights over natural
resources.
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4. “All citizens have inherent right to the
enjoyment of pure and uncontaminated air and
water and soil; this right should be regarded
as belonging to the whole community; no one
should be allowed to trespass upon it by his
carelessness or his avarice or even his
ignorance.”
- Massachusetts Board of Health (USA), 1869
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5. Environmental pollution is the unfavorable alteration
of our surroundings, through direct or indirect effects
of changes in energy patterns, radiation levels,
chemical and physical conditions and abundance of
organisms. These changes may affect human directly
or through their supplies of water and of agricultural
and other biological products, their physical objects or
possessions, or their opportunities for recreation and
appreciation of nature.
- President’s Science Advisory Community, USA, 1965
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6. “Cradle to grave” pollution refers to the many ways that a single product,
such as a car, can pollute during its lifetime. Each step, from mining
through final disposal, often results in the release of dozens of toxic
pollutants into the air, water, and land. Nearly all products, including food
and other agricultural products, create such stepwise pollution.
Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) elucidates such processes.
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7. Definition of Pollution
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8. Pollution
“Any waste discharges or even
natural environmental changes that
are directly detrimental to man”.
“Environmental pollution is any
disruption by man of natural system”.
“Something out of place”.
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9. Pollution
“An undesirable change in the physical,
chemical, or biological characteristics of
our air, land, and water, that may or will
hostilely affect human life or that of other
desirable species or industrial processes,
living conditions, and cultural assets or that
may or will waste or deteriorate our natural
resources”.
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10. Pollution
• Any man made addition into the
environment which is not ecologically
compatible to the existing environment.
• Any unreasonable interference with the
beneficial uses of environment or its
components.
• An impairment of suitability of air, water or
land mass for any of its beneficial uses,
actual or potential, by man caused
changes in quality.
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11. Pollution
“Acts of introduction by man of extraneous
substances or energy into the environment
that induce unfavorable changes affecting
man directly or indirectly by endangering
his health, harming his living, resources
and ecosystem or by interfering with the
legitimate use of the environment”.
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12. Pollution
 All citizens have an inherent right to the
enjoyment of pure and uncontaminated air
and water and soil, this right should be
regarded as belonging to the whole
community, no one should be allowed to
trespass upon it by his carelessness, or his
avarice or even his ignorance.
- Massachusetts Board of Health, 1869

13. Pollution
 Environmental pollution is the unfavorable alteration of
our surroundings, through direct or indirect effects of
changes in energy patterns, radiation levels, chemical and
physical conditions and abundance of organisms. These
changes may affect human directly or through their
supplies of water and of agricultural and other biological
products, their physical objects or possessions, or their
opportunities for recreation and appreciation
of nature.
- President’s Science Advisory Community, USA, 1965

14. Air Pollution
“Air pollution is the presence in the outdoor
atmosphere of one or more air contaminants in
sufficient quantities, of such characteristics, and
for such duration as to be or to threaten to be
injurious to humans, plants, or animals or to
property or which reasonably interferes with the
comfortable use and enjoyment of life or property.”
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15. Air Pollution
 The presence in outdoor atmosphere of one
or more contaminants, such as dust, mist,
fumes, gas, odor, smoke or vapor in
quantities or characteristics and for duration
such as to be injurious to human, plant or
animal life or property, or which
unreasonably interferes with the
comfortable enjoyment of life.

