3. • Competencies:
1. Describe the behavior of the individual in relation
to his physical and social environment.
2. Explain the basic concepts and theories in
understanding human behavior.
4. • Part I- CONTENT UPDATE
Psychology- scientific study of the behavior of
individuals and their mental processes.
Scientific- empirical and uses the principles of the
scientific method.
Behavior- overt and can be verified
Mental Processes- working of the human mind-
thinking, planning, reasoning, creating and dreaming.
5. • Goal of Psychology
-are to describe, explain, predict and control
behavior and mental processes.
• The History of Psychology:4th and 5th Century BC Psychology has its roots in many disciplines, dating back to the views of Aristotle,
Socrates, and Plato who studied the nature of mind, the soul, the body, and
human experience
17th Century Rene Decartes supported the nativist view that some ideas are innate
John Locked advocate the empiricist view that knowledge is acquired through
experiences and interaction with the world
1869 Sir Francis Galton studied individual differences leading to the development of
intelligence test
6. 1879 Wilhelm Wundt founded the first Psychological laboratory at the University of
Leipzig in Germany devoted to experimental Psychology. Published Principles of
Physiological Psychology, and is known as the father of Psychology.
1883 G. Stanley Hall established the first Psychological Laboratory in North America at
John Hopkins Hospital
1888 James McKeen Catell became the first professor in Phycology in US
1890 Williams James wrote a two-volume work. The Principles of Psychology-most
important Psychology text ever written.
7. • History of Psychology in the Philippines: Important People
and Dates
-Historical Accounts of Psychology in the country indicate that the
subject was probably taught as early as the 17th century in two Philippine
Universities, namely, University of Santo Tomas and the University of San
Carlos in Cebu
1. Sinforoso Padilla Established the first Psychological clinic in the country at
the University of the Philippines in 1932
2. Jesus Perminan Had set up Far Eastern University Pyschological Clinic
3. Estafania Aldaba-Lim
8. • Perspective in Psychology
-The Conceptual Approaches define points of view and sets of
assumptions that influence both what psychologists will study and how to study
it. Although each perspective represents a different approach, psychologists
borrow and blend concepts from more than one of these perspective.
• Biological Perspective- the approach to identifying causes of behavior that
focuses on the functioning of the genes, the brain, the nervous system, and
the endocrine gland.
• Psychodynamic Perspective- a psychological model in which behavior is
explained in terms of past experiences and motivational forces; actions are
viewed as stemming from inherited instincts, biological drives and attempts
to resolve conflicts between personal needs and social requirements. Freud
himself emphasized early childhood as the stage in which personality is
formed.
9. • Behaviorist Perspective- it was concerned with observable behavior that can
be objectively recorded. Its emphasis on the need for rigorous
experimentation carefully define variables has influenced most area of
Psychology.
• Humanistic Perspective- the main task for human is to strive for growth and
development of their potential. They deal with the whole person- integrating
knowledge of the individuals mind, body and behavior with an awareness of
social and cultural forces.
• Cognitive Perspective- this perspective stresses human thought as both
results and causes of human behavior. They study higher mental processes
such as perception, memory, language use, problem-solving, and decision
making at variety of levels.
• Evolutionary Perspective- it suggest that mental abilities evolved millions of
years to serve particular adaptive just as physical abilities.
• Cultural Perspective- this focuses on the cross-cultural differences in the
causes and consequences of behavior.
10. • The Relevance of Research to Psychology
-The research process in psychology can be divided into two
major categories that usually occur in sequence; forming an
idea (discovery) and then testing it (justification). In the initial
phase, observations, beliefs, information, and general
knowledge lead to a new ideas and theories. A theory is an
organized set of concepts that explains a phenomena.
Hypothesis will be derived from the theory and then will
proceed to the second phase which rely on scientific method
11. The Biological Bases of Behavior:
• Heredity and Behavior- Researcher in human behavior
explore the link between the genes people inherit and their
behavior.
• Biology and Behavior- The hormones of the endocrine
system and the neurotransmitters of neurons perform similar
function. They both carry messages between cells.
