Conservation of forest ecosystems has gained a significant part of conventions, treaties and action plans for biodiversity conservation. One major reason is the fact that forests are in many parts of the world the most “wild”, impressive and complex terrestrial ecosystems. Another reason could be the knowledge that forests are decreasing worldwide. Yet, the most important reason is probably the fact that forest science is the most developed applied on the ground nature management scientific discipline. Following the arguments presented in the previous chapter, the conservation of forest genetic diversity cannot be seen separately from the general use and management of forest resources. Each country and each region can have different approaches on the subject. The same happens with different parties of interest as well (sectors). Any forest genetic conservation effort should recognise these differences and adjust the measures designed with them. Taking the available information in account, management techniques should be developed, aiming at the optimisation of achieving multiple targets. The preservation of genetic diversity and the evolutionary adaptability of forest species should be included in these targets, in order to secure the long term functioning of forest ecosystems and the production of goods and services for society. This “management-based” approach of biodiversity – and genetic diversity – conservation is more likely to become effective, since it can reconcile the targets of forest management for production and biodiversity conservation (Figure 2). Sustainable forest management can be organized, based on the need to secure the long-term persistence of forest ecosystems (Papageorgiou et al. 2003). As a result, multiple targets can be achieved.

1. Forstgenetik und Biodiversität
The genetic component of
biodiversity in forest ecosystems

2. Biodiversity
Biodiversity is a broadly known and broadly used
concept:
– subject of international conventions,
– world summits,
– global and regional action plans,
– scientific discussions of various disciplines,
– publications,
– lectures,
– policy texts, etc.

3. Biodiversity and society
Although the awareness of the concept is not known
by a large percentage of the broad public, different
groups have used the term, such as:
– environmentalists,
– politicians,
– stakeholders and end users,
– scientists,
consultants, etc.

4. Forest biodiversity
Forest biodiversity is often referred as very high
and valuable.
Conservation of forests has gained a significant part
of conventions, treaties and action plans for
biodiversity conservation.
• forests are in many parts of the world the most
“wild” and complex terrestrial ecosystems and at
the same time the most impressive ones,
• forests are decreasing world-wide,
• forest science is the most developed applied on the
ground nature management scientific discipline.

5. While everyone is speaking about
biodiversity and all agree that it is important
and should be conserved,
almost none can describe or measure it.
There is a confusion about its meaning, its
measurement (assessment) and the
measures needed for its protection.

6. Definition of biodiversity
The term “Biodiversity” (biological diversity or
biotic diversity) was first used by Walter G. Rosen
during the preparation of the National Forum on
BioDiversity in 1986.
The first official definition (U.S. OTA 1987):
“Biological diversity refers to the variety and
variability among living organisms and the
ecological complexes in which they occur….”. In
the same text, the three main levels of biodiversity
are explained: genes, species, ecosystems.

7. Definition of biodiversity
IUCN, UNEP and WWF (1991): Caring for the
Earth: they give a definition for biodiversity:
“The variety of life in all forms, levels and
combinations. Includes the variability of
ecosystems, species and genetic diversity”.
Biodiversity became broadly known through the
1992 Earth Summit in Rio. Officials from 158
countries have signed the Convention on
Biological Diversity – CBD and 166 countries
followed in short time. The definition used here is
very similar to the ones explained above.

8. Life on Earth
A consensus exists on the meaning of the term
biodiversity.
Most definitions of the term refer to genes, species
and ecosystems.
Biodiversity is used to describe the number, variety
and variability of living organisms.
This very broad usage, embracing many different
parameters, is essentially a synonym of Life on
Earth.

10. Assessment problems
For an assessment of ecosystems and species we
will need to find first the boundaries of one unit to
the other
We know much little about most species. I.e. the
number of microorganisms at any site that are as
yet unknown to science.
We know virtually nothing of the genetics of the
majority of species on Earth.
It is currently no more possible to assess the
biodiversity of a cubic meter of forest than to
assess the biodiversity of the entire planet.

11. Failure of a definition
Definitions of biodiversity as "genes, species, and
ecosystems" fail both in theory and in practice:
1. they do not recognize the conceptual difficulties
in genes, species, and ecosystems,
2. they ignore the practical and technical problems
involved in making real-world inventories,
3. they fail to consider the incommensurabilities
between different levels (how does one equate
species with ecosystems in an area?),
4. they make no distinction in the worth of
elements of biodiversity within any given level.