16. Types of Pollution and
Pollutants
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17. Types of Pollution
 Water Pollution
 Air Pollution
 Solid Waste
 Thermal Pollution
 Noise Pollution
 Land Degradation
 Radiation Pollution
(Electromagnetic & Radioactive)
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18.  Pollutant
Any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present
in such concentrations as may be or tend to be
injurious to environment. [EP Act, 1986]
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19. Classification of Pollutants
Source Natural Anthropogenic
Activity Agricultural, Domestic, Industrial, Mining
Stability Primary Secondary
Physical Form Particulate, Gaseous, Liquid, Solid, Noise,
Thermal, Biological
Chemical Nature Inorganic Organic
Biostability Biodegradable Non-biodegradable*
Life Non-persistent Persistent
Toxic Effect Non-threshold Threshold
* Biomagnifiable
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20.  Hazardous substances
Any substance or preparation which by reason
of its chemical or physical properties, or
handling, is liable to cause harm to human-
beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-
organisms, property or the environment. [EP
Act, 1986]
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21. Chemicals- Hazardous, Toxic
 Hazardous Chemicals:
Acids, caustics, explosives, flammables,
irritants, and sensitizers
 Toxic Chemicals:
These are poisonous, react with specific cellular
components to kill cells.
• General poisons
• Target specific poisons
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22. Attributes of Pollutants
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23. Attributes of Pollutants
Threshold Levels
Minimal level beyond which harmful effects become evident.
Persistence
Long stay in the environment in unchanged condition, Most of
the persistent pollutants (except metals) are human made.
Synergism
Certain combinations of pollutants may be more harmful than
individual pollutants.
Uranium miners who smoke tobacco have unusually high
incidence of lung cancer.
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24. NON-THRESHOLD
HARMFUL EFFECT
NON-THRESHOLD
DOSAGE
Non-threshold and Threshold Persistent Pollutants
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25. Non-Persistent Pollutants
Such pollutants do not remain in the environment for
long time. Most of these are biodegradable. Others
decompose or get converted to inert products as a
result of chemical reactions.
Biodegradable Wastes- Garbage, food industry waste,
sewage, animal waste, farm waste, etc.
Non-biodegradable- These are essentially synthetic
substances. Most of these break down as a result of
chemical oxidation or hydrolysis. Organophosphates
are typical examples.
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26. Persistence
 Some pollutants remain dangerous indefinitely-Beryllium,
Lead, Mercury
 Pesticides- persistence is defined as time needed for the
pesticide level to reduce to less than 25% of the original.
Chlordane 5 years
DDT 4 years
Dieldrin 3 years
Picloram 1.5 years
2,4,5-T 5 months
2,4-D 1 month
Inorganic-Hg Organic-Hg takes 10-100 yrs
(Methyl-Hg)
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27. Examples-DDT, PCBs, Metals
DDT accumulates in food chain and causes death in high
concentrations.
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are highly stable compounds that
resist changes from heat, acids, bases and oxidation. These are used in
transformers and electrical capacitors, inks, plastics, tapes, paints,
glue, waxes and polishes. PCBs are harmful to fish and other aquatic
forms of life because they interfere with reproduction. In humans,
PCBs produce liver ailments and skin lesions. In high concentrations
they damage the nervous system and they are suspected carcinogens.
Metals such as Hg, Be, Pb, Cd, etc are toxic. Some metals produce
kidney and liver disorders, weaken bone structure, damage central
nervous system, cause blindness and lead to death.
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28. Organisms occurring higher on the food pyramid tend to
have increasingly greater concentration of toxic
substances in their tissue. (Note: ppm=parts per million)
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29. Long-distance Movement of
Pollutants
 Radioactive fall out from atmospheric nuclear
tests is detectable throughout the world within
days or weeks.
 DDT etc., developed for pesticidal use in 1930s
for military application, and released for civilian
use in 1945, have been detected up to 100 ppb in
liver and other parts of animals that never go north
of antarctic ice zone.
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30. Synergism and Antagonism
 Combined effects of two or more pollutants are more
severe or even qualitatively different from the
individual effects. This is synergism.
 Increase in toxicity of a pollutant due to another
pollutant is potentiation. Aerosols of soluble salts of Fe,
Mn, and V increase the toxicity of sulfur dioxide.
 Sometimes combined effect reduces the severity rather
than increasing, this is known antagonism. Cyanide is
toxic to aquatic life in presence of Zn or Cd, but is less
toxic in presence of Ni due to a complex formation.
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31. Three kinds of chemical interactions: antagonism (B cancels
or subtracts from A), additivity (A and B have additive effects),
and synergism (A and B multiply each other’s effects).
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32. Hazardous & Toxic Chemicals
1. Ignitability
2. Corrosiveness
3. Reactivity
4. Toxicity
First three characteristics produces acute
effects likely to cause almost immediate
damage. The fourth creates chronic effects
most likely to appear over a longer time
period.
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33. Ignitability, which identifies wastes that pose a fire
hazard during routine management. Fires not only
present immediate dangers of heat and smoke but also
can spread harmful particles over wide areas.
Corrosiveness, which identifies wastes requiring
special containers because of their ability to corrode
standard materials, or requiring segregation from
other wastes because of their ability to dissolve toxic
contaminants.
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34. Reactivity (or explosiveness), which identifies
wastes that, during routine management, tend
to react spontaneously, to react vigorously
with air or water, to be unstable to shock or
heat, to generate toxic gases, or to explode.
Toxicity, which identifies wastes that, when
improperly managed, may release toxicants in
sufficient quantities to pose a substantial
hazard to human health or the environment.
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35. Physically destructive-
1. Ignitable materials are easily ignited and burn rapidly.
Examples: gasoline, paints, solvents.
2. Corrosive materials are highly acidic or alkaline. Examples:
drain and oven cleaners, chlorine.
3. Reactive materials are very active chemicals that easily
cause explosions and/or release harmful fumes. Examples:
ammonia, chlorine, gasoline.
Biologically destructive-
1. Toxic materials are harmful or fatal when consumed by
organisms in relatively small amounts. Example: Many
manufactured chemicals, pesticides, etc.
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36. What is Hazardous ?
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37. Measurement of
Pollution
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38. Measurement of Pollution
A persistent problem-
1. Low concentration
2. Synergistic effects
3. Point to point variation
4. Variation with time
5. Secondary pollutants
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39. Fractional Concentrations
Symbol Definition Fraction
ppm Parts per million 10-6
pphm Parts per hundred 10-8
million
ppb Parts per billion 10-9
ppt Parts per trillion 10-12
1 ppm ≡ 1 gram salt/tonne sugar
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40.  1 ppm phenol in water : lethal to some species of fish
 0.2 ppm SO2 in air : increase in human mortality rate
 0.02 ppm peroxybenzoyl: severe eye irritation in humans
nitrate in smog
O
C O O NO2
 0.001 ppm HF in air : injury to certain sensitive plants
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41. Extent of Pollution
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42. Extent of Pollution: Controlling
Factors
 Level of Production
 Usage Pattern
 Persistence
 Toxicity
 Biological Concentration
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43. Abatement/Control of Pollution
 Abate: Stresses the idea of progressive
diminishing
 Abatement: Derived from the word ‘abate’, means
i) to reduce in degree or intensity, ii) to put an
end to
 Control: Skill in the use of a tool, instrument,
technique, or artistic medium
To exercise restraining or directing influence over
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44. Options for Control of Pollution
 Elimination of the source
 Elimination of the waste
 Treatment of the waste to reduce deleterious
load on the environment
 Augmentation of the environmental capacity to
assimilation the waste
- Feed modification
– Equipment modification
– Process modification (wasteless processing)
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45. Waste Generation During Mineral Exploitation
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46. IT-BHU