Neurotransmitters carry messages between adjacent
neurons.
12. The Nervous System in Action:
-The human brain is composed of three
functional division: the central core, the limbic system,
and the cerebrum. The central core mediates basic
autonomic functions; the limbic system is involve in
emotion, motivation and memory; and the cerebrum is
responsible for planning and decision making.
13. Sensation and Perception
• Sensation- is the process by which stimulation of sensory
receptors produces neural impulses that represent experiences
inside and outside the body. It is the study of relationship
between physical stimuli, and the behavior or mental experience
the stimuli evoke is the task of Psychophysics.
The most significant figure here is German physicist Gustav Fechner
(1801-1887). He coined the term psychophysics and provided a set
of procedures to relate the intensity of physical stimulus-measured
in physical units- to the magnitude of the sensory experience-
measured in psychological units.
14. The Different Sense Modalities
Senses Stimuli Specific Receptors Brain Area
Visual
(sense of sight)
Light rays Rods and Cones Optic nerve to Occipital
lobe
Auditory
(sense of hearing)
Sounds waves Cochlea
(Organ of Corti)
Temporal Lobes
Olfactory
(sense of smell)
Chemical substances in a
gaseous state
Olfactory cells Temporal
lobe(perception of odor)
Gustatory
(Sense of Taste)
Chemical substances in
liquid form
Taste buds Gustatory center in the
cerebral cortex
Cutaneous
(Touch, Pressure, Pain, Cold
and Warm Sensations)
Mechanical energy
applied to the skin
Light touch- Meissner’s corpuscles Pressure. –
Pacinians corpuscles Cold sensation. –Krause’s
corpuscle Warm sensations. –Ruffinians ending
Somatosensory area of
cerebral cortex
Perception- The process that organizes information to make sense of sensation.
15. Major function of the Visual Perceptual System
1. Localization: determining where objects are
a. Figure- ground organization: natural tendency to organize stimuli into regions
corresponding to figure and ground
b. Perceptual grouping: elements are perceive together, rather than isolated
units
1.Proximity 2. Similarity 3. Good Continuation
4. Closure 5. Common fate
c. Depth Perception: determining how far the object is from us
1. Relative size 2. Superimposition 3. Relative height
4. Linear perspective 5. Motion parralax
2. Recognition: discerning what objects
3. Constancy: keeping the appearance of the objects the same even if their image in
the eye are changing
16. Identification And Recognition
Identification and recognition involve both Bottom-Up and Top
Down Processes which work together to provide a coherent
understanding of the world.
• Bottom-up processing : taking sensory data in from the
environment and sending to the brain for extraction and
analysis of relevant information.
• Top down processing : involves your past experiences
knowledge and cultural background in perceiving the world .
Higher mental functioning influences how you understand
objects and events.
17. Consciousness
Consciousness is a state awareness of the outside the world of our own thought and
feelings. Each day we go through a variety of conscious state, sometimes
unintentionally or intentionally.
William James: is one of the earliest psychologists who dealt with consciousness.
• Normal Waking Consciousness
Consciousness can be defined as the sum total of all external stimuli and internal
mental events of which we are aware at any given time simply defined as a state
awareness.
• Selective attention the cognitive mental process that limits the amount of
information allowed into consciousness is known as selective attention. The
process of selective attention is illustrated in our everyday experiences in the
classroom.
18. Sleeping and dreaming
Sleep is a part of daily cycles in behavioral or physiological activity known as
circadian rhythms . We sleep to restore and revitalize our bodies and minds for
the next waking day . Lack of sleep affects our physical an mental activity
Sleep is not a single continuous state . It’s a complex a combination of states .
Actually several state of conscious awareness area part of sleep process . We
pass through the stages of the sleep cycle . The different levels sleep are
defined on the basis of electroencephalogram (EEG) . It is a machine that
measures electrical brain activity . Each of the stages has specific
characteristics . Sleep is made up two distinct stages the Non Rapid Eye
Movement (NREM) which contains four stages ranging from light to deep
sleep and the Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep occurs periodically through
the night.
