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An Incentive Approach to Natural Resource Management;
1. An Incentive Approach to Natural Resource Management;
Reconciling beliefs and values with incentives for natural resource management
An Instrumental Case Study from Senegal
Angela Adrar
PIM 62
Capstone Seminar May 24, 2008
Advisor: James Breeden
A Capstone Paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of
Science in Organizational Management at the School for International Training in
Brattleboro, Vermont, USA.
3. DEDICATION
For my dedicated father, Victor Mario Gaviria,
for making us; his family and his number one priority.
ii
4. “Ku la abal i tànk, nga dem fa ko neex.”
If someone lends you their legs, you will go where they please.
_________________________________________________
Wolof Proverb
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5. TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................. v
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................... vi
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................ vii
Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................. 1
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 2 ........................................................................................................................... 10
Literature Review.............................................................................................................. 11
Pro-environmental Behavior ............................................................................................. 18
Case Study: Egypt ............................................................................................................. 20
Chapter 3 ........................................................................................................................... 22
Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 22
Chapter 4 ........................................................................................................................... 25
Presentation and Analysis of Data .................................................................................... 25
Beliefs ............................................................................................................................... 26
Values ............................................................................................................................... 29
Incentives .......................................................................................................................... 32
Chapter 5 ........................................................................................................................... 37
Conclusions and Recommendations ................................................................................. 37
Applicability ..................................................................................................................... 39
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 41
APPENDIX ....................................................................................................................... 44
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6. LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CERP- Centre d’Expansion Rurale Polyvalent
CLGB- Comité Local pour la Gestion de la Biodiversité
FAO- United Nations-Food and Agriculture Organization
GIE- Groupement d’Intérêts Economique
IUCN- World Conservation Union
NGO- Non Governmental Organization
PNLB – Parc National Langue de Barbarie
UCAD - Université Cheikh Anta Diop
USAID- United States Agency for International Development
WCED- World Commission on Environment and Development
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7. ABSTRACT
I seek to explore, using the National Park of the Langue de Barbarie in Senegal as a
case study, whether value types based on Schwartz’ Theory of Value Dimensions (1992) are
more likely to promote pro-environmental behavior than others in developing countries and
answer whether current incentives can not only motivate short term reactions but change long
term behavior towards the environment.
This instrumental case study is an extension of my work from 2003 to 2007 as an
ecotourism volunteer with Peace Corps and later, an Independent Ecotourism Consultant for
various national parks in Senegal. Supporting data was gathered from personal and
participant observations, national park and eco-guard annual reports. Informal interviews
with local community and association members, representatives of the national park, eco-
guards and questionnaire responses are included to substantiate conclusions on values and
pro-environmental behavior in the public and private sphere.
Research findings suggest that long term pro-environmental behavior is influenced by
internal factors rooted in beliefs and values that are independent to cost analysis calculations.
The research is applicable for leaders or stakeholders and behaviorists interested in
intercultural values for environmental conservation. The study suggests that beliefs and
values regarding health, family, security, conformity and tradition, typically considered
negative predicators of pro-environmental behavior in advanced developed societies,
promote pro-environmental behavior in rural societies. I recommend that any incentive
package that is to lead to long term pro-environmental behavior in developing countries
compliment economic incentives with indirect incentives which embrace the above
mentioned values targeting them appropriately and consistently with the culture.
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8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Words cannot express the appreciation I have for Assane Ndoye and Mamadou Sidibé, the
National Park Langue de Barbarie Conservationists for their positive energy and inspiring
concern for the development of the community and the conservation of the environment and
to the Ecoguards of Gandiol, who first showed me Gandiol and whose hard work and vision,
characterize the bright future of Senegal. Jerejef Wai, to Alise Faye, the best sister that I
could ever have for helping me express myself in the local language and embrace the rich
culture of Senegal.
And immense thanks to Gandiol, the village Chief; Adama Diop, and the Gandiolese
themselves, who adopted me into their lives and taught me that the richest natural resources
that humans have are their hearts and the faith to follow it.
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9. Chapter 1
Introduction
The use of incentive packages has become an increasingly popular solution to the
environmental conservation - community development equation. They have gained
popularity with both international NGOs and governments for their role in participatory
natural resource management and have been equally praised for their ability to directly
address market forces. The underlying factor at the core of incentive packages is
collective motivation; the driving force to change a group’s behavior to effectively
manage natural resources. But in the interest of modifying collective behavior, incentive
packages have often times failed to address the beliefs and values that influence
individual and traditional motivation, a crucial factor for long term natural resource
management in both public and at home.
Background
Senegal reserves 11% of its land for the conservation of biodiversity and the
protection of its flora and fauna (Earthtrends.org). In 2003, the IUCN (World
Conservation Union) considered it a leader in state protection of nature in comparison to
the Sub-Saharan African average. Nonetheless, less than 1% of these protected areas are
designated for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems. The Minister of the
Environment of Senegal defines natural ecosystems for sustainable use as a
predominantly unmodified natural system, managed to ensure long-term protection and
maintenance of biological diversity, while also providing a sustainable flow of natural
products and services for tourist and community needs.
1
10. The current Senegalese administration has set ambitious goals for the area studied
in this paper such as the preservation of marine and coastal habitats, poverty alleviation,
and the enhancement in the quality of life of its population. It is implementing policies at
the local level by instructing park managers to use incentive packages to increase the
percentage of land reserved for the sustainable use of natural ecosystems. Nation-wide,
conventional state-imposed conservation strategies are being replaced by participatory
conservation strategies that include rural populations. In the field, park managers are
struggling to revamp outdated conservation with strategies that favor communicating
with the same rural communities that were separated from their land and resources when
national parks and reserves were created.
The incentive package developed at the National Park Langue de Barbarie will be
used as an example to illustrate challenges faced by park managers in implementing
incentives. It will furthermore, demonstrate that beliefs and values must be considered in
planning natural resource management by demonstrating the results of the incentive
package used from 2003 to 2006.
December of 2003, I joined the National Park of the Langue de Barbarie on a two
year contract as an Ecotourism and Business Peace Corps Volunteer to expand
opportunities linking economic incentives to local development. More simply put, I was
to empower community members by transferring eco-business and organizational
development skills to them. Ideally, my work was to support the new role of the national
park and facilitate the re-inclusion of the community in natural resource management
strategy for the area.
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11. In a short time I learned that in Senegal, national parks implemented these goals
at a local level using annual action plans. These plans had impressive budgets that
looked robust on paper to attract donors but fell 60% short of expectations in annual
evaluations leaving broken promises and projects unfinished1. The Langue de Barbarie
had budgetary, material and human resource constraints not only to carry out this new
park strategy and implement an incentive package but to effectively conserve the fauna
and flora that it was designated to protect. This was not a solitary case; most parks in
Senegal and in the region were facing the same challenges. On the other hand, faced with
these obstacles, motivating the local community to manage their resources seemed like
the most feasible path to conserving the unique and now fragile biodiversity of Gandiol
and the National Park of the Langue de Barbarie. A brief socio-economic and historical
background of Gandiol and the Langue de Barbarie follows.
