Aims to describe the evolution of managerial principles

1. AND THEIR APPLICATIONS IN THE FIELD
OF LIBRARY AND INFORMATION
SCIENCE
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
OF MANAGEMENT
Prepared By:
Anupama Saini
B-09
BLISc
Department of Library and Information Science
University of Delhi

2. A N U P A M A S A I N I
PREVIEW
Sr. No. Topic Slide No.
1 Concept of Management 3
2 Theory in Management 4
3 The Evolutionof
Management Theory
5
4 Classificationof
Management Theories
6
5 Classical Management
Theory
7
(i) Scientific Management
Theory
9
(ii) Administrative
ManagementTheory
14
(iii) Bureaucratic
ManagementTheory
19
Criticism of Classical
ManagementTheory
23
Sr. No. Topic Slide No.
6 Neo-Classical
Management Theory
24
(i) Human Relations School 25
(ii) Behavioural Schools 30
7 Modern Management
Theory
37
(i) SystemsTheory 39
(ii) Contingency Theory 42
(iii) Organisational
Humanism
43
(iv) ManagementScience 44
8 Application of
management Theories in
the field of Library and
InformationScience
45

3. • The term ‘MANAGEMENT’ is derived from the verb which can mean: to
organise, to control, to handle, to carry out for a purpose etc.
• Management is both a science and an art. As a science it is concerned with
establishing philosophies, laws, theories, principles, processes and practices
which can be applied in various situations. However, management is not a
hard core science like physics or chemistry.
• It has more in common with the social sciences like psychology and
sociology. As an art, management is about carrying out organisational
functions through people.
• Management is as old as humanity itself, and is needed wherever there is
organised human activity.
• Management can be broadly defined as working with people to
determine, interpret and achieve organisational objectives by performing
the functions of planning, organising, staffing, leading and controlling.
• Management is a collection of processes such as decision- making,
problem-solving and action-planning. These processes involve the
management of resources viz. human, financial, material and time.
CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT
A N U P A M A S A I N I

4. • The chaos caused by the proliferation of management theories is aptly
called `the management theory jungle' (Koontz, 1961) and a strong need
for a unified and integrated theory of management was felt.
• A number of theoretical approaches with varying hypotheses, assumptions
and propositions have emerged.
• Lack of adequate concept formation is considered a serious drawback in
the development of a unified and integrated management theory.
• Since management is an applied science, it lacks coherent theoretical
concepts of its own. Management scholars have borrowed and applied
concepts from other disciplines.
• Thus, management theory has evolved in a symbiotic relationship to its
related and supporting disciplines like mathematics, statistics and
behavioural sciences, depriving the motivation to devise its own
conceptual framework independent of related disciplines.
• Moreover, management research has been kept psychologically and
philosophically closer to practice than to theory.
THEORY IN MANAGEMENT
A N U P A M A S A I N I

5. THE EVOLUTION OF
MANAGEMENT THEORY
A N U P A M A S A I N I

6. • Scientific Management
• Administrative Management
• Bureaucratic Management
Classical
Management
Theory
• Human Relations School
• Behavioural School
Neo-Classical
Theory
• Systems Theory
• Contingency Theory
• Organisational Humanism
• Management Science
Modern
Management
Theory
CLASSIFICATIONOF
MANAGEMENT THEORIES
A N U P A M A S A I N I

7. • Evolution:-
o Classical management theory consists of a group of similar ideas on the
management of organisations that evolved in the late 19th century and early
20th century.
o The Classical school is sometimes called the traditional school of management
among practitioners.
o This school, evolved as a result of the industrial revolution, in response to the
growth of large organisations and in contrast to the handicraft system that
existed till then.
• Branches :-
1. Scientific management,
2. Administrative principles, and
3. Bureaucratic organisation.
1. CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT THEORY
A N U P A M A S A I N I

8. • Rationale:-
o The predominant and common characteristic to all three branches is
the emphasis on the economic rationality of management and
organisation.
o Economic rationality assumes that people are motivated by economic
incentives and that they make choices that yield the-greatest
monetary benefit. Thus, to get employees to work hard, managers
should appeal to their monetary desires.
o These assumptions are based on a pessimistic view of human nature.
• Contributions of the classical school of management:-
I. Application of science to the practice of management
II. Development of the basic management functions and
III. Articulation and application of specific principles of
management.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

9. Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-
1915) is considered to be the father
of scientific management.
“Scientific management means
knowing exactly what you want
men to do and seeing that they do it
in the best and cheapest way.”
- F.W. Taylor
1.1 SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT THEORY
A N U P A M A S A I N I

10. • Evolution:-
o Scientific management is the name given to the principles and practices,
that grew out of the work of Frederick Taylor and his followers and that
are characterised by concern for efficiency and systematisation in
management.
o Taylor was supported in his efforts by Henry Gantt, Frank and Lillian Gilberth
and Harrington Emerson. All these disciples of Taylor became famous in their
own right.
o Together with Taylor they revolutionised management thinking.
• Rationale:-
o Taylor believed that following the scientific method, would provide a way to
determine the most efficient way to perform work.
o He believed that scientific management practices would benefit both the
employee and the employer through the creation of larger surplus, and hence
the organisation would receive more income.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

11. • Principles of Scientific Management propounded by
Taylor :-
Science, not rule of thumb
Harmony, not discord
Cooperation, not
individualism
Development of each and every
individual to his/her greatest efficiency
and prosperity
Maximum, not restricted
output
A N U P A M A S A I N I

12. • Contributions of the classical school of management:-
1. Introduction of functional foremanship to separate planning
functions from executive functions.
2. Standardisation and simplification of work.
3. Fatigue study, method study, time study and motion study.
4. Differential piece-wage system.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

13. • Limitations:-
1. It may not always be true that economic incentives are strong
enough to motivate workers.
2. There is no such thing as `one best way' of doing a job so far as the
component motions are concerned and hence time and motion
study may not be entirely scientific. Two studies done by two
different persons may time the same job entirely differently.
3. Separation of planning and doing a job and the greater
specialisation inherent in the system tend to reduce the need for skill
and produce greater monotony of work.
4. Advances in methods and better tools and machines eliminated
some workers, causing resentment from them.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

14. • Henry Fayol (1841-1925), a
French industrialist, is the chief
architect and the father of the
administrative management
theory.
• He is also known as father of
management thought.
1.2 ADMINISTRATIVE MANAGEMENT
THEORY
A N U P A M A S A I N I

15. • Evolution:-
o While pioneers of the scientific management tried to determine the best way to
perform a job, those in the administrative management explored the possibilities of
an ideal way to put all jobs together and operate an organisation.
o Thus, the emphasis of administrative or general management theory is on finding
`the best way' to run an organisation.
o In addition to Henry Fayol, other prominent exponents include Chester I Barnard
and Colnel Lyndall Urwick (a British management expert).
• Rationale:-
o Fayol focused on managerial levels and the organisation as a whole. His perspective
extended beyond the shop level and the physical production processes and was macro
in nature.
o He focused on the managerial activity and propounded that fundamental functions of
any manager consists of planning, organising, commanding, coordinating and
controlling.
o He emphasised that the process of management is the same at any level of an
organisation and is common to all types of organisations.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

16. 14 Principles of Administrative Management propounded
by Fayol :-
ANUPAMASAINI

17. • Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick
adopted Fayol’s ideas and restated
the functions under the catchword
‘POSDCORB’ in 1937.
• It was developed as a means to
structure and analyse management
activities.
• It stands for seven functions to be
performed by management.
A N U P A M A S A I N I
POSDCORB

18. • Limitations:-
1. Many of the principles of this school, including those of Fayol, are
contradictory and have dilemmas.
2. These principles are based on a few case studies and they are not
empirically tested.
3. These principles are stated as unconditional statements and valid under
all circumstances which is not practicable.
4. These principles result in the formation of mechanistic organisation
structures which are insensitive to employees' social and psychological
needs. Such structures inhibit the employees' self actualisation and
accentuate their dependence on superiors.
5. This school does not consider sociology, biology, psychology,
economics, etc. as relevant to be included within the purview.
6. These principles are based on the assumption that organisations are
closed systems. According to this school of thought employees tend to
develop an orientation towards their own departments rather than
towards the whole organisation.
7. The rigid structures created by these principles do not work well under
unstable conditions.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