19. Dream Theories
Dreams as a wish fulfillment, Dreams are one of the most
fascinating aspects of human consciousness . What do dreams
tell us? Sigmund Freud was the first modern theorists to
consider seriously the psychology of dreaming . To the
followers of Freud dreams are the royal road to the
unconscious . They believe that dreams are derived from the
unconscious drives or wishes . These wishes or drives are
usually repressed during the day likely to emerge into
consciousness thus manifest in our dreams.
20. Dreams as Brain activity
Two sleep researchers j . A Hobson and R McCarley (in Lahey 1989) proposed a bio
psychological theory of dreaming the activation synthesis hypothesis They argue that
dream state of REM sleep is generated within the area of the brain stem known as
pons . . The theory regards dreams are mere by products of periodic brain activation
rather than a result of unconscious wishes.
Sleeping and dreaming seem important to health and extended periods of sleep
deprivation have been shown from researches to cause fatigue inefficiency and
irritability.
• Sleep Disorder
Normal patterns of sleep and waking can be disturbed for many reasons . The most
common sleep disorder is insomnia . Other sleep disorder include sleep walking sleep
talking narcolepsy and sleep apnea.
21. • Insomnia
Insomnia is the long term inability to obtain adequate sleep due to lengthy time to sleep
onset frequent wakening during thee night and very early morning wakening . People
with insomnia are usually mildly depressed or anxious . During the day they tend to
interline their worries concerns and feelings rather than expressing them outwardly . At
night as external distraction wane and attention is directed inward these concerns enter
consciousness . This mental alertness blocks sleep causes muscular tension and
physiological arousal that leads to an escalating pattern of fearing to go to bed because
of expected insomnia.
• Sleep walking
Sleep walking occurs primarily during the deepest parts of non REM sleep sleepwalkers
rise from bed and a carry on complicated activities such as walking from one room to
another even though they are sound asleep . This is common in children before the age
of puberty but is not particularly unusual in adults Sleep walking is not an abnormal
behavior . It is usually reappears in adults only during periods of stress
22. Learning Memory
learning is a process that result in relatively consistent change in behavior or behavior
potential . How human learn?
The Behavior Learning Theories
1. Pavlov's classical Conditioning. Learning take place as a result of the association
between the stimulus and response .
2. Thorndike's Connectionism . Learning takes is a result of the bonds or connectionism
established between the stimulus and response through the laws of exercise readiness
and effect.
3. BF Skinners operant conditioning . Learning is enhanced by the consequences
associated with the response or behavior . The effects of reinforcement and
punishment shape the desired behavior.
4. Banduras social learning . Learning is possible by observing the consequences of
another persons behavior . He gave emphasis to the impact of modeling and the
individuals cognition and the target behavior.
23. Cognitive Learning
• Gestalt psychology
Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka studied on how organism perceive relationship among
the ideas and the effect and the those relationships have on memory and learning.
Kurt Lewin developed the field Theory or his concept of a life space psychological environment that
influence a persons learning.
• Ausubels Meaningful Learning
Meaningful learning will occur when the materials to be learned are related to what students already
know . It will also be helpful if there is an advance organizer that will give an overview of the new
information before actual learning is expected.
• Bruner's Discover learning
Learners will be more interested if they are confronted will problems that they will need to investigate
experiment gather data about and discuss among their peers or with the teacher.
24. Information Processing
-The human brain is compared to the computer- the ways in which
sensory input is processed in the working memory and later retrieved for
new interpretation and application.
-The use of mnemonics needs to be demonstrated so that learners will be
helped to encode in their long- term memory the knowledge that will
help them apply and create knowledge.
25. Motivation
-refers to an internal state or condition that activates behavior and
gives it direction.
• Motives and Its Components
-Motive has two components, need and drive. Needs are based on
some deficit within the person. The deficit may be psychological or
physiological. Drives, on the other hand, are based on needs and have the
added features of an observable change in behavior. Drives imply motion of
some sort.