Pre-conservation efforts
The National Park of the Langue is located in Gandiol. It has sustained large
populations of mixed ethnicities for over a thousand years in the rural area of Gandiol,
despite being situated in the arid Sahelian region of Africa. It is located only 10 miles
away from the island of St. Louis, the ancient trading capital of West Africa and not far
from the Mauritanian border. Due in large part to the natural balance of the Atlantic
Ocean, the Senegal River and the Sahelian desert, the Gandiolese have peacefully
managed to survive threats to their culture, traditional well being, and future.
In fact the flood plains and land marshes that characterize this coastal rural area
provided conditions for an affluent traditional economy. In years of normal rainfall, the
1
This information is based on the 2004 -2006 action plans for three different parks; that of the park of
Langue de Barbarie, L’ile de Madeline, and the Guembuel Reserve in Senegal.
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12. riverbanks became seasonally flooded, recharging aquifers and enriching the plains with
nutrient-rich silt. Wolof male and female farmers grew vegetables, millet and onions for
local consumption and camels would bring out crops destined for trade north to St. Louis
and Mauritania. After the harvest, herdsmen, mostly Pulaar or Maure men, moved their
cattle and sheep into the plains to feed on the post harvest remains and fertilize the land,
fish swam from the main channel of the river to the flood plains to spawn - which made it
easy for men to fish without motor boat power.
Lower Gandiol, closer to the junction between the ocean and the river, at the tip
of the Langue de Barbarie, was a complex delta-like estuary where salinity varied
according to two seasons; in the rainy season, when the rain-fed flood inundated the zone,
it became almost fresh water, and during the dry season, the water level decreased
allowing seawater to penetrated the Delta. This was essential for many marine fish and
turtles which spent a part of their life cycle in the semi-salt Senegal River and also
permitted the local inhabitants to rotate between farming and fishing according to season.
Resistant trees and plants like the Acacia nilotica tree and the Barbarie cactus were
abundant. Dry acacia branches were collected by young girls and served as excellent fire
wood, while the Barbarie cactus helped stop land erosion.
A chain of varied agricultural and river products were yielded throughout
centuries in this low rainfall Sahelian region: millet, sorghum, onions, other crops, milk,
meat, and fish. Furthermore, the sequential use of the same land allowed ethnically
distinct people to contribute to each other’s well-being, promoting social cohesion and
natural harmony in natural resource management (La Region du St. Louis, 2006).
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13. State conservation efforts
The 1970’s were characterized by an increase in national and international nature
conservation efforts. These efforts were driven mainly by the US and European wide-
held belief that nature needed protection from humanity (Dupuy, 1972). National parks
and reserves were created to protect the biodiversity of the environment from the
development of humanity. The goal was to ensure that future generations, tourists and
researchers had a place to reflect on the beauty and uniqueness of nature far from the
negative side-effects of economic development such as pollution, destruction and
contamination.
The Gandiol marine wetlands gained recognition during this time because of its
unique landscape and marine-river habitat but mostly for its wildlife. Migrant birds,
crossing hundreds of miles of Western Saharan Desert, used the Langue de Barbarie and
small land marshes surrounding it as reproductive zones. Thousands of pelicans,
flamingos, sea gulls, herons and at least 75 other species of birds would travel to the park
each year, make nests, and reproduce before the summer months arrived, making the
zone a popular nature tourist attraction. Sea turtles were also discovered to reproduce on
the Langue de Barbarie and were considered by the government to be an important
international species to conserve. The national park quickly capitalized on the tourism
benefits of its unique biodiversity at the cost of the livelihood opportunities of the local
population.
The National Park of the Langue de Barbarie was created in 1976 encompassing a
total of 7.7 square miles, (2000 hectares) and is composed of the riverbanks, the
wetlands, islets, several bird islands and the Langue de Barbarie itself. The local
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14. population was relocated 2 miles or more inland, compromising their economic
opportunities to live off of the river and upsetting the ecological, social and cultural
harmony of natural resource management sustained over generations.
Around the same time in the 1970’s, Sub Saharan West Africa, including Senegal
was suffering from droughts similar to the ones that are devastating Niger, Sudan and
Kenya today. Freshwater fish production from the Senegal River was reduced by 14,000
tons in the twelve-years the drought lasted (FAO, 1986). The drought period of the
1970’s devastated rain-fed crops in Gandiol. It severely reduced zones for flood
recession farming, and starved off much of the livestock (Kloft, 2002).
The creation of the national park further marginalized the local population
because it included most of the fertile banks of the Senegal River and limited fishing in
the river, the most precious natural resource in the area. Tight park restrictions led to the
withdrawal of many men from the fishing trade and initiated massive emigration by
males to find work elsewhere. Women were left behind to search for supplemental
sources of protein for the family diet and income for the family welfare.
To compensate for both the relocation of households due to the creation of the
park, and to encourage local flood recession and riverbank farmers to adopt irrigation
farming practices during the drought, equipment was supplied free of charge. The
government subsidized fuel, fertilizers, and seeds to be repaid after the harvest (Kloft,
2002). These subsidies were later withdrawn in the mid 1980’s due to Structural
Adjustment policies that promoted private sector activity. Only the wealthier farmers
could afford to cultivate the land. The majority of Gandiolese families were caught in a
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15. low income poverty trap. Meanwhile, the plentiful river, ocean and land within the park
remained untouched for the pleasure of tourists, researchers, and park visitors.
The relationship between the local population and park agents grew distant and
cold due in large part to a conflict of perceptions. The local population perceived their
land as occupied by military men with guns inviting foreigners to influence their youth.
Park agents perceived the local population as unsophisticated and unable to care for the
land properly. The State had taken on a full protectionist role and the population had
resigned itself to start anew elsewhere. In the late 1980’s, the government took part in a
$600 million project to construct two dams that would soon modify the water access and
electricity of the Delta for Senegal, Mauritania, and Mali and eventually alter the physical
appearance of the Langue de Barbarie forever.
In 2003, under political pressure, a canal only 3 miles from the national park was
carved out in one night in order to minimize the possibility of violent opposition from the
local population. The opening of the canal was meant to relieve flooding in St. Louis
caused by the environmental repercussions of the celebrated dam projects of the 1980’s.
The results have devastated the biodiversity that the National Park of the Langue de
Barbarie was meant to protect from the harmful hands of humanity. Due to the natural
flow and force of the river, a canal originally 8.5 yards in width continued to erode to
76.5 yards in width and widening. It has changed the ecological balance of the region and
further compromised the quality of life for the local population.
The canal has dramatically increased the level of salinity in the river and soil and
has changed the physical geography of the national park. Since the carving out of the
canal, there has been a scarcity of fish in the river and the agricultural fields at the base of
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16. the river have been abandoned because the present level of salinity in the soil and water
make it impossible to cultivate healthy crops. In a community that is economically
structured around fishing and agriculture the opening of the canal has been another sharp
blow to the livelihood of its inhabitants. The national parks, international partners, and
local group leaders are trying to find economic livelihood alternatives to traditional
employment and a balance between biodiversity conservation and social development.
A new approach to conservation
In 2003, the Lead Park Agent of the largest and oldest park in Senegal; Niokolo
Koba, was promoted by the Director of National Parks and ordered to adapt his approach
to national park management to the changing circumstances, more precisely, to the
demands of the Ministry of the Environment. Now as the new Preservationist of the
National Park Langue de Barbarie, he was to conserve and protect the flora and the fauna
within the 7.7 square miles (2000 hectares) of the park, as did the 11 Conservationists
who preceded him, but his job now required him to engage the local population
surrounding the national park in sustainable natural resource management, train
neighbors in nature awareness, and seek out opportunities for youth and women from
local associations to benefit from nature conservation.