19. Max Weber, a German sociologist,
propounded the theory called
principle of bureaucracy – a theory
related to authority structure and
relations in the 19th century.
1.3 BUREAUCRATIC MANAGEMENT
THEORY
A N U P A M A S A I N I

20. • Evolution:-
o According to Max Weber, bureaucracy is the formal system of
organization and administration designed to ensure efficiency and
effectiveness.
o He suggested an ideal model for management as bureaucratic approach.
• Rationale:-
o In the late 1800s, Max Weber criticized organizations for running their
businesses like a family. Weber believed this informal organization of
supervisors and employees inhibited the potential success of a company
because power was misplaced. He felt that employees were loyal to their
bosses and not to the organization.
o Weber believed in a more formalized, rigid structure of organization known
as a bureaucracy. This non-personal view of organizations followed a formal
structure where rules, formal legitimate authority and competence were
characteristics of appropriate management practices.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

21. • Principles of Bureaucratic Management propounded by
Weber :-
A N U P A M A S A I N I

22. • Limitations:-
1. Too much of red-tapism and paperwork not only lead to unpleasant
experiences, but also to inefficient operations.
2. Since employees are impersonally and are expected to rely on rules
and policies, they are unwilling to exercise individual judgment and
avoid risks. Consequently their growth, creativity, development,
and even initiative suffer considerably.
3. Machine like treatment makes employees, unconcerned about the
organisation, and exhibit indifference regarding the organisation and
job performance.
4. Bureaucracy expects conformity in behaviour rather than
performance.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

23. 1.4 CRITICISM OF CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT
THEORY
1. The notion of rational economic person is often strongly
criticised. The assumption that people are motivated primarily by
economic reward might have been appropriate around 1900
A.D., and for a few people today.
2. Organisations have grown more complex and hence require more
creativity and judgment from employees.
3. All pervasiveness of principles of management is also questioned.
With changes in objectives, approaches, structures and
environment, organisations may have to have some changes in
principles.
4. The principles propounded by the classical theory are not
vigorously scientific and thus did not stand the test of time.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

24. • Evolution:-
o As a reaction to schools of classical theory, which over emphasised the
mechanical and physiological characters of management, came up the schools
of neoclassical theory, with a more human-oriented approach and emphasis
on the needs, drives, behaviours and attitudes of individuals.
o Neo-classical theory evolved during the period of 1920s-1950s.
o Another impetus was the development of the concepts of industrial
psychology around the same time.
o Two important groups, namely, human relations school and behavioural
schools emerged during 1920s and 1930s under the neoclassical theory.
o The human relations movement of the 1940s and the 1950s filled many gaps
in knowledge. about business organisations, but it did little to fill major gaps
in management theory, or to create a new and viable theory of management.
2. NEO-CLASSICAL MANAGEMENT THEORY
A N U P A M A S A I N I

25. Elton Mayo is considered as the
father of the human relations
movement.
2.1 HUMAN RELATIONS
SCHOOL
A N U P A M A S A I N I

26. • Evolution:-
o Apart from Elton Mayo, the other two important co-researchers of
this school are F.J. Roethlisberger and William J Dickson.
o Mayo, Roethlisberger and Dickson conducted studies, at the
Hawthorne, Illinois plant of Chicago Western Electric Company,
which became famous as the Hawthorne experiments or studies
later.
o They felt that, if the best work environment could be determined
(just as the best way to perform the job could be determined by
scientific management), then workers would be more efficient and
become less tired.
o They set up test groups, for which changes were made in lighting,
frequency of rest periods, and working hours and control groups,
for which no changes were made.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

27. • Rationale:-
o They believed that organisations always involve interrelationships
among members and that it is the manager's role to see that
relationships are as conflict-free as possible, in order to accomplish
the organisation's objectives.
o They believed that the human aspect of business organisations had
been largely ignored.
o They felt that satisfaction of psychological needs should be the
primary concern of the management.
o Mayo and his colleagues arrived at two important conclusions:
(i) existence of strong informal groups ,
(ii) employees' behaviour at work is affected by pan economic
factors.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

28. • Observations of Human Relations School propounded
by Mayo, Roethlisberger and Dickson :-
A N U P A M A S A I N I