• Function of Motives
-Motives have three important functions in behavior. First, they
energize the person. The motivated person is active and his activity is
maintained at relatively high levels until relevant goals or rewards are attained.
Goal refers to a substance, or object capable of satisfying the need. Aroused
motives will make the individual more alert in general.
26. -Motives have a directing function. They determine from many
possible behaviors or responses which are likely to be the most
appropriate. This directs a person to organize his ideas around whatever
goal is important to him at the moment. Lastly, motives have a selecting
function. Reinforcement, consequences, and feedback determine which
of a number of responses will be selected. A number of responses and
ideas are available in every situation and each choice.
-Motives may also caused by environmental factors. We react
strongly to social acceptance.
27. Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory
• People act the way they do because of their instinct. An instinct is an
innate or generally predetermined disposition to behave in a particular
way when confronted with certain stimuli.
• Instinctual behavior follows an inborn plan that allows for substantial
flexibility in the course of development. For example, infants have the
tendency to form a strong emotional bond with their biological mother,
but an infant can form a bond with a substitute mother. Instinctual
behavior, then, is viewed as innate or pre-programmed but is subject to
modification in the face of environmental demands.
28. Drive Theory
• Clark Hull(1943) believed that organism are motivated to eliminate or
reduce bodily tension. Drive is the term used to define the state of tension
that occurs when a need is not met. Hull believed that drives motivate
organism to reduce tension. Organism with high state of arousal are
motivated to engage in the process of drive reduction, a set of behaviors
designed to reduce or eliminate bodily tension
• Drive theory states that the potential level of any response is a joint
function of the response habit, strength, and the person’s level of drive.
High drives facilitates performance on simple over –learned tasks but
hampers performance on complex or novel ones.
29. Arousal Theory
• Arousal theory, which arose partly as an alternative to drive theory,
stipulates that a moderate level of stimulation is reinforcing. An increase in
the level of tensions or excitement is referred to as arousal.
• The theory proposes that moderate level of stimulation is the most
pleasant and that both higher and lower levels are relatively aversive.
• Some contemporary examples of activities that suggest a need to increase
arousal are roller rides, sky diving, and horror movies.
30. Solomon’s Opponent Process Theory of Acquired Motives
• Richard Solomon provides intriguing answer to some questions with his
opponents process theory of motivation. He explains that a state of positive
feeling is followed by a contrasting negative feeling, and vice versa; and any
feeling, either positive or negative, that is experienced in succession loses some of
its intensity.
Incentive Theory
• External goals motivate organism to perform certain actions. The external stimuli
in the environment that “pull” the organism in certain directions are called
incentives.
• The basic assumption of incentives theory is that if a desirable goal can be
anticipated following the completion of a particular action, the organism is
motivated to perform that action.
31. Classification of Motives
• Primary Motives: Biological Needs
Many human motives stem from the need for things to keep an organism
alive and are necessary for survival. We consider these as primary motives,
also known as physiological motives. Primary motives are those directly
related to the normal body functions such as need for air, food, water,
excretion of waste, rest and sleep, protection from heat and cold, avoidance of
pain and so on. Sexual motive is also considered to be a primary motive
because the species would not be able reproduce if the sexual motive is not
satisfied.
32. • Psychological Motives
Psychological motives are needs in the sense that individual’s happiness and well-
being depend on these motives. Though psychological needs are as powerful as
physiological needs, often they are less easily identified such as need for approval,
affection, affiliation, achievement, power, prestige, and so on.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Motives
According to Maslow, our motives are organized in a hierarchy arranged from the
most basic to the personal and advanced. If lower needs in the hierarchy are not met
for the most part, then higher motives will not operate. Higher needs lie dormant
until the individual has the chance to immediately satisfy pressing lower needs like
hunger, thirst, and safety. When the lower needs are met, other motives like
developing relationships with others, achievement a positive self-esteem, and
producing crafts or art or realizing one’s full potential become important to the
individual.