In his new assignment the Preservationist was to tear away the philosophy of the
national park in Senegal for the last 50 years and rapidly build a new strategy that
included cooperative resource management in which incentives were to be used to bring
local people back into the nature management equation. Before we discuss the tools and
strategies that the Preservationist used to adopt a new natural resource management
approach, a brief and current overview of the physical area of research follows.
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17. Physical Area of Research
The area of research will cover the perimeter of the park and the surrounding rural
community broken down into 12 local villages at the periphery of the national park.
According to the local administrative department located in Rao, there are approximately
8300 people registered in this area (CERP, 2000). Each village has a chief representative
appointed by the Republic of Senegal. Nonetheless, all the citizens regardless of their
village consider themselves and are regarded by outsiders as Gandiolese.
The table below outlines the population of the area per village. While there are
three additional village communities in Gandiol; Bandji, Gabar, Guéngué, they fall
outside of the department of Rao, and are over 9.5 miles away from the national park.
According to my investigation, they do not interact directly with the park in any way thus
far. The following villages have historically been economically dependent on the area
that is now the national park and therefore, have been identified as the section of the
population that will be studied.
Table 1 : Gandiol population per village
Village Population in 2000
Ndiol 281
Ndiebéne 2213
Tassinére 1109
Tare 644
Nguédj 100
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18. Village Population in 2000
Mourel 22
Mouit 1420
Mbaw 712
Darou Salam 343
Gouye Réné 311
Dégou Niaye 129
Darou Mboumbaye 1029
TOTAL 8313
Chapter 2
The events mentioned above and the changing course of the national park’s role
in the community sparked my interest for further inquiry.
Research Question
Do incentive packages for natural resource management in developing countries really
lead to long term pro-environmental behavior?
Sub questions (3)
1) How do beliefs contribute to pro-environmental behavior?
2) Are certain value types more effective in promoting pro-environmental behavior
than others?
3) Can incentives not only motivate but also change long term behavior?
This research is significant and timely because, as mentioned earlier;
governments, international agencies and non-governmental organizations are dedicating a
huge amount of their effort and resources to linking development goals to the
10
19. environment. Two decades ago, the World Commission on Environment and
Development pointed out:
Conservation of living natural resources — plants, animals, and micro-organisms,
and the non-living elements of the environment on which they depend —is crucial
for development. The challenge facing nations today is no longer deciding
whether conservation is a good idea, but rather how it can be implemented in the
national interest and within the means available in each country (WCED, 1987).
And this trend has continued to be of importance in light of the accelerated rate of
globalization that reaches even the most rural societies.
Literature Review
A report released in 2005, on global attitudes and behaviors consolidated
definitions of pro-sustainable values from the Earth Charter, The UN Millennium
Declaration, the U.S. National Academy of Science and multinational groups to describe
global value trends that both help and hinder sustainable development and environmental
conservation. The report concluded there was a need for further research and
collaboration on individual and cultural pro-environmental attitudes and behaviors
(Leibowitz et al, 2005). It is apparent by the amount of research studies available, that
the field of environmental organizational behavior is growing. While sociologists are
developing journals and conferences for further research, the environmental community
has yet to catch on and fully incorporate these social findings in environmental
conservation and natural resource management strategies.
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20. The Langue de Barbarie case study presents one of the most popular community
approaches to conservation available in the majority world today; a natural resource
management incentive package. Research demonstrates that incentive packages for
natural resource management mainly focus on market driven and economic incentives
while motivation literature and research demonstrates that behavior, beliefs, and values
are often driven by variables that are independent from groups and from cost/benefit
calculations. The research explores incentive packages from a human resource
management perspective and asks whether incentive packages for natural resource
management are really encouraging communities to be more willing and able to conserve
the environment
The study includes several key terms and concepts, such as “incentive package,”
“community,” ” “motivation” and “values” that are key to understanding the research
question. As these terms are ambiguous, they will be defined here and explored at
greater length in the literature review prior to proceeding to details about the research
methodology.
Incentive package in this study refers to a plan of specific measures which can be
either positive or negative and which results in a desired behavior directed towards the
environment. These measures of motivation are included in packages that function both
directly and indirectly with the community it has been prescribed for. The incentives
address local needs, circumstances, economic activity, and broader market, policy and
institutional failures which make communities unwilling or economically unable to
conserve nature. Some direct incentives include subsidies, property rights, taxes or
12
21. access restriction to certain areas (Mountford, 143). While indirect incentives consist of
professional development, capacity building and training among other measures.
A community is made up of individuals and is a fluid term used widely in the field
of development. However, it is important to understand the context with in which it will
be used in this paper. A community can refer to a group of individuals intricately linked
to one another through the many systems that connect them, including their bio-region or
local economy. In many cases, local communities have a strong connection by either an
ethnic, religious and/or cultural heritage. The local community examined in the paper is
linked to the region of Gandiol as described earlier in the section on the physical area of
research and is linked by the natural resources available in the Langue de Barbarie and its
surrounding areas. It is also the targeted community included in the preliminary natural
resource management incentive package for the Langue de Barbarie.
Motivation refers to the result of the interaction of an individual or community
with a situation. It is the willingness to exert high levels of effort to reach goals,
conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some need. These needs may be a result of a
norm, belief, attitude, or value and the behavioral outcome is dependant on both the
quality and intensity of effort to reach a goal. (Robbins, 313) This paper will concentrate
on the needs that relate to beliefs and values as these are the precursors to norms and
attitudes and currently the most neglected when planning an incentive package.
Maslow’s well-known hierarchy of needs theory includes five types of needs that ascend
in the structure of a pyramid once a lower need has been substantially satisfied.
Physiological Needs (bodily requirements) are at the foundation of the pyramid, followed
by Safety Needs that include security and protection from bodily harm. The third level is
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22. Social Needs that are linked to belonging and relationships which move up into Esteem
Needs that consist of self-respect, status quo, autonomy and achievement. At the very
top of the pyramid are Self-Actualization Needs that involve advancement and
achievement one’s potential. According to Maslow’s theory, a substantially satisfied
need no longer motivates and therefore stimulus must address an individual’s fluid
position in the pyramid in order to be effective. (Robbins, 315)
Finally, values are the generalized internal standards that transcend specific
situations. They are few in number in comparison to attitudes and are relatively stable.
Most importantly for this study, values may guide behavior independently of cost/benefit
calculations (Rokeach, 1973). Value studies that analyzed motivation for pro-
environmental behavior in regards to recycling in the United States demonstrated that
those people who recycled also pursued higher needs of Social and Self Actualization as
opposed to non-recyclers. This indicates that in the United States, environmental
conservation is an altruistic behavior carried out by those who do not see their
physiological or safety needs threatened (Dunlap et al 1993). Different incentive
strategies need to address the needs and values of rural societies where the environment is
central to opportunities or threats to health and livelihood practices to achieve similar
pro-environmental behavior.