29. • Limitations:-
1. Human relations school emphasised only human variables as critical
and ignored other variables.
2. Every organisation is made of a -number of diverse social groups
with incompatible values and interests. These groups might.-
cooperate-in-some spheres and compete and clash in others. It is
practically impossible to satisfy every-body-and turn the
organisation into a big happy family.
3. This approach over-emphasises the importance of symbolic rewards
which may not be appreciated by recipient's `significant others' and
underplays the role of material rewards.
4. The human relations movement accepted many of the assumptions
of the scientific management thinkers, and it did not achieve a
major breakthrough in management theory.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

30. • The term modern behaviourism refers to the current stage of
evolution of the behavioural school of management, which gives
primacy to psychological considerations, but treats fulfillment of
emotional needs mainly as a means of achieving other primary
economic goals.
• Important behavioural scientists, who contributed in development of
behavioural school of management, are Abraham Maslow, Douglas
McGregor, Frederick Herzberg and Chester Barnard.
• It is difficult to classify all these researchers as neoclassical theorists.
Many of them should be considered as contributors to modern
management theories in general, and social system theory and
modern humanism theory in particular.
2.2 BEHAVIOURAL SCHOOLS
A N U P A M A S A I N I

31. • Motivation refers to the psychological
processes that stimulate excitement and
persistence of voluntary actions aimed
at some goal.
• Needs are psychological or
physiological insufficiencies that
provoke some type of behavioral
response. Needs theories attempt to
identify internal factors that motivate
an individual's behavior and are based
on the premise that people are
motivated by unfulfilled needs.
• One of the most popular needs theories
is Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of
needs theory. Maslow proposed that
motivation is the result of a person's
attempt at fulfilling five basic needs:
physiological, safety, social, esteem and
self-actualization.
2.2.1 HIERARCHY OF NEEDS : ABRAHAM
MASLOW
A N U P A M A S A I N I

32. • As the name of the theory indicates,
Maslow believed that these needs
exist in a hierarchical order.
• This progression principle suggests
that lower-level needs must be met
before higher-level needs.
• The deficit principle claims that a
once a need is satisfied, it is no longer
a motivator because an individual
will take action only to satisfied
unmet needs.
• If you look at this pyramid you can
see how Maslow's needs are
organized with basic physiological
needs, such as air, food, water and
sleep, at the bottom and the idea of
self-actualization, or when a person
reaches the full potential in life, at
the top.
MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
THEORY
A N U P A M A S A I N I

33. • Theory X and Theory Y are
theories of human motivation.
• These were created and
developed by Douglas
McGregor at the MIT Sloan
School of Management in the
1960s.
• Theory X and Theory Y have to
do with the perceptions that
managers hold of their
employees, which in turn
influence their management
style.
2.2.2 THEORY X AND THEORY Y :
DOUGLAS MCGREGOR
A N U P A M A S A I N I
Douglas McGregor

34. THEORY X & THEORY Y
A N U P A M A S A I N I

35. • The two-factor theory (also known
as Herzberg's motivation-hygiene
theory and dual-factor theory)
states that there are certain factors
in the workplace that cause job
satisfaction, while a separate set of
factors cause dissatisfaction.
• It was developed
by psychologist Frederick Herzberg,
who theorized that job satisfaction
and job dissatisfaction act
independently of each other
2.2.3 TWO-FACTOR THEORY : FREDERICK
HERZBERG
Frederick Herzberg
A N U P A M A S A I N I

36. TWO FACTOR THEORY
A N U P A M A S A I N I

37. • Evolution:-
o Modern management theory highlights, the complexity of the organisation as
well as individuals and the diversity of their needs, motives, aspirations and
potentials.
o As a result, one time status or universal management principles are
impracticable. The complexities require intricate managerial strategies for
dealing with people and organisation.
• Branches :-
1. Systems Theory
2. Contingency Theory
3. Organisational Humanism
4. Management Science
3. MODERN MANAGEMENT THEORY
A N U P A M A S A I N I

38. • Rationale:-
o As against the rational economic man of the classical theory and the social
person view of neoclassical theory, the complex employee view is the
premises of modern management theory.
o The complex employee view holds that people are both complex and
variable. They have many motives, learn new motives through experience and
motives vary from organisation to organisation and department to
department.
o There is no single managerial strategy that works for all people at all times .
o This stage of management theory represents the work of revisionist researchers
combining streams of efforts in the behavioural sciences with those in
mathematics, statistics, and the use of computers.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