33. The Maslow needs of hierarchy is as follows:
1. Physiological or Biological needs: food, drink, sex and so on
2. Safety/Security needs: order, protection, shelter and family stability
3. Love and Belongingness: affection, group affiliation, and personal
acceptance
4. Esteem needs: self-respect, reputation, and social status
5. Intellectual needs: knowledge, truth, education
6. Aesthetic needs: arts, harmony, appreciation and value of nature
7. Self- Actualization: self-fulfillment, achievement of personal goals
8. Transcending beyond oneself
34. Emotions
Plutchik(1984) identified eight basic emotions: fear, anger, joy, sadness,
acceptance, disgust, anticipation and surprise. These emotions are associated
or connected with each other. For example, the emotion of fear is connected
with the behavior pattern of protection. Likewise, anger is related to the
behavior pattern of destruction.
Motivation and Emotion are closely related concepts for three reasons:
1. The arousal of emotions activates behavior as motives do.
2. Motives are accompanied by emotions.
3. Emotions typically have motivational properties of their own.
35. Theories of Emotions
• James-Lange Theory
William James believed that the emotional stimulus is routed (by the sensory relay
center know as the thalamus) directly to the hypothalamus, which produces the
bodily reaction (fear or other emotion). The sensations from this bodily reaction are
then sent back to the cortex which produces what we feel is the conscious
experience of emotions. According to James, we cry because we feel sorry, strike
because we are angry, tremble because we are afraid.
• Cannon-Bard Theory
Walter Cannon did not just criticize the James-Lange Theory. He proposed an
alternative theory of his own. The theory states that conscious emotional
experiences and physiological reaction and behavior are relatively independent
events. The theory was later revised by Philip Bard and is known as the Cannon-Bard
theory of emotions.
36. • Cognitive Theory
The more contemporary theory of emotion views the cognitive interpretation of emotional
stimuli or events outside world and stimuli within the body as the key elements in emotion.
According to this theory, there are two steps in the process of cognitive interpretation in
emotions: (1.) the interpretation of stimuli from the environment and (2.) the interpretation
of stimuli from the body resulting from autonomic arousal.
Principles of Emotions
1. Emotional need express themselves one way or another.
2. Anger is an expression of need.
3. Our feelings and need are not wrong or bad.
4. Emotions are gateway to vitality and feeling alive.
5. We can address emotional issues and still save our true face.
37. 6. Immediate reactions to problem often disguise deeper feelings.
a. Running away. A frequent response to intense feeling is to remove ourselves
from situation by avoiding others, not talking to them, acting like they are not there, and
pretending the event never occurred.
b. Getting angry. Anger, although it appears direct, is one of the strongest avoidance
function we have because it keep us away from our deeper emotions. Anger frequently
masks feelings of being haunted.
c. Denying importance. When we are hurt, we may attempt to diminish our strong
feelings by rationalizing.
d. Addressing the situation. Identifying real feelings and then addressing the
situation is the best, but possibly the most difficult way to respond. Solutions based on
surface reactions never satisfy us because they do not respond to the heart of our concern.
True satisfaction comes when we identify, accept, and respond to our deeper needs.
7. We must clarify individual needs before solving problem with others.
8. We need to express positive feelings and communicate negative ones.
38. Mental processes
-refers to thinking which can be any of the ff. :
a. Use of symbolic processed by the brain
b. Ideation, the sequence of producing ideas concerned with the solving of specific
problem or incongruities in models of reality
c. The deliberation exploration of experience for a purpose. That purpose may be
understanding, decision-making, planning, problem-solving, judgment, action, and so on
d. Purposeful manipulation of words and image. Forming concepts, solving problems,
making decision, and being creative.
e. “Thinking is a process by which a new mental representation is formed through
transformation of information by complex interaction of the mental attributes of
judging, abstracting, reasoning, imaging and problem-solving”
From the above definition, we can deduce that mental processed can be categorized into
forming concepts, solving problems, and making judgments or plans or what they call
metacognition.