47. 1856 First human-made industrial dye
1895 First bladder cancer case associated with
artificial dye
1957-1990 ACS recorded 10 million new chemicals
Currently ACS records 70 new chemicals every hour.
Only about 500 of the new chemicals invented every year reach a wide
market.
More than 70,000 chemicals are in everyday use worldwide and USA
alone produces over 100 million tons (91 million metric tonnes) of
SOCs per year.
Less than 1% of these have been completely evaluated as potential
health or ecological hazards.
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48.  Quantity:
5 million chemicals
5300 are commercially important
 Toxicity:
Chemical Order of Production Toxicity
Methanol 9th 1st
PCB No rank 2nd
 Persistence:
Half life > 12 months
 Biomagnifiable:
Carbon compounds are lipophilic
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49. Bioaccumulation/Bio-magnification:
Bioaccumulation of Ca137 , a fission product, increases
in the following order: Lichens < Reindeer <
Humans (Laps, Eskimos- Body burden is 10 times
greater than the people of temperate climates )
Cases of cancer after 15 to 20 years of exposure
Induction of birth defects- Mutation, Teratogenesis
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50. Water Pollution and Water
Scarcity –
Effect of Population
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51. Stream Water Quality Requirements
Stream water quality requirements are
controlled by-
 Stream Ecology: Toxicology, Solids,
Oxygen Balance, Eutrophication
 Beneficial Uses: Extractive uses, In Situ
Uses
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52. Urbanization
World
1952 AD 29%
1975 AD 39%
2000 AD 50%
India
2000 AD 33%
1975 2000 (in Lakh)
(≡ 1 million)
Kolkatta 85 129
Delhi 72 167
Chennai 78 117
Mumbai 93 170
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53. A computer-enhanced image of pollution in the Mediterranean
Sea. Red, yellow, and orange areas are concentrations of
plankton growth promoted by discharge of raw sewage. (Blue
indicates water). Many coastal cities lack sewage treatment.
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54. Population Growth
 Birth 3,50,000 per day
 Death 1,50,000 per day
 Net Growth 2,00,000 per day
13 lakhs per week (approx)
8 crores per year (approx)

55. Trends of Urbanization
Year Urban Population
1920 12% of total
1960 25% of total
2000 45% of total
2050 ?

56. Requirement/Waste Production
(Community of 10 lakh people)
 Water 565 tonnes
 Food 1800 tonnes
 Fuel 8600 tonnes
 Sewage 450 tonnes(110 tonnes solids)
 Refuse 1800 tonnes
 Air pollutants 860 tonnes

57. Growing Population
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58. Growing Population
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59. Growing Population
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60. Growing Population
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61. Water Available is Finite
Population growth is causing stiff competition
People per flow unit (106m3/year)
Central Europe
Japan 100
Eastern USA
South West USA 600
Poland
Taiwan 1000
Israel 2000
Jordan
etc.
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Population growth

62. Factors Responsible for Increasing Water
Scarcity
• Reducing Discharge in Rivers
• Increasing Pollution of Fresh Water Bodies
• Receding Ground Water Strata
• Rising TDS Level
• Rising F and As Levels
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63. Factors Responsible for Increasing Water Scarcity
• Lack of Awareness and Appreciation of the Problem at
Administrative Levels
• Typical Mindset and Lack of Scientific Temper
• Poor Infrastructure at Local Level ( Financial, Technical)
• Unconcerned Politicians and Bureaucracy
• Lack of Political Will
• Misguided Priorities at State and Central Levels
• Lack of Awareness at the Grass-root Level
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64. IT-BHU