In order to conceptualize more complex motivating factors for behavior than
those proposed by Maslow, Shalom Schwartz (1992) developed the theory of the
universal structure of human value systems. Data was collected in 63 countries surveying
more than 60,000 individuals on 56 specific values that have consistency across cultures.
These individualist and collectivist values were broken down into a total of ten
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23. motivationally distinct priority value types that corresponded to the higher order values of
Openness to change, Self-enhancement, Conservation and Self-transcendence as
organized below. For future reference, cconservation in this context does not refer to
environmental conversation. Rather, Schwartz refers to ‘conservation’ in his study as the
preservation of tradition, status quo, institution and relationships.
Schwartz’ four Higher Order Values and ten Motivationally Distinct Values
I. Openness to change
Self-direction (SDI, individualistic)
Stimulation (STI, individualistic)
Hedonism (HED, individualistic)
II. Self-enhancement
Hedonism (HED, individualistic)
Achievement (ACH, individualistic)
Power (POW, individualistic)
III. Conservation
Security (SEC, individualistic and collectivist)
Conformity (CON, collectivist)
Tradition (TRA, collectivist)
IV. Self-transcendence
Benevolence (BEN, collectivist)
Universalism (UNI, individualistic and collectivist)
Schwartz’ dynamic theory on values assumes that behavior displayed to satisfy a
particular value type has psychological, practical and social consequences that are either
15
24. in harmony or conflict with other values. For example, the pursuit of personal success
(achievement) is likely to interfere with the adherence to the preservation and
enhancement of the welfare of other people (benevolence), thus forcing individuals to
make choices among competing value categories. To best depict this dynamic relation
between and among values Schwartz developed the two dimensional dynamic circular
value structure illustrated in Figure 1 below.
Figure 1: Schwartz's Value Dimension Structure
In the Value Dimension Structure, complimentary values are adjacent while
conflicting values are opposite within the circle corresponding to their relationship with
the dimensional value they support. The dimension of Self-enhancement versus Self-
transcendence reflects the conflict between values oriented toward the pursuit of self-
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25. interest and values as opposed to concerns for the welfare of others and nature.
According to Schwartz, individualistic values in any culture fall along this dimension. I
will further explore this dimension in detail for its effect on pro-environmental behavior.
On the other hand, the dimensional value of Openness to Change versus
Conservation contrasts the degree to which individuals are motivated by intellectual and
emotional interests versus preserving traditions, status quo, institutions and relationships.
The two dimensions of the higher order values of Openness to Change versus
Conservation and Self-enhancement versus Self-transcendence are illustrated in the
structure and are both basic and bi-polar. The circle is enclosed by four lines that extend
in both directions and meet in what looks like bowties marking the limit at which each
higher order value begins and ends. Finally, the higher order values of Openness to
Change and Self-enhancement share the motivational distinct value of Hedonism; this is
illustrated by the broken line encompassing Hedonism in the structure.
These value dimensions are crucial to predicting attitudes and norms which
predispose behavior that promote the collective good of environmental conservation,
world peace, equality, and freedom. They are particularly relevant when developing
incentive packages for natural resource management in both the public and private
sphere. Schwartz’s theory of values is a fresh alternative to Hofstede’s theory of cultural
dimensions and is gaining more popularity in the fields of sustainable development,
intercultural management, environment and psychology.
Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory has been very influential in the private
sector and helpful in understanding the inter-organizational culture of multi-national
corporations. It includes five major dimensions for classifying cultures across the world
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26. including (i) Power Distance, (ii) Uncertainty Avoidance, (iii) Individualism, (iv)
Masculinity, and (v) Long Term Orientation (Hofstede, 2005). His theory is based on
surveys collected by students and company employees that study work values. On the
other hand, Schwartz’s theory on value dimensions (1992) has been the basis for studies
that sample populations outside these institutions and relates better to the exploration of
environmental conservation and rural populations.
Pro-environmental Behavior
The most recent World Survey on global values and beliefs conducted from 1999
to 2000 by Inglehart and Baker, address the current spread of globalization and
individualism. In their study, values and beliefs show correlation in countries with
similar economic development. Their research picks up where modernization theory left
off. Their research classifies societies as modern or postmodern (materialist or post-
materialist) based on the level of economic development of a country. They claim that all
countries are in route to modernisation. Less developed nations that are beginning the
path concentrate, above all, on values that contribute to economic growth and economic
achievement. As these countries begin to progress past the threshold of development and
move into the higher stages of economic development they begin to acquire post-modern
values. These post-modern values give priority to the quality of life and values
emphasizing environmental and socio-cultural issues, even when these goals conflict with
maximizing economic growth (Inglehart and Baker, 2000).
The trouble with Inglehart and Baker’s theory is that their research has not been
able to explain how traditional values persist regardless of this relative global value
change across nations or why there is a widening gap between the rich and poor in
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27. societies that are suppose to have post-modern values that prioritize quality of life. Rice
(2006) demonstrated that traditional values in Egypt for example are in line with
environmental conservation but stem from a religious foundation of “man as steward of
the land” rather than the western imposed standard of “nature as equal.” She also found
positive results when testing whether pro-environmental behavior was founded on a
different cultural model that uses “health and cleanliness” as a metaphor for the
environment. Furthermore Inglehart’s theories have not holistically tested values in
relation to sustainable development or the environment in developing countries which are
of particular interest for this study.
In addition to values and needs, pro-environmental behavior has also been
significantly linked to beliefs. Human behavior towards the environment is based on
what people think and feel about the environment and the control that they have to exert
pro-environmental actions with success (Azjens 1985, 1991). Often times in Gandiol,
people were summoned by their association to the national park to participate in a
conservation activity that they did not know anything about. Other times, the community
would be mobilized to do a massive beach clean-up project on the island for a day
without being included in the planning or evaluation process. The level of energy that
was put into the activity was directly linked to the amount of information and most of all
control the person felt they had in the activity. Those organizing the event were high
energy while those called at the last minute were less engaged in the nature conservation
goals. Most participants viewed these events as nothing more than opportunities to
socialize with neighbors.
19
28. Based on these studies about personal values and beliefs, more complex studies
have recently been elaborated on the cultural values that predispose behavior specifically
towards the environment within and across nations (Shaul and Tally 2006). Research
conducted by Karp (1996) tested Schwartz’ value dimensions in regards to pro-
environmental behavior in the US. He tested combinations of Self-transcendence/
Openness to Change versus Conservation and Self-enhancement/ Openness to Change
versus Conservation. Karp’s research concluded that Self-transcendence/Openness to
Change is a strong predicator for pro-environmental behavior while Self-
enhancement/Conservation is a strong negative predictor for pro-environmental behavior.
This was distinguished by behavioral categories that included Good Citizen, Activist and
Healthy Consumer behavior in the USA.
Case Study: Egypt
The relationship between demographics variables, beliefs, values, and religiosity
in Cairo, Egypt was studied by Gillian Rice and published in an article for the Journal for
Business Ethics in 2006. Rice replaced Karp’s behavioral categories from those
mentioned in the above paragraph to Public Sphere Behavior, Private Sphere Behavior,
and Activist which were more appropriate for a developing country. Public Sphere
represents pro-environmental behavior that is displayed in social or institutional settings
and is closest to what natural resource management incentive packages currently try to
target. Private Sphere Behavior represents behavior that individuals carry out outside the
Public Sphere, in their homes, such as; consumption practices. Finally, Activist behavior
represented behavior that advocates for environmental conservation. Rice’s study
20
29. concluded that Public Sphere Behavior was the most prevalent and closely correlated
with the values of tradition and religiosity in developing Muslim societies.
