14. The Fagerstrom Nicotine Dependent Test Heatherton TF, Kozlowski LT, et al; A Revision of the Fagerstrom Tolerance Questionnaire; British Journal of Addiction 1991; 86: 1119 - 27
(1) 20.6% of all adults (46.6 million people) by race and ethnicity the breakdown is as follows; 21.3% of African American adults, 23.2% of American Indian/Alaska Native adults, 12.0% of Asian American adults, 14.5% of Hispanic adults, 22.1% of white adults. On a more positive note; 94 million 41.1% of the whole US population were ever smokers 51.1 % of whom had quit smoking at the time of the survey. The prevalence among HIV patients quoted here are from different source (2) New York State Medicaid patients 428 respondents (66%) (3) Thomas Street Clinic (Harris County, Houston TX , 328 respondents. (46.9%) (4) 314 patients from University based HIV clinics 63% of whom identified their HIV risk factor as MSM and 9% heterosexual. (5)The largest sample was from the Swiss Cohort 7304 HIV patients in Switzerland 70% of AIDS patients and 47% of HIV infected.
Analysis of WIHS Study data suggest that smokers have 21% more likely to have poorer virologic response 15% more likely to have poorer immunologic outcomes and 49% more likely to have virologic rebound after initial viral suppression. In the Swiss Cohort information on smoking was collected on all patients after April 2000 the prevalence quoted was computed only based that population 2217. No lung cancers occurred in non smokers in that cohort. Involved a large cohort of HIV patients with a cancer diagnosis based on linkage with state cancer registries 302,834 individuals diagnosed prior to 1996. In this cohort the commonest non-AIDS defining cancer was lung cancer n = 808. The R.R for lung cancer in HIV patients in this cohort was 4.5 with 7.1 seen in women and 4.3 in men. Small study 259 patients within a chemoprevention trial, PCP occurred both in HAART and non-HAART compliant patients an the mean CD4 counts was 384. Moreover among HIV positive patients on HAART smokers were 3 x more likely to have CD4 counts <200 compared to non-smokers. In a small cohort of patients recruited in a Columbus OH Medical Center emphysematous changes identified by CT scan in 14/38 HIV positive individuals with more than 12pyr smoking history compared with 0/14 non HIV patients with similar smoking histories.
Small study 259 patients within a chemoprevention trial, PCP occurred both in HAART and non-HAART compliant patients an the mean CD4 counts was 384. Moreover among HIV positive patients on HAART smokers were 3 x more likely to have CD4 counts <200 compared to non-smokers.
(1) Between 1996 – 1999, the French Health Agency used surveys of Physicians, Emergency Rooms, ICUs, Cardiologist and also through other forms of surveillance to collect data on MI among HIV patients. Among HIV patients the calculated incidence of MI was 5.5 per 1000 person years. (2) All the lung cancers in the Swiss Cohort occurred in smokers. The data for lung cancer was combined lung, trachea and bronchus. In the Swiss Cohort information on smoking was collected on all patients after April 2000 the prevalence quoted was computed only based on that population 2217. No lung cancers occurred in non smokers in that cohort.
(1) WIHS Study data Risk of Anal Adenocarcinomas was higher in patients who had never been on HAART compared with those with prior HAART history. (2) 33% increased risk of HPV persistence was from study in Senegal with about 25% commercial sex workers thus smoking and having multiple sexual partners may be confounding this relationship. The persistence of HPV among smokers in the Senegalese was only in univariate analysis and adjusting for potential confounding variables failed to show this to be significant. The study from the WIHS data did not show any association between HPV persistence in HIV infected women and smoking.
Table 2. Relationship between Exposure to Protease Inhibitors, Nonnucleoside Reverse-Transcriptase Inhibitors, and Other Cardiovascular Risk Factors and the Rate of Myocardial Infarction. Data Collection on Adverse Events of Anti-HIV Drugs (DAD) Study was conducted on data collected on 23,437 HIV infected patients, these patients contributed 94,469 person years of follow-up. Incidence of myocardial infarction in this study was 1.53 per 1000 person years in those not on PIs and 6.01 per 1000 person years in those exposed to PIs for more than 6 yrs after adjusted for other potential confounding factors the relative risk of MI with PI use was 1.16 per year of PI use. The most significant predictive variables in this study were however prior MI with a relative risk of 4.64 and Current Tobacco use 2.92. Data was from 188 clinics in 21 countries in Europe, Australia and the USA.