65. IT-BHU

66. IT-BHU

67. AGRICULTURE
 Nitrogenous fertilizers
Permissible level ≤ 45 ppm/ NO3¯
Haemoglobin  Methaemoglobin
Fe(II) Fe(III)
takes O2 cannot take O2
Methaemoglobinaemia in infants (blue baby disease)
Gastro-intestinal part of adult humans and animals more favourable
to NO3¯ reduction
Amino acids + NO2¯  Nitrosamine (Carcinogenic)
 Pesticides
Persitent half life > 12 months
Biomagnification
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68. Nitrate Level in Ground Water
State Nitrate in ppm
Bihar 21.0
Gujarat 55.1
Hills 9.0
Haryana 99.5
Maharashtra 52.0
M.P. 50.0
U.P. 23.0 – 37.0
ISI/WHO 45
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69. Particulate Soluble
organic-P organic-P
Soluble ortho-
phosphate,
PO4¯ ¯ ¯
Inorganic-P
in sediments
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70. Eutrophication
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71. Eutrophication
Greek Words:
Oligo Few
Trophien To nourish
Oligotrophic Few nutrients
Meso Intermediate
Eu Well
Eutrophic Highly productive
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72. Persistence of Pesticides in Soil
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73. Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT)
H
Cl C Cl
Cl C Cl
Cl
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74. PRODUCITON OF PESTICIDES IN INDIA
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75. Number of insect species resistant to pesticides:
1935 7
1955 50
1975 330
1981 462
Cost of development of new pesticides:
1935 -
1956 1.2 m.$
1969 4.1
1977 20.0
1984 45.0
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76. Industrial Pollution
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77. COAL MAP OF INDIA
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78. MAJOR THERMAL POWER STATIONS
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79. AREAS OF HIGH SELENIUM HAZARD
AREAS OF LOW SELENIUM HAZARD
HAZARDOUS REGIONS FOR SELENIUM IN INDIA
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80. Sulfur dioxide emissions and acid precipitation from the
International Nickel Company copper smelter (background) killed
all vegetation over a large area near Sudbury, Ontario (USA).
Even the pink granite bedrock has burned black. The installation
of scrubbers has dramatically reduced sulfur emissions. The
ecosystem farther away from the smelter is slowly beginning to
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81. Pollution occurs when natural purification processes
are overwhelmed, such as by large amounts of nutrients
or poisons. Shown here is acid mine damage.
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82. Transport of Pollutants
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83. Receptors
Water
Pollution
Sources WATER Water
ENVIRONMENT exposure
Effluents
HYDROLOGY
Water Environmental
quality stress
models quantitation
Effluents
(mass/time) Concentration Exposure (to
(mass/volume of receiving water
water over some concentration
average time) over a period of
time)
Effluents Water
Standards Quality Ingestion,
Standards Contact
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84. Receptors
Air
Meteorology Sun light
Pollution
Sources AIR
ENVIRONMENT Air
exposure
Emissions
Air Environmental
quality stress
models quantitation
Emissions
(mass/time) Concentration Exposure (to
(mass/volume of receiving water
air over some concentration
average time) over a period of
time)
Emission Air Quality
Standards Standards Inhalation,
Contact
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85. DIRECT RADIATION
DEPOSITION CROPS AND INGESTION
PLANTS
PERSISTENT DEPOSITION DIRECT
POLLUTANTS AIR SOIL MAN
RADIATION
INHALATION ANIMALS INGESTION
INHALATION
DIRECT RADIATION
AQUATIC INGESTION
PLANTS
AQUATIC INGESTION
ANIMALS
PERSISTENT SURFACE OR
POLLUTANTS GROUND
LAND INGESTION MAN
WATER
PLANTS
SOIL
LAND INGESTION
ANIMALS
INGESTION
Possible Routes of Uptake of Persistent Pollutants
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86. Toxic Substances
Ingest Inhale Skin Absorption
Blood cells Distribution & Metabolism
Feces Fat
Urine Excretion Tissue Storage
Secretion Organs
Exhaled Air
ADMSE (Adsorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Storage and
Excretion) of Toxic Substances through the Body
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87. IT-BHU