The study, conducted in a predominantly Muslim country, concluded that Islam
advocates pro-environmental ethics by acknowledging humans as steward of their
communities; human, plant or animal. The study confirmed Hopkins’ and colleagues
findings (2001) that “health and cleanliness” values linked to Security and Conservation
values are principal factors motivating individuals to care for the environment. The
principles of health and cleanliness are both practical and closely related to the well-
being of families which is very relevant to the emphasis people put on family health and
survival in developing countries. On the other hand, developed countries emphasize
factors that include the protection of a species or the conservation of a particular habitat.
Furthermore, Rice’s study demonstrated that Schwartz’ Self-transcendent values
such as Benevolence and Universalism are positively correlated with Public Sphere
Behavior. Openness to Change values such as Stimulation are negatively correlated to
Public Sphere and Activist Behavior while the Self-enhancement value, Achievement, is
positively correlated with Activist Behavior and, as mentioned above, Tradition
correlated positively with Public Sphere Behavior.
These findings are of particular interest for my paper because they highlight the
importance of selecting incentives for natural resource management that are targeted to
address the values of communities in developing countries in ways that make
environmental conservation achievable in the short and the long term. Using incentives
that address real issues such as health care, education and the transfer of valuable skills
are more likely to pave the path to balanced natural resource management. Simple
21
30. monetary compensation does not address values linked to tradition that have helped
societies persevere during times of economic hardship and natural adversity.
Chapter 3
Methodology
A qualitative research framework stemming from a positivist philosophical
viewpoint is most appropriate for this study. The research has drawn upon past theories
on pro-environmental behavior focusing in particular on Schwartz’ theory of human
value dimensions. The research seeks to better understand the phenomena in question
and link values to incentives for natural resource management (Yin, 2002). An
instrumental case study method is applied to provide multi-perspective analysis and
triangulation is used to test consistency and plausibility. While the research is presented
as a single case study, references to Rice’s case study on environmental behavior in
Egypt (2006) have been included to show the utility and value of this research to the
wider field of environmental conservation and study of values and beliefs.
Data to support this instrumental case study were gathered from personal and
participant observations, national park and eco-guard reports, archival documents and
locally published material. Finally, informal interviews with local community members,
association members and representatives of the national park were conducted and
questionnaires completed to triangulate the information included in this paper. During my
four years as an Ecotourism Consultant in the area of study, I looked at opportunities,
constraints, and gaps to development and environmental conservation. I have selected
incentives and their effect on pro-environmental behavior to be the main focus of this
case study.
22
31. My observations and experience established that ecotourism alone (an economic
incentive) was insufficient in this area to achieve long term efficient natural resource
management. Therefore, I included the wider sphere of incentives both direct and
indirect that can contribute to the goal of environmental conservation. Research for the
literature review and informal interviews revealed that group (Public) and individual
(Private) behavior can contradict and often stem from beliefs and values that are
independent from cost/benefit calculations. In order to be effective, market driven
incentives to natural resource management should be accompanied by incentives that
positively link the area’s cultural beliefs and histo-demographic values to the
environment.
For the formal interviews, I conducted a two part questionnaire with twelve
community representatives from the twelve villages that have been included in the
physical area of the study. The interview questions were in French and a native Wolof
translator was with me at every questionnaire interview to translate if necessary. To test
the validity and consistency of the interview, the questionnaire was written in English,
translated to French and then back to English. The choice to conduct interviews rather
than simply hand out the questionnaire was reached because the majority of the rural
population are illiterate or speak and understand French but do not write it. Participants
in the research gave oral permission to partake in interviews and allowed for all answers
to be used anonymously in the analysis.
Five informal interviews were also held with community members from the local
area, community associations including the eco-guards and park agents. All were from
the villages within most proximity to the national park and thus most directly involved
23
32. with conservation and natural resource management activities. Informal interviews took
place early in the research process and were held to get background information on the
community’s livelihood practices, apparent nature degradation in the area and perspective
on the effectiveness of nature conservation activities. The information received was later
used to evaluate the results accounted for in annual park reports. Informal interviews
were conducted one on one and were held in the home or workplace of the person being
interviewed. I was accompanied by a fluent Wolof speaker during the interview to help
clarify questions if needed. They were 10 minutes in duration and were recorded
manually in a notebook for comparison to information documented in national park, eco-
guard and donor reports. Interviewees were a separate group from those that participated
in responding to the questionnaire.
The primary instruments used for data gathering were the questionnaires on
environmental behavior Part 1 and 2 (see Appendix). Five women and seven men took
part 1 and 2 of the questionnaire of which 80% were Muslim and 20% were Christian.
The average age of the respondents was 34 years old with the lowest age being 19 and the
highest age 53. All respondents lived and worked in the area targeted by the national
park for collaborative natural resource management.
Questions discussed the respondents’ relationship to the environment. Three
questions discussed their beliefs by noting the primary responsible actor in the
conservation of the environment and how effective they felt their contributions to
environmental conservation were. There were four questions addressing the results of
the desired behavioral results of the national park’s incentive package combined with
Rice’s categorizes of Public Sphere, Private Sphere, and Activist Behavior. The
24
33. questions asked the engagement and frequency of this behavior in the national park, in
their community and in homes. Finally, a selection of individual values from Schwartz’
Value Survey were included in a questionnaire and rated on the basis of importance to the
respondent. Questionnaire-interviews were conducted for the period of one week and
were held in the national park, community, and homes.
The second part of the data collection process involved researching information
relevant to current natural resource management incentives in the area and triangulating
that information with responses from the questionnaire and interviews to give
recommendations for future incentives. Given that a comprehensive incentive strategy
was not available, I compiled a table of incentives designed by the national park from the
period of 2003 to 2006 using park meeting notes and annual reports. Sub-questions on
beliefs and values were added to further explore, from a human resource management
perspective; the link between these factors and the community’s willingness and ability to
exhibit pro-environmental behavior.
Chapter 4
Presentation and Analysis of Data
The analytic process of the data presented in the study was first coded and sorted
to develop themes. These themes were furthermore tabulated by frequency. Such was
the case for hours a month worked on conservation and broken down into patterns for
particular value dimensions that were matched to check for consistency with certain
theories elaborated in the literature review. Relevant data from informal interviews are
included in the Beliefs and Incentives sections of the study. The final results are
presented by category and later displayed in a diagram (Figure 2) and a table (Table 2)
25
34. (Miles and Huberman, 1984). A summary of all questionnaire responses are included in
the Appendix. Beliefs and values are then matched to the national park’s natural resource
management incentives to check effectiveness and develop recommendations.
Beliefs
All respondents believed that negative changes to the natural environment could
harm the health of their family and compromise the way they make a living, strongly
linking health and security to the environment. Encouragingly, 75% of respondents
considered themselves primarily responsible for conserving the natural environment
which attributes not only responsibility but a sense of control to the respondent. They did
not positively associate this control to the way they think and feel about their
contributions to environmental conservation though. 50% of the respondents did not
know how effective their contributions to conserving the environment were or thought
they were not effective. This included only those respondents that participated in
conservation activities. Expressing a sense of responsibility to the environment is an
essential characteristic of Universalism and supports the belief held widely in Muslim
cultures of human as “steward or caretaker of the environment.” Projects that fund
environmental education and participatory monitoring and evaluation to share the results
of effective nature conservation activities can be ideal in linking control to success.