Studies suggest that HIV patients have a significant increase risk of MI at all age groups. A study by Triant et al comparing MI rates among HIV infected patients from a Hospital database in Boston Massachusetts shows MI rates as high as 4.65 per 1000 person years compared to 0.88 per 1000 person years in HIV patients ages 15 – 34 yrs compared with HIV uninfected. (Triant et al, J Clin Endocrinol Metab, 2007) This may suggest that HIV specific changes such as chronic immune activation and metabolic changes related to HIV disease and its therapy may be accelerating atherosclerotic changes. Tobacco use is believed to further damage endothelium in small and medium sized vessels thereby increasing risk of myocardial infarction.
Figure 1. Estimated Relative Risk of Myocardial Infarction after Quitting Smoking. Relative-risk estimates are adjusted for age; 95% confidence intervals are indicated by vertical lines. The relative risk for men who never smoked is 1.0. Study was a case control study of the effects of smoking on risk of MI in 1873 MI cases and 2775 controls.
Study of HIV patients in a low income HIV Clinic affiliated with Harris County Hospital in Houston TX. Lifetime smoking prevalence in this group was 62.8% with a 46.9% current smoking rate. Participants with at least a 4-year college degree were significantly more likely to have quit smoking compared with participants with a high school degree or less ( p~.041). Several studies suggest higher smoking rates of 34 – 50% among MSMs compared to the general population. This study of urban gay men from 4 US cities, Chicago IL, Los Angeles CA, San Francisco and New York HY revealed a rate of 31.4%. A review of the literature suggest smoking rates of 38 – 59 % smokers among gay and lesbian youth.
2. Burkhalter, JE et al, 2005; Nicotine and Tobacco Research, 7(4), 511–522 in a survey among New York State Medicaid patients found 58 % of HIV positive smokers were either contemplating quitting 40% and 18% were preparing to quit smoking. 3. In a survey of HIV positive smokers in a HIV Clinic in San Francisco revealed that 68% of respondent were considering quitting smoking, 72 % of smokers reported prior quit attempts men 81% and women 40%.
0-2 : Very low Dependence 3 – 4 : Low Dependence 5 – : Moderate Dependence 6 – 7 : High Dependence 8 – 10 : Very High Dependence Question # 1 is very highly predictive of successful quitting and also correlates highly with cotinine levels.
These graphic labeling was blocked by Big Tobacco R.J Reynolds and Phillip Moritiz the companies argued that the F.D.A. could not prove that these images would make a significant difference in smoking rates in the United States.
Mild itching, redness, burning, and stinging at the application site may occur, upset stomach and diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, flushing, or headache may also occur.
It is (±)-1-(3-chlorophenyl)-2-[(l,l-dimethylethyl)amino]-l-propanone hydrochloride. Some side-effects include seizures 1/1000 users Common SE include dry mouth, insomnia, skin rash, pruritus, hypersensitivity reactions, hypertension, increased appetite and anorexia Contraindicated in patients with seizure disorder. Contraindicated in the immediate quit period for patients with prior alcohol or benzodiazepine use Avoid use in patients with history of Bipolar disorder on account of believe that it could cause unopposed mania and agitation. Black box warning of serious neuropsychiatric side-effects such as depression with suicidal ideation and completed suicides. Zyban is metabolized by the Cytochrome P2B6 isoenzyme and thus ritonavir which is a potent inducer can reduce peak plasma concentrations of Bupropion Norvir 100mg BID reduces Cmax by 21% Kaletra 400/100 BID reduces Cmax by 57% Co administration with beta-blockers may require dose adjustment of beta-blockers unusually downward Zyban in a placebo controlled study showed 6mth quit rates of 33% Zyban+NRT and 30% for Zyban alone compared with 13% with placebo. At 12 mths – 28% for Zyban+NRT and 23% for Zyban compared with 8% for placebo patients. Difference between Zyban and Zyban+NRT was not significant. Pregnancy category C. Study of antidepressant use in pregnancy showed no increased teratogenicity compared to other antidepressant 1,213 were on bupropion in that study.
Chantix is the first partial agonist of the α 4 β 2 Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Common side-effects include, nausea, constipation, gas, vomiting, heartburn, bad taste in the mouth, changes in appetite, insomnia, strange dreams or nightmares Headache. There is a black box warning for serious neuro-psychiartric side effects such as depression and behavior change or hostility or suicidal ideation. Increased risk of cardiovascular events in patients taking chantix compared to placebo (1.1% non fatal MI in treatment group compared with 0.3% in placebo) 52 week follow up need revascularization -2.0% in treatment group compared to placebo 0.6% Cardiovascular death – 0.3% treatment arm vrs 0.6% in placebo. Manufacturers have not reported any significant drug interactions.
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