88. IT-BHU

89. Effects of Air/Water
Pollutants
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90. Effects of Pollution:
– Physical
– Chemical
– Biological
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91. Effects –
Physical – Green house effect due to carbon dioxide, and other
gases. Loss of visibility due to particulates
Chemical – Acid rain, Photochemical Smog, Loss of ozone layer
Biological – Health hazard to humans, Loss of leaves, Plague of
marble
SO2 – Affects mucus membrane, causes coughing, irritation of
respiratory tract.
NOx – NO2 affects lungs, causes irritation, affects respiratory
tract
Global effects on climate and / or local / regional effects due to
toxicity of air pollutants.
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92. Effects on Materials
– Corrosion, deterioration of building materials
Effects on Vegetation:
– Leaf injury, growth retardation
– Complex changes in plant ecosystem
– Algal bloom, eutrophication
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93. Effects on Animals and Humans:
– Eye and respiratory irritation, fluorosis
– Large scale death, reduced reproduction
– Carcinogenic
– Mutagenic
– Teratogenic
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94. Global Effects:
– Green-house effect, ozone hole, changes in
biogeochemical cycles
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95. Effects of Wastewaters on Receiving Systems
Receiving System Effects
Natural Water Bodies O 2 depletion, danger to health and
safety, damage to aquatic life,
economic losses, recreational losses
Municipal Sewerage System Explosion, toxic gas hazard, corrosion
of sewer, deposition, decrease in
treatment efficiency due to over-load,
biological toxicity
Ground Water Strata Contamination of potable water
supplies by brine, metals, etc.
Land Seepage to ground or surface waters,
damage to vegetation
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96. Air Pollution: Role of Climate
(a) Normal pattern
(b) Thermal inversion
Temperature profiles: (a) During normal conditions, air temperature decreases
with altitude; thus’ pollutants ascend and mix with atmospheric gases. (b) In a
temperature inversion, however, warm air forms a lid over cooler air, thus
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97. Effects on Materials
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98. Effects of Air Pollutants on Materials
Particulates - Soot, dust, and fumes soil painted surfaces, buildings, and fabrics
Abrasion, in presence of moisture and sulphur dioxide accelerate
corrosion of steel, copper, zinc and other metals.
Sulphur dioxide – Corrosion of steel (0.02 ppm or 52 μm/m3), at 0.09 – 1 ppm
affects fabrics, leather, paint, paper, Marble and limestone.
Ozone – at 0.01 – 0.02 ppm (2.40 μm/m3) cracking of synthetic rubber, affects
fabrics (cotton, acetate, nylon and polyester)
Oxides of Nitrogen – At 0.6 – 2 ppm , over 2 – 3 months, fading of acetate, rayon
and cotton fabrics.
In presence of moisture and particulates attack nickel alloys and
brass.
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99. IT-BHU

100. IT-BHU

101. Damage Due to Acid Deposition : Sulphuric acid (H 2SO4), which is
a major component of acid deposition, reacts with limestone
(CaCO3) to form gypsum (CaSO4). Since gypsom is water soluble,
it washes away with rain. The damage to this monument is the
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result of such acid reacting with the stone.

102. Effects on Vegetation
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103. Effects of Air Pollution on Vegetation
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
Pollutant Level (ppm) and Effect
Exposure Period
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Sulphur dioxide 0.3 – 0.5, several days Bleached spots, chlorosis, chronic injury to spinach
and other leafy vegetables
Oxides of nitrogen 0.25, 8 months Increased abscission and reduced yield in citrus
plants
0.5 – 10.0, 2 days Suppressed growth of tomato
3 – 5, 21 hours Spots of mild necrosis on cotton and bean plants
25, 1 hour Acute leaf injury
Ozone 0.03, 8 hour Fleck on upper surface, necrosis and bleaching
Fluoride 0.001, 7 – 21 days Necrosis of leaf tip, grape is particularly susceptible
Ethylene 0.1, several hours & Epinasty, leaf abscission, flower dropping
0.05, several days
Photochemical smog 0.01 – 0.05, a few hours Glazing or bronzing of leaf underside, damage to
(PAN) sensitive plants, young leaves more susceptible
______________________________________________________________________________________________
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106. IT-BHU

107. Forest Decline : Many forests at high elevations in
northeastern North America have shown significant
decline, and dead trees are common.
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108. Sulfur dioxide emissions and acid precipitation from the
International Nickel Company copper smelter (background)
killed all vegetation over a large area near Sudbury, Ontario
(USA). Even the pink granite bedrock has burned black. The
installation of scrubbers has dramatically reduced sulfur
emissions. The ecosystem farther away from the smelter is
IT-BHU slowly beginning to recover.

109. Health Effects of Pollutants
(Animals and Humans)
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110. Health Effect of Air Pollution
 Air pollutants have a variety of health effect,
ranging from immediate to delayed and from
slight irritation to potentially life threatening
conditions.
 Air pollutants course many immediate effects
such as shortness of breath, eye irritation. Few
people are aware of the sources of these
problems. In extreme cases, pollutants can
become lethal.
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111. Long-term exposure to our pollutants may
result in a number of diseases, including
bronchitis, emphysema, asthma and lung
cancer.
Three groups are generally most
susceptible to air pollution, the young, the
old, and the infirm (sick).
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112. A Polish mother gives an oxygen treatment to her child who
suffers from air pollution-related respiratory disease. In some
parts of Eastern Europe and the former USSR, up to 90
percent of all children suffer from environmentally-linked
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113. Smoky cooking and heating fires may cause more ill health effects
than any other source of indoor air pollution except tobacco
smoking. Some 2.5 billion people, mainly women and children,
spend hours each day in poorly ventilated kitchens and living
spaces where carbon monoxide, particulates, and cancer-causing
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114. IT-BHU