Informal interviews with local community members, association members and
national park agents further revealed relevant information about the community’s beliefs
in regards to nature conservation. In Gandiol, a reforestation conservation activity is
organized annually by the national park. The first organized reforestation activity began
in 2003 with only 50 agents and local residents participating by 2005 nearly 1000 people
26
35. participated in the activity. The activity became a success primarily for three reasons.
Environmental education on the benefits of reforestation was taught at the local schools
and in community associations influencing what people think about reforestation and
complimenting the activity. Second reason the reforestation activity has become a
success is because every year local residents see in a relatively short time, that the small
plants that they have planted begin to take root and form into trees. This links their
actions to an outcome.
Most importantly though, success in the activity can be attributed to the additional
local media attention and volunteer participation from neighboring regions in the event
which contributes to a feeling of pride and propriety by the population of the area in the
execution and outcome of this now popular nature conservation activity. This confirms
that indeed, the more responsible a community feels and the more control they have in
the process of nature conservation and its results, the more likely they are to exhibit pro-
environmental behavior.
Most revealing in the questionnaire results was the fact that only 25% of
respondents were willing to compromise their living and working situation to conserve or
protect the environment. This is a result of multiple factors, such as already
compromised living and working conditions in the area, a lack of knowledge in the
results of pro-environmental behavior or as the values section notes below, a strong
emphasis on security values. This finding supports analysis by Brechin and Kempton
(1994) which revealed that although citizens in less affluent countries cannot pay much to
improve the environment in other words, compromise much of their living and working
situation, they are much more willing to volunteer time to improve it than are their
27
36. wealthier counterparts in developed countries. Economically speaking less affluent
countries have a surplus of time in comparison to money or technology.
A majority of respondents defined their relationship to the environment to be one
of “steward or caretaker of the environment.” This can be attributed to the fact that
respondents that engaged in conservation activities did so voluntarily and were not
directly monetarily compensated for their services. While economic incentives can
encourage more people to participate in nature conservation activities, the fact that most
respondents volunteered to participate in these activities proves that pro-environmental
behavior carried out by respondents was influenced more so by internal factors rooted in
beliefs and values than cost-analysis calculations.
According to questionnaire Part 1, only 50% of respondents participated in
activities that conserve or protect the natural environment and all respondents believed
that people did not spend enough time and energy worrying about the natural
environment. The majority of activities were conducted in a community setting as
opposed to the national park or at home. Activities included; reforestation, awareness
building, and eco-monitoring and surveillance activities. At home, pro-environmental
activities were limited to cleaning and outdoor maintenance which highlights a
significant change or disconnect from public and activist behavior exhibited in the
community to that which is exhibited in private at home and among families. More
research needs to be conducted where strategies can be used to bring Public Sphere
behavior home to become part of the daily home ritual.
Participatory monitoring and evaluation as well as annual goals and targets can
help people understand better the effects of their contributions to conserving the
28
37. environment and in turn result in lasting pro-environmental behavior. Informal
interviews with members of the community also confirmed that often times, they were
not aware that the National Park and environmental donors were funding projects in the
community as incentives to natural resource management. This also hindered the beliefs
and perceptions linking pro-environmental behavior to positive results in the community.
Values
To interpret the results of Part 2 of the questionnaire, a value of 3 to -1 was given
to each answer as follows; not important -1, indifferent 0, important 1, somewhat
important 2, and very important a value of 3. Using Schwartz’ dynamic theory on
values as a guide, respondents rated highest in the Conservation (66) as opposed to the
Openness to Change higher order value (56.5) and slightly higher in the Self
Enhancement (57) as opposed to Self Transcendence higher order value (43.5). Figure 3
below includes the results of Part 2 of the questionnaire arrayed across the Schwartz
Value Dimension Structure.
Figure 2: Analysis results of Schwartz' Value Dimension
29
38. 56.5 43.5
18.5
27.5
5 25
15
15
28
36
20
23
66
57
While Karp (2006) and other researchers have found that the Conservation higher
order value negatively predicts pro-environmental behavior in the USA, it is encouraging
to learn that Rice (2006) found that value types within the Conservation dimension were
beneficial to Public Sphere pro-environmental behavior in Egypt. Predominantly,
Muslim societies such as Egypt, corresponds to more conservative and traditional values
than those found in the USA and resemble values held in Senegal. The findings in this
current study with respondents that were also predominantly Muslim revealed that the
Conservation higher order value rated the highest (66) with Self-enhancement rating
second highest at 57. Most of the pro-environmental behaviors were exhibited in the
Public Sphere or social/community setting. It is also encouraging to see further in the
incentive package for natural resource management that most of the incentives have been
targeted to motivate Self-enhancement, Openness to change and Conservation value
types.
30
39. The Security value type within the Conservation higher order value received the
highest possible rating at 36. All respondents felt that “the peace and security of their
family was very important and they would not risk their health for any opportunity.”
This corresponds with such a low rating on the Stimulation value type (5) which asks
respondents to value new and diverse experiences at the cost of some risk. While
respondents are not willing to risk their health or that of their families for new
opportunities, all respondents believed that negative changes to the environment could
harm the health of their families. Given the fact that the Security value rated the highest
possible points in value type, it can be utilized to confirm Hopkins et al (2001) theory of
“health and cleanliness” as the principal factor motivating people to exhibit pro-
environmental behavior in order to avoid health risks to themselves and their families.
Natural resource management incentives that promote health or hinder health risks
resulting in pro-environmental behavior may prove to be very effective in cases with such
emphasis on security.
The value questionnaire results revealed that opposing value types such as
Hedonism (28) rated similarly to Benevolence (25) and that the Power value rated higher
(23) than universalism (18.5). Karp’s research claims that the Self-enhancement
dimension predicts lower pro-environmental behavior in the US than Self transcendence
values. It is apparent from the findings that Hedonism, Power, and to a lesser degree
Achievement rated higher than those values in the Self-transcendence higher order value.
Given the proximity in rating for these higher order values some supposition based on
past literature on the subject can be adapted to these findings.
31
40. According to Maslow’s theory on hierarchy of needs, a substantially satisfied
need no longer needs motivation and therefore stimulus must address an individual’s
fluid position in the pyramid in order to be effective. (Robbins, 315), Schwartz’ (1992)
model was designed to demonstrate more fluidity in values across cultures. Ingelhart and
Baker (2000), describe the dilemma that many developing countries are facing in which
countries in transition from less to more affluent status are acquiring new values while
persistent cultural values mainly linked to religion persist. The emphasis respondents
placed on the higher order values of Self-enhancement and Conservation portray this
attitude adequately and prove this combination to be positively associated with pro-
environmental behavior.
Overall, the natural resource management incentive package proposed by the
National Park of the Langue de Barbarie provides a significant number of incentives that
are designed to target Self enhancement values in particular, professional development
and training for those individuals interested in career opportunities in environmental
conservation.