12. An applied science
Biodiversity is not a theoretical concept - is
connected with conservation - an applied crisis
oriented science.
We do not need to measure biodiversity, but to
protect it. For this reason we just need to
understand biodiversity, rather than to perform a
global assessment of all possible biota.
To protect biodiversity, we need to act. We need to
answer the question "If we want to protect
biodiversity, what should we do?".

13. Different perceptions
When we are called to decide where to dedicate our
limited resources, a definition of biodiversity that
is equivalent to "Life on Earth," or "all genes,
species, and ecosystems," is of no help at all.
We must work with more restricted practical
definitions.
Conservation decision makers are not referring to all
of Life on Earth, but to a specific subset for a
specific purpose. Everyone has his / her own own
conception of what we are calling biodiversity and
that conception is shaped by their values, biases,
and interests.

15. Richness in perception
Real-life assessments and evaluations of biodiversity
are neither totally objective nor totally scientific.
Biological diversity (biodiversity) means different
things to different people.
Noss proposed a rich characterization, instead of a
single definition, for the term biodiversity.
The diversity of human conceptions of biodiversity
is a real strength rather than a failing. This is a
major hope, that biodiversity will become a part of
on-the-ground management techniques.

16. A global failure
Scientists and policy makers have so far failed to
motivate the world towards a solution to the global
loss of biodiversity.
Many books have been written about the wealth of
nature, or about the ways to measure several taxa
diversity.
The conservation of biodiversity has become for
many people an academic exercise.
“One of the main threats to global biodiversity is the
decrease of the number of taxonomists in the UK
in an extent of 7% during the last decade” (!)

17. What is wrong?
1. Biodiversity cannot be measured.
2. Most scientists measure species diversity only.
3. Even the species level is narrowed down to the
units that are easily identifiable, or just cute and
recognisable (charismatic megafauna).
4. Wrong scientific criteria for networks of
protected areas, besides their political and
managerial failure.
5. Most biodiversity (species richness) is
concerned better.
6. The dynamic character of biodiversity is
ignored (the values that make it evolve).

18. Where is the genetic component?
Genetic diversity is maybe the most underestimated
part of biodiversity conservation strategies and
activities - small paragraphs exist in all texts,
having mainly the following focus:
• they all recognise the importance of genetic
diversity for the rest of the biodiversity levels,
• they refer to the value of special genetic resources,
such as wild relatives of crop plants and
• they insist of the importance of genetic diversity
assessments, if possible in DNA sequences, etc.

19. Forest conservation genetics
Forest genetic resources are included in broader
international and national policies, strategies and
conventions, mainly as part of the broader
envornmental protection and biodiversity
conservation subject.
• In situ - actions of strict protection of rare or
endangered entities and conservation through use
in managed ecosystems in very few cases.
• Ex situ - the protection of endangered or rare tree
species and the storage of “usefull” genes.

20. An integrated approach
Conservation of forest genetic diversity cannot be
seen separately from the general use and
management of forest resources.
Each country and each region can have different
approaches on the subject. The same happens with
different parties of interest as well.
Any forest genetic conservation effort should
recognise these differences and adjust the
measures designed to them.

21. The challenge
Management techniques that will prevent
disturbances in critical ecological and genetic
processes are needed.
Biodiversity research should not become a
fragmented assessment of three different
disciplines.
It should focus on the understanding of the main
processes that keep biodiversity alive and allows
evolution in space and time.

22. The challenge
Genetic science should go on performing research
and providing information on:
• the incorporation of genetic criteria into more
general management procedures,
• the extrapolation of appropriate strategies for most
taxa from the results of studies of a few model
cases,
• the identification of the genetic aspects that may
become limiting for certain species types and
• the monitoring and evaluation of demographic
processes.

23. Besides the targeted conservation of specific
resources and units, biodiversity principles
of all levels should be integrated into
management techniques.
Biodiversity knowledge and understanding
should be included in the principles needed
for the planning of all nature related human
activities.
The challenge is to create space for all
possible approaches on biodiversity that
exist in our society.