115. Health effects of some typical fission products
Radioisotope Half-life Environmental Effect
Cesium-137 30 years Accumulates in soft
tissues, affects whole
body
Iodine-131 8 days Accumulates in
thyroid
Krypton-85 10.4 years Chemically inert
Strontium- 25 years Accumulates in bones,
90 may cause leukemia
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116. YEARLY BACKGROUND DOSE
(AVERAGE, SEA LEVEL) PROTOZOA
ICRP TOLERANCE DOSE
ALGAE
MOLLUSCS
CRUSTACEANS
FISH
MAN
10-1 1 10 102 103 104 105 106 107
DOSE (RADS.)
RELATIVE TOLERANCE OF DIFFERENT GROUPS OF ORGANISMS TO
RADIATION (DOSE REQUIRED TO KILL 50% OF INDIVIDUAL IN A
SHORT TIME).
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117. Toxic chemicals causing the greatest risk to human health
Benzene Methyl ethyl ketone
Cadmium Methyl isobutyl ketone
Carbon tetrachloride Nickel
Chloroform Tetrachloroethylene
Chromium Toluene
Cyanides Trichloroethane
Dichloromethane Trichloroethylene
Lead Xylene(s)
Mercury
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118. Effects of Hazardous and
Toxic Wastes
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119. Hazardous & Toxic Wastes: Health Effects
Irritants
Corrosiveness, caustics and other substances that
damage biological tissues on contact.
Nitric acid, sulphuric acid, ammonia, sodium
hydroxide, toxic metal (e.g. Be or Ni) fumes, ozone,
chlorine, oxides of nitrogen or sulphur,
formaldehyde, benzene hexachloride, dioxin, etc.
Skin diseases caused by irritants (dermetoses) is the
most common occupational diseases.
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120. Respiratory Fibrotic Agents
Special class of irritants that damage the lungs,
causing scar tissue formation that lowers
respiratory capacity. This group includes both
chemical reagents and particulate matter.
Silica dust – Silicosis
Coal dust – Black lung (Miners disease)
Cotton fibres – Brown lung
Asbestos fibres – Asbestosis
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121. Particulate Size and Respiratory Defense
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Particle size, μm Description Mechanism
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Greater than 10 Coarse dust, flyash Hairs at the front of the nose
(visible to the naked eye)
2 – 10 Fumes, dust, smoke Movement of cilia sweeps mucus
upwar carrying particles from wind pipe
to mouth where they can be swallowed.
Less than 2 Aerosols, fumes Lymphocytes and phagocytes in lungs
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Aeroallergenes – Substances like lead accumulate in blood, nervous and renal systems and cause
weakness, headache, lassitude, constipation, blue-line along gums.
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122. IT-BHU