Incentives
The incentives outlined in Table 2 below were derived from the National Park of
the Langue de Barbarie annual reports from the period of December 2003 to December
2006. These incentives were furthermore categorized as property rights measures,
livelihood measures, fiscal or financial measures based on the kind of tool used to
encourage or discourage certain behavior towards the environment (Emerton, The World
Conservation Union 2002).
32
41. Table 2: Incentives and Value Dimensions
Incentive/Activity Value Kind of Desired Result/Behavior
Dimension Incentive
Livelihood Influence the way people feel
Creation of Self
measure and think about the
Environmental School Enhancement
environment
Groups
Livelihood Influence the way people feel
Free Monthly Self
measure and think about the
exploratory Boat trips for Enhancement
environment
youth
Property rights Stimulate alternative
Discounted Annual Openness to
measure livelihood practices
License to Transport Change
Tourists
Fiscal measure Stimulate alternative
Funding for a Restaurant Openness to
livelihood practices
Change
Fiscal measure Stimulate alternative
Funding for a motor- Openness to
livelihood practices
powered boat Change
Property rights Improve Community relations
Free Work, Meeting and Self
measure with the Park
Conference Facilities Transcendence
Livelihood Improve community relations
Link Funders to Self
measure
community projects. Transcendence
Livelihood Increase sense of power and
Eco Business Training Self
measure achievement in NRM
Enhancement
Property rights Stimulate alternative
Free Use of Park land to Openness to
measure livelihood practices
Eco-Guards for tourist Change
shop/restaurant
Livelihood Increase sense of power and
Environmental Self
measure achievement in NRM
Conservation/ Tour Enhancement
Guide Training
Livelihood Increase sense of power and
Eco-Guard exchanges Self
measure achievement in NRM
between Parks Enhancement
Market measure Increase sense of power and
Park Agent training Self
achievement in NRM
Enhancement
Property rights Conserve fragile bio-species
Restricted Boat access to Self
measure
bird island Transcendence
Livelihood Link Environment to
First Aid and Medical Conservation
measure Community Priorities
Services to the
community
Livelihood Improve community relations
Conservator serves as Conservation
measure
Conflict Moderation
between villages
Financial Exchange for bi-monthly
Micro-lending Fund Openness to
measure environmental conservation
Change
practices
Property rights Improved Community Natural
Collection of Dry Wood Conservation
measure Resource Management
in Restricted Areas
33
42. Property rights Improved Community Natural
Restricted Area for Conservation
measure Resource Management
Animal Grazing
Property rights Link Environment to
Restricted Fresh Water Self
measure Community Priorities
Use Transcendence
Property rights Conserve species diversity
Restricted Fishing in the Conservation
measure
River
Property rights Influence the way people feel
Free entry to park for Self
measure and think about the
local population Enhancement
environment
These incentives have been further labeled by the higher order value they address
in Schwartz’ Value Dimension structure. For example, an eco-business training incentive
is designed to give the population power to manage their resources and businesses
responsibly and is considered a livelihood measure. It is an indirect incentive that
focuses on the development of skills and training to achieve sustainable long term natural
resource management. The values of achievement, power and hedonism contribute to the
Self-enhancement higher order value.
The majority of incentives provided contributed to the Self enhancement higher
order value with Conservation and Openness to Change addressed equally with five
incentives each. The findings in this paper on values revealed that in fact, the Self
enhancement/ Conservation higher order values were the most predominant and therefore
well addressed in this incentive package. Based on Schwartz theory (2001), values found
to have a positive influence on environmental behavior are Self transcendence/Openness
to Change and Universal values. In fact, values found to have a negative influence were
Self-enhancement and Conservation. I would argue the opposite in cases where
populations are being reincorporated into national natural resource management
strategies after decades of being expropriated from land and excluded from the
environmental conservation process.
34
43. Incentives that promote achievement, power and to some extent, hedonism while,
encouraging values that maintain traditional relationships and customs are the most
beneficial to an incentive package during the initial phases of a collaborative community
natural resource management strategy. These incentives restore the confidence people
have in their traditional natural resource management practices that have been threatened
for centuries while preparing them to be open to change some of these practices if
necessary in the future.
I would also argue that Self transcendent values of universalism and benevolence
are relatively satisfied in small rural collective societies. Populations in collective
societies would naturally react better to incentives that address values that have not yet
been satisfied such as those in the Self-enhancement and Openness to Change higher
order values. Historical evidence and the results from the value questionnaire support
this argument. The incentive package above addresses the value by the community to
hold onto traditional institutions/relationship, customs and status quo while equally
introducing incentives that empower the population to have confidence in its
achievements and try alternative methods of natural resource management.
Motivational factors that contribute to the Self Enhancement higher order value
(56.5 rating) include:
• Power
• Achievement
• And to a lesser degree Hedonism
Incentives that address these motivational types include measures such as:
• Eco-Business Training
35
44. • Environmental education for school groups
• Free monthly exploratory boat trips for youth
• Environmental conservation and tour guide training
• Eco-guard exchanges between parks
• Construction of a restaurant
• Park agent trainings
Motivational factors that contribute to the Openness to Change higher order value (56.5
rating) include:
• Stimulus
• Self-direction
• And to a lesser degree hedonism
Incentives that address these motivational types include measures such as:
• Discounted annual licenses to transport tourists
• Funding for a restaurant
• Funding for a motor-powered boat
• Free use of national park land to eco-guards for tourist shop/restaurant
• Micro-lending fund
• Free entry to the park for the local population
Motivational factors that contribute to the Conservation higher order value (66 rating)
include:
• Security
• Conformity
36
45. • Tradition.
Incentives that address these motivational types include measures such as:
• First Aid and Medical Services to the community
• Conservator serves as Conflict Moderation between villages
• Restricted Area for the Collection of Dry Wood
• Restricted Area for Animal Grazing
• Restricted Fishing in the River.
Most of the measures used to address natural resource management in this category
include disincentives or the restriction of traditional livelihood practices by the use of
penalties and the payment of fees. This brings into question the sustainability of this pro-
environmental behavior once these restrictions are lifted or strategies to avoid penalties
are developed. It seems that education and information about the effects of negative
behavior on their livelihood outcomes or health will lead to more sustainable practices
than punishment and penalties.
Chapter 5
Conclusions and Recommendations
The noble objectives set out by the Ministry of the Environment to alleviate
poverty and conserve the environment have proven difficult, if not impossible to
implement simultaneously in the National Park of the Langue de Barbarie. This is
especially so when natural resource management incentive packages are funded by
various donors that value one objective over the other. In fact, from the period of
December 2003 to December 2006 due largely to limited and sporadically timed financial
resources and a compounded lack of local infrastructure, economic incentives related to
37
46. ecotourism small business development actually contributed to accelerated nature
degradation in some areas. The results on the ground and those reported in park reports
contradict because park agents are forced to exaggerate the positive benefits of projects in
order for donors to continue funding future projects.
The conservation of traditional customs and values linked to being “the steward/
caretaker of the environment” has demonstrated throughout history (see background
section) to sustain natural resource management practices that continue today in Muslim
societies. Satisfying achievement and power that contribute to the Self-enhancement
higher value order can restore the community’s beliefs in the effectiveness of executing
pro-environmental behavior with success now that they are again playing a greater role in
the nature conservation process.