39. • The classical theory emphasised the
`task', `structure' and `efficiency'
and the neoclassical theory
emphasized 'people'. Systems theory
has come up as via media with an
integrated and holistic approach to
management problems.
• Chester Barnard, George Homans,
Philip Selznick and Herbert Simon
are some of the advocates of the
systems theory.
3.1 SYSTEMS THEORY
Chester Barnard
A N U P A M A S A I N I

40. • A system is an entity made up of two
or more interdependent parts that
interact to form a functioning
organism. An organisation, human
body, a flower and a tree are
examples of a system (anything and
everything is a system).
• A system can either be open or
closed. An open system interacts with
its environment.
• Traditional organisation theorists
regarded organisation as closed
systems, while modern view is to
treat it as an open system, having
constant interaction with its
environment.
SYSTEM’S THEORY
• An organisation is an open system that interacts regularly with external forces such as
government agencies, customers and suppliers. These external forces have an impact
on organisation practices. A N U P A M A S A I N I

41. • The open system concept is the
first part of the two parts of
systems theory.
• The second part is the impact of
changes within an organisation.
• The changes in one part of the
organisation affect all other parts
of the organisation.
• This interdependence
complicates the manager's job.
• The boundaries of open systems
are permeable or penetrable,
flexible and changeable
depending upon its activities.
• The function of the management
is to act as a boundary-linking pin
among the various subsystems
within the organisational system.
SYSTEM’S THEORY
A N U P A M A S A I N I

42. • The contingency approach stresses the
absence of a single best way to manage and
emphasises the need for managerial
strategies based on all relevant facts.
• Wide range external and internal factors
must be considered and then the focus
should be on the action that best fits the
given situation.
• This approach, in a way attempts to
integrate the various schools of
management thought, otherwise it is
obvious that the principles and concepts of
various schools have no general and
universal applicability under all conditions.
• The contingency approach suggests that
managers should be able to identify which
technique, in a particular situation, will best
contribute to the attainment of
management goals.
• In other words, managers should develop a
sort of situational sensitivity and practical
selectivity.
3.2 CONTINGENCY THEORY
• Contingency approach is
most applied in the activities
of motivating, leading and
structuring the organisation,
employee development and
training, decisions of
decentralisation,
establishment of
communication and control
systems, and planning
information decision
systems.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

43. • This school of thought is an extension
of behavioural schools of neoclassical
theory.
• Some of the researchers like Douglas
McGregor and Abraham Maslow,
mentioned under behavioural schools,
are the propounders of organisation
humanism or the modern behavioural
school.
• The underlying philosophy of this
school is ‘self-actualizing view.
• According to this view, employees are
primarily self-motivated and self-
controlled and react negatively to
externally imposed controls. If
allowed to become self-actualised,
employees will integrate the goals
with those of the organisation. Self-
actualization refers to reaching one's
potential i.e., ultimate use of personal
skills.
3.3 ORGANISATIONAL HUMANISM
• Hence, unnecessary rules, rigidly
designed jobs and inflexible
supervision should be avoided.
Employees should have greater
freedom and satisfaction at work.
• Self-actualised employees, are highly
motivated and produce organisational
benefits, that cannot be achieved in
the bureaucratic organisation.
• The best role for a manager is to
challenge employees, develop their
decision making skills, and allow them
to seek responsibility.
• Organisational humanism is criticized
on the ground that it is difficult to
believe that every employee seeks self-
actualisation at work.
A N U P A M A S A I N I

44. • Management Science should not be confused with scientific management of
classic theory. However, the management science approach, also known as
quantitative approach, has evolved from the early application of some of the
scientific management techniques of classical theorists.
• Because of the complexities of organisations, today's managers are required to
have more and better information in order to make effective decisions.
• The management science approach proposes the use of quantitative technique
to aid decision making.
• Despite voluminous data to be analysed and sophisticated computations to be
done, a wide variety of quantitative tools have been developed and high-
speed computers deployed in the analysis of information.
• This approach gained momentum during the Second World War, when
interdisciplinary groups of scientists, called Operations Research Teams, were
engaged to seek solutions to many complex problems of war.
• Tools such as linear programming, queuing theory, simulation models, CPM,
PERT, inventory-control and quality control tools are extensively used in this
approach.
3.4 MANAGEMENT SCIENCE
A N U P A M A S A I N I