123. Health Effects of Particulate Matter
Particulate matter of particle size 0.01 to 100 μm is the potential health hazard.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Conc., Accompanied by Exposure Time Effect
μm/cu m
_________________________________________________________________________________________
750 715 μm SO2/ cu m 24 hr average Increased illness
300 630 μm SO2/ cu m 24 hr average Worsening of chronic bronchitis
200 250 μm SO2/ cu m 24 hr average Increased absence if industrial workers
100-130 120 μm SO2/ cu m Annual mean Respiratory disease in children
100 30 mg SO2/ cu m/month Annual geom. mean Increased death for those beyond 50 years
80-100 30 mg SO2/ cu m/month 2 year geom. mean Increased death for those beyond 50-70years
_________________________________________________________________________________________
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124. Health Effects of Carbon Monoxide at Various Levels in Blood
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Level, % Effect
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Less than 1 No apparent effect
1.0 – 2.0 Change in behavioral performance
2.0 – 5.0 Effects on central nervous system – impairment of time interval discriminations,
visual acuity, brightness discrimination, other psychomotor functions
5.0 – 16.0 Damage to cardiac and pulmonary functions
16.0 – 20.0 Fatigue
20.0 – 30.0 Nausea, Headache
30.0 – 40.0 Severe headache, Nausea and Vomiting, Dizziness
40.0 – 50.0 Slurring of speech, Coma
50.0 – 60.0 Convulsions, Coma
60.0 – 80.0 Respiratory failure, Death
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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125. Health Effects of Sulphur Dioxide
It affects mucus membrane, causes coughing and irritation of respiratory tract. It also affects plants by
causing leaf injury. Buildings also get affected.
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Concentration, ppm Exposure time Effects
_____________________________________________________________________________
0.06 No effect
0.15 – 0.25 1 – 4 days Cardio-respiratory response
1.0 – 2.0 3 – 10 months Cardio-respiratory response
2.0 – 5.0 Tightness in chest
5.0 1 hour Severe distress, nose-bleeding
Greater than 20 Eye irritation, digestive tract damage
400 – 500 Dangerous
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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126. Health Effects of Oxides of Nitrogen
Out of all the oxides of nitrogen NO is less toxic. Nitrogen dioxide causes irritation in respiratory tract
and affects lungs.
___________________________________________________________________________________________
Concentration, ppm Exposure Effect
___________________________________________________________________________________________
0.061 – 0.1 2 – 3 years Increase in acute respiratory disease
Upto 0.1 6 months Increase in acute bronchitis in school children
0.12 <24 hours Human olfactory threshold
5 10 min Increase in air way resistance
90 30 min Pulmonary edema
_____________________________________________________________________________
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127. Health Effects of Ozone and Photochemical Smog
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Concentration, ppm Exposure Effect
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Ozone
0.1 – 1.0 1 hour Increased air way resistance
1.0 – 3.0 2 hours Fatigue, lack of coordination
>2.0 2 hours Severe cough
9.0 - Pulmonary edema
Total Oxidants
0.1 Instantaneous Eye irritation
0.05 – 0.06 1 hour Aggravation of asthma
0.03 – 0.3 1 hour Impaired performance of athletes
__________________________________________________________________________________________
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128. Cancer
Cancer rates have been rising in most industrialized
countries, and cancer is now the second leading killer in
USA, killing about 500,000 people annually. According to
American Cancer Society, 1 in 2 males and 1 in 3 females
in USA will have some form of cancer in their lifetime.
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129. Estimated Causes of Cancer Deaths
Factor Percentage of Total Cancer Deaths
Tobacco 30
Alcohol 3
Diet 35
Reproductive and sexual behavior 7
Occupation 4
Food additives <1
Pollution 2
Industrial products <1
Sunlight, ultraviolet light, other radiation 3
Medicines, medical procedures 1
Infections or inherited factors 13
TOTAL 100
(Source: Data from R.Doll and R.Peto, “Avoidable Risks of Cancer in the U.S., “Journal of the
National Cancer Institute 66 [1981]: 1191-1308)
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130. Carcinogens
Substances that cause cancer- invasive, out of
control cell growth that result in malignant tumors.
Some experts blame synthetic chemicals in our
food and environment for this problem. Where as
some put the blame on lifestyle (smoking,
sunbathing, alcohol).
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131. Cigarette smoking is one of the most hazardous indoor air pollutants.
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132. Common Carcinogenic Chemicals
Benzene
Carbon tetrachloride
Chloroform
Trichloroethylene
Chromium (VI) oxide
Chromates and dichromates
Benzidine
Sec-butyl bromide (2-bromobutane)
Tert-butyl bromide (2-bromo-2-methylpropane)
Diazomethane
Ethylene dibromide (1, 2-dibromoethane)
Ethylene dibromide (1, 2-dibromoethane)
Hydrazine
Isobutyl bromide (1-bromo-1-methylpropane)
Methyl iodide (iodomethane)
Naphthylamine (1-aminonapthalene)
Naphthylamine (2-aminonapthalene)
Semicarbazide hydrochloride
1, 1, 2-trichloroethane
Urethane (Ethyl carbamate)
IT-BHU Vinyl chloride

133. Most Common Non-Carcinogenic Solvents
Acetic Acid Formic acid
Acetic anhydride Hexane
Acetonitrile Methylene chloride
(Dichloromethane)
Acetone Petroleum ether
Alcohols Pyridine
Diethylether (Ether) Tetrahydrofuran
Dymethylformamide Toluene
Dimethyl sulfoxide Water
Esters Xylenes
Ethylene glycol
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134. Chronic Health Effects
Chromic bronchitis – a persistent inflammation of the
bronchial tubes, which carry air into lungs. Symptoms-
persistent cough, mucus buildup, and difficulty in
breathing.
Cause -
• Cigarette smoking (active and passive)
• Urban air pollutants (SO2 , NO2 , O3, are the
causative agents)
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135. Emphysema
Continued exposure to air pollutants through breathing
affects oxygenation capacity of lungs. When such people
become older, the small air sacs, or alveoli, in their lungs
break down. This reduces the surface area for the exchange
of oxygen with blood. Breathing becomes more and more
labored. When surface area is reduced by 40% victims
suffer shortness of breath even when exercising lightly.
Cause -
• Cigarette smoking (80% cases)
• Urban air pollutants
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136. Urban air pollution and emphysema: Incidence of emphysema in
Winnipeg and St. Louis. Note the increased incidence of
emphysema in all three age groups in the more polluted urban
IT-BHU environment of St. Louis.