To close, one can conclude that incentive packages for environmental
conservation are tools that can lead to long term pro-environmental behavior primarily in
the public sphere; in areas such as community spaces and national parks but that such a
tool must be preceded by an analysis of the community’s values and beliefs. In order to
do so values and beliefs in addition to economic needs must be appropriately targeted.
Even in cases where values have been incorporated in incentive packages it has become
evident that those dynamic values change based on a public or private setting. In
addition, while certain value types have been demonstrated to negatively predict pro-
environmental behavior, even value types characterizing Health, Security, Conformity,
and Tradition, customarily considered disincentives to pro-environmental behavior can be
targeted and utilized in an incentive package to lead to long-term pro-environmental
behavior and positive natural resource management in developing countries.
38
47. Research has also concluded that responsibility or knowledge alone about the
environment is not incentive enough to lead to long term pro-environmental behaviors.
Beliefs such as the perceptions of the outcomes and control of our actions are far more
influential in predicting behavior. Finally, participatory monitoring and evaluation can
help inform stakeholders of their actions in a way that they can measure and see the
outcome of their effort. Further research on incentive packages should explore
environmental behavior changes created by shifting the emphasis of current incentive
packages from market driven (external) incentives, which often result in short term
behavior, to beliefs and values that appeal to internal and deep rooted motivation.
Incentive packages that surpass cost/benefit calculations and extend into the private
sphere of the family home are most likely to create more holistic pro-environmental
behavior and better natural resource management.
Applicability
The data and information shared in this paper can be particularly relevant to
behaviorists, park managers, non-governmental and international environmental agencies,
activists and donors looking to invest time and resources into environmental projects in
developing countries. This case study can be used by these actors when trying to develop
a more inclusive natural resource management incentive package that goes beyond short
–term and market driven incentives to one that can eventually lead to a long term change
in the behavior of the population in question. It is also effective for agencies that are
trying to change the direction of their current conservation policies and strategies to be
more participatory and inclusive.
39
48. More precisely, this case study helps these agencies understand the different kinds
of value types and dimensions that match up with a particular kind of incentive target and
link the beliefs of the population at hand to the benefit of their environmental objectives.
Finally, interested parties can use elements of this case study to be more informed of the
various factors that lead to a community’s willingness to exhibit pro-environmental
behaviors and identify gaps using a beliefs assessment where appropriate to include more
activities where people are informed and positive about the outcome of their behavior
toward the environment.
40
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52. APPENDIX
Environmental Questionnaire
PART 1
1. What is your sex: male 7 …or female 5?
2. What is your religion? Islam 11 Christian 2
3. What is your marital status? Single 9, Married 3
4. What is your age? Youngest 19, median 34, oldest 53.
5. Do you consider your home a part of the natural environment? Yes 10, No 2
6. Do you consider your community a part of the natural environment? Yes 12
7. What statement defines best your relationship to the natural environment?
a. The natural environment is at the service of man?
b. Man is the steward/care taker of the natural environment? 11
c. Man and the natural environment are independent of each other?
d. Man and the natural environment have equal rights? 1
8. Who is primarily responsible for conserving the natural environment?
a. The government 2
b. The National Park 1
c. The community Associations
d. I am 9
e. Donors
f: Other Explain: _________________________________________
9. Do you think your contributions to conserving the environment are:
a. Very effective 3
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53. b. Somewhat effective 2
c. Indifferent 1
d. Not effective 2
e. Don’t know 4
10. Fill in the blank:
People spend _____________ worrying about the natural environment.
Too much time and energy
The appropriate time and energy
Not enough time and energy 12
11. Negative changes to the natural environment can harm the health of me and my
family.
True _12__ False __________
12. Negative changes to the natural environment can compromise the way I make a
living.
True __12_ False __________
13. a; Do you participate in activities that conserve or protect the natural
environment?
Yes ___6____ No ____6_____
14. a. What pro- environmental activities do you take part in the National Park?
• 2 replanting, 1 surveillance, 1 ecological and bird monitoring, 8 no answer
b. What pro-environmental activities do you take part in the community?
• 3 activist, 4 reforestation, 5 no answer
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54. c. What pro-environmental activities do you take part in your home?
• 2 maintenance, 3 cleaning, 7 no answer
15. How much time a month do you dedicate to activities that conserve or protect the
natural environment? ________ hours
• 4 no answer, least hours 10, median 34 hours , most 88 hours
b. Do you receive monetary compensation for these activities or do you volunteer
your time? 7 volunteer, 5 no answer
16. If you receive monetary compensation to perform activities that conserve or
protect the natural environment is this amount enough to sustain your livelihood?
Why?
Why not? No answer, 7 volunteer, 5 no activity
17. Would you compromise your living situation to conserve or protect the
environment?
Yes _3______ No ___9______
18. Would you compromise your working situation to conserve or protect the
environment?
Yes __3_____ No ___9___
_________________________________________________________________
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55. PART 2
A value of 3 to -1 was given to each answer as follows; not important -1, indifferent 0,
important 1, somewhat important 2, and very important a value of 3.
Please mark an X in front of the option that best represents your values.
SELF DIRECTION
1. Thinking up new ideas and being creative is___________ to me. I like to do
things in my own original way.
7 Very important 2 somewhat important 1 important =25
2 Indifferent 1 not important
2. Having the freedom to think and act as I feel is _____________ to me. I want to
choose my own path to the future.
7 Very important 4 somewhat important 1 important = 30
____ Indifferent ____ not important
POWER
3. “It is _____________ to me to be rich. I want to have a lot of money and
expensive things.
5 Very important 4 somewhat important 1 important = 23
1 Indifferent 1 not important
STIMULATION
4. Having new and diverse experiences are _________ to me. I like challenges even
if they involve some risk.
1 Very important 2 somewhat important 1 important =5
5 Indifferent 3 not important
HEDONISM
5. Finding pleasure in life is _____________ to me. I do work if I enjoy it.
8 Very important somewhat important 4 important = 28
Indifferent not important
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56. ACHIEVEMENT
6. Building my skills is _____________ to my future success. I like to be one of the
best I can.
4 Very important 2 somewhat important 5 important = 20
Indifferent 1 not important
SECURITY
7. Knowing that my family and me are safe and at peace is ___________ to me. I
would not risk my health for any opportunity.
12 Very important somewhat important important = 36
Indifferent not important
CONFORMITY
8. The opinions and views of my Elders are ____________ to me. I respect them
even though I don’t agree with their views.
2 Very important 3 somewhat important 4 important = 15
2 Indifferent 1 not important
TRADITION
9. Religious ceremonies and customs are _______________to me. I accept the ideas
about my life my religion provides.
2 Very important 3 somewhat important 4 important =15
2 Indifferent 1 not important
BENEVOLENCE
10. Being responsible and loyal to my friends is ____________ to me. I enjoy feeling
part of a group.
5 Very important 3 somewhat important 4 important = 25
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57. Indifferent not important
UNIVERSALISM
11. Protecting the environment is ___________ to me. I appreciate the beauty of
nature.
4 Very important 1 somewhat important 6 important = 20
1 Indifferent not important
12. Having understanding and appreciation for all kinds of people is _____________
to me. Social Justice is something I believe in.
1 Very important 4 somewhat important 6 important = 17
1 Indifferent not important
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