45. • The library is a social
institution. The aim of a library
is to ensure maximum use if its
reading materials by users.
• Hence, a librarian, besides
being a scholar, should also
understand the basic principles
of business management. He is
a manager of an enterprise and
should have adequate
managerial acumen.
• In the following slides,
application of some of the
general management principles
to library have been discussed.
APPLICATION OF MANAGEMENT THEORIES IN LIBRARY
AND INFORMATION SCIENCE FIELD
A N U P A M A S A I N I

46. APPLICATION OF MANAGEMENT PROCESS IN
LIBRARIES
A N U P A M A S A I N I
• Planning is about systematically making decisions about the library goals.
Planning
• Organizing is about assembling and coordinating human, financial, physical,
informational, and other resources needed to achieve library goals.
Organising
• Staffing is about identifying the requirement of the workforce, recruitment,
selection, placement, promotion, appraisal, training and development of the
personnel.
Staffing
• Directing is about functions that involve efforts on the part of the librarian to
stimulate high performance by employees
Directing
• Controlling about monitoring various library operations and services.
Controlling

47. APPLICATION OF SOME MANAGEMENT
PRINCIPLES IN LIBRARIES
A N U P A M A S A I N I
Unity of Command
• There should be
unity in planning and
its implementation
devices.
• The staff should be
headed by a
Librarian, who, in
turn, is guided by a
Library
Board/Committee.
Discipline
• Every library frames
a set of rules for
regulating its services
to members and the
maintenance of its
operations.
• Rules are framed
keeping in mind the
library objectives and
members interests.
• As far as possible
rules should be
explicit, free from
any ambiguity.
Delegation of
Authority
• In order to achieve
proper co-ordination
and strategic
leadership, authority
is delegated in
libraries.
• For example, the
deputy librarians are
delegated the work
of surveillance in the
library and reporting
their observations to
the librarian.

48. APPLICATION OF SOME MANAGEMENT
PRINCIPLES IN LIBRARIES
A N U P A M A S A I N I
Departmentalisation
• To ensure
specialisation and
division of work,
assignment of jobs is
done after proper job
analysis.
• Consequently, various
departments are
established in a
library like acquisition
department,
processing
department, reference
services department,
etc.
Limited Span of
Control
• For efficient
administration of the
library, it is ensured
that there should be
as few people to be
controlled directly by
each other as
possible.
• Hence, more than
one deputy librarians
are appointed in big
libraries.
Parity of Responsibility
and Authority
• While devolving
responsibility upon an
official in a library,
care should be taken
that he/she is
bestowed with
corresponding
powers.
• Hence, a librarian has
the maximum
amount of authority
as he/she is
responsible for the
efficient functioning
of the entire library.

49. APPLICATION OF SOME MANAGEMENT
PRINCIPLES IN LIBRARIES
A N U P A M A S A I N I
Leadership
• The librarian should
have qualities of a
leader so that the
subordinates derive
inspiration from
him/her.
• He/she should be
well-qualified, hard-
working, intelligent,
pro-active,
motivating and
inspiring.
Order
• To maintain the
operations of the
library efficiently, there
should be order in the
placement of men and
material.
• All the departments
should be arranged
logically to save the
time of the user. The
various information
resources should be
kept in classified order.
• The people should be
assigned jobs as per
their qualifications.
Coordination
• After establishing the
various departments,
it becomes very
essential that proper
co-ordination
between departments
is ensured.
• This can be achieved
by holding regular
meetings of the
respective
department heads
and meetings within
the departments as
well.

50. APPLICATION OF SOME MANAGEMENT
PRINCIPLES IN LIBRARIES
A N U P A M A S A I N I
Scalar Chain
• There must be a clear
line of formal
authority running
from top to bottom of
a library.
• The diagram on the
right is an example of
how a scalar chain
sort of organisation
structure works in a
library.

51. Davis, Keith, and Newstrom, John W. Human Behaviour at Work:
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