137. Bronchial Asthma
 A chromic disorder, marked by periodic episodes of wheezing and
difficulty breathing.
 Caused by allergic reaction to common stimulants such as dust,
pollen, and skin cells (dander) from pets. In some individuals
pollution may trigger asthma attacks.
 During such attacks passage way that carry air to the lungs
(bronchi and bronchioles) fill with mucus, making breathing
difficult. Irritants also stimulate the contraction of smooth muscle
cells in the walls of the smallest air carrying ducts, the
bronchioles, making it even more difficult to breathe.
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138. Asphyxiants
Chemicals that exclude oxygen or interfere with the oxygen
uptake and distribution. These are of two types- passive and
active.
Passive Asphyxiants – Nitrogen, methane, carbon dioxide.
These are inert, exclude oxygen by filling enclosed spaces
like- mines, unused wells, caves, farm soils.
Active Asphyxiants – Carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide,
hydrogen sulphide, aniline. These are active and react with
blood or lung tissue to prevent oxygen uptake. These are toxic
even in low concentrations and their effects are irreversible.
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139. Sensitizers or Allergens
These activate the immune system. Some act as direct antigens and some
after binding to another molecule and changing their structure or
chemistry.
Formaldehyde is a good example. It is both directly and indirectly
allergenic. People exposed to formaldehyde in plastics, wood products,
glue, insulation, fabrics, etc. become hypersensitive to formaldehyde and
several other materials. This is called “sick house” syndrome.
Immune System Depressants
These suppress the immune system. PCB’s and several other substances
come under this category. Exact mechanism of their action is not known,
probably they disrupt the endocrine hormone function and make the host
susceptible to a variety of infections.
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140. Neurotoxins
These are special metabolic poisons, that specifically attack
nerve cells (neurons).
Heavy metals – Hg, Pb, kill nerve cells and cause permanent
neurological damage.
Anesthetics – Ether, chloroform, halothane, etc., and
chlorinated hydrocarbons (DDT, Dieldrin, Aldrin) disrupt cell
membranes necessary for nerve action.
Organophosphates (Malathion, Parathion), and carbamates
(carbaryl, zeneb, maneb) inhibit acetylcholinesterase, an
enzyme that regulates signal transmission between nerve cells
and the tissues and organs they innervate.
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141. Mutagens
These are chemicals and radiation that damage
genetic material (DNA) in cells. This can lead to birth
defects if the damage occurs during embryonic or
fetal growth. Later in life, genetic damage may
trigger neopalstic (tumor) growth. When damage
occurs in reproductive cells, the defect can be passed
on to future generations. Cells have repair mechanism
to detect and repair damaged genetic material, but
some changes may be hidden, and the repair process
itself can be flawed. There is no threshold for
exposure to mutagens. Any exposure has some
possibilities of causing damage.
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142. Teratogens
These are chemicals or other factors that specially
cause abnormalities during embryonic growth and
development. Some compounds that are not
otherwise harmful may cause tragic problems in these
sensitive stages of life.
Thalidomide caused birth defects and fetal alcohol
syndrome are typical examples teratogenic problems.
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143. Infant development occurs over three periods: pre-embryonic,
embryonic and fetal. Each bar indicates when an organ
system develops. The yellow portions indicate periods most
sensitive to agents that can cause major birth defects.
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144. Effects of Acid Deposition on Organisms: The low pH of the water in
which this fish lived caused the abnormal bone development that ultimately
resulted in the death of the fish.
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145. A mother from Minamata, Japan, bathes her daughter, who suffered
permanent brain damage and birth defects from mercury-contaminated
seafood the mother ate while pregnant. This kind of poisoning is now
IT-BHU known as Minamata Disease.

146. The deformed beak of this young robin is thought to be due to dioxins,
DDT, and other toxins in its mother's diet.
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147. Thalidomide
Thalidomide (marketed under trade name Cantergan) was
the most popular sleeping pill in Europe during 1970s. It
seemed to have no unwanted effect and was sold without
prescription. When used by pregnant women, however, it
caused abnormal fetal development resulting in
phecomelia (seal-like-limbs), in which there is a hand or
foot but no arm or leg. There is evidence that taking a
single pill of thalidomide during the first week of
pregnancy is sufficient to cause tragic birth defects.
Altogether at least 12,000 children were affected before
this drug was withdrawn from the market.
Thalidomide is effective in treating leprosy. It is being
tried for treating cancer, AIDS, retinal degeneration, and
tissue rejection in organ transplant.
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148. Development of this baby’s arms and legs was blocked when its mother took the
sedative thalidomide early in her pregnancy. Although the drug has been banned in
Europe and North America for the past twenty years, it is still used to treat leprosy in
some tropical countries. Unfortunately, some of this potent teratogen is used by
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149. A colt born in Ukraine after the Chernobyl accident has deformed legs and
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even extra legs and hooves.

150. IT-BHU

151. Acknowledgement
 To all authors whose work has been
freely used to compile the information
contained in slides.
 To my colleagues and students who
provided critical suggestions for
improvement
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152. Thanks…..