39. Mental Processes
Major decision of Thinking Thinking Processes Involved in each
Dimension
Thinking Skills
1. Concept formation Critical thinking/analysis logical
reasoning
1.Seeing relationship
2.a. induction
b. deduction
II. Problem Solving Problem solving strategies
Decision making
Creative problem solving
Learning and remembering analysis,
synthesis, making a choice,
communication
II. Problem Solving Self-management
Self-concept
Self-efficacy
Self-esteem
Awareness of oneself
Setting goals
Monitoring efforts
Evaluating outcomes
40. • Critical Thinking
-defines as principled thinking. It involves the correct assessing of statements
using analysis and logic. It serves as the foundation for evaluation and decision-making. It
is therefore a necessary skill to develop suggested the ff. 11 aspects or critical thinking:
1. Grasping the meaning of statements
2. Judging whether there is ambiguity in a line of reasoning
3. Judging whether Certain statements contradict each other
4. Judging whether A conclusion follows necessarily
5. Judging whether A statement is specifically enough
6. Judging whether A statement is actually application of a certain principles
7. Judging whether An observation statement is reliable
8. Judging whether An inductive conclusion is warranted
9. Judging whether Something is an assumption
10. Judging whether A definition is adequate
41. • Analysis
-Defines as breakdown of the material into its constituent parts and the detection of
the relationship of its parts- of the way they are organized. Two or more items are compared
and contrasted. Then a relationship is established between or among the concepts. The
relationships are varied and can be any of the ff. :
1. Semantic relationship involve similarities or differences in meaning.
2. Symbolic relationship are those that are comparable purely in terms of the symbol that
make up their components, with no respect to their meaning.
3. Phonetic relationships are pairs of words that sound alike like homonyms, rhymes.
4. Class relationship involves pairs that belong to the same classification.
5. Functional relationships can be seen if one item changes into the other, acts or performs
on the other, or is used for the other.
6. Quantitative relationships are expressed as similarities or differences as the quantity,
degree or number.
7. Pattern relationships are those that possess similar figural attributes(size, shape, pattern,
color).
42. • Strategies for Solving Analytical Problems
When attempting to solve analogy problems, it is helpful to adhere to a
specific, deliberate set of steps. The ff. sequence is based on Sternberg’s(1981)
model:
1. Read the entire analogy item.
2. Take note of the parts of speech used. No more than two different parts of
speech may be used for a parallel analogy.
3. Examine the primary relationships first, determine in what way are the
first two words related to each other, then apply the same relationship to
the same pair. If the primary is not immediately obvious, consider the
various types of analogies that can be used and try to narrow to more than
two or three possibilities.
43. • Logic and Logical Reasoning
Two thousand years ago, Aristotle introduced a system of reasoning- a process
of validating arguments called syllogism. Syllogism has three parts- a major
premise, a minor premise, and a conclusion in that order.
A conclusion reached by means of syllogistic reasoning is considered valid if the
premises are true and the form correct. This type of reasoning is deductive
logic. From general statement, we proceed to a specific situation and determine
the application of a rule or principle to that particular case.
One would observe that knowledge stored in the long-term memory has
influence on the quality of information perceives, encoded, stored, and
transformed. The more information a person has, the more accurate his
transformation will be.
44. • Problem-Solving
-cognitive process through which information/concepts are used
to reach a goal that is sometimes blocked by some kind of obstacle. It is
synonymous to synthesis, which putting together the elements and parts
so as to form new information from a given information. Edward de
Bono(1979) calls it generative thinking.
Problem solving consists of cognitive operations that follows a pattern. It
is required that the elements be combined in a new way. When a
scientist uses the findings of others as background information and then
builds on these findings adding personal interpretation to produce new
information, he is forming a synthesis.
45. The ff. are steps in solving everyday problem:
1. Analyze the problem, its manifestations and its causes;
2. Decide what information and tool are needed;
3. Design solution and alternatives;
4. Evaluate advantages and disadvantages of each possible solution;
5. Act on the chosen solution;
6. Monitor and evaluate every step and its effect; and
7. Be creative and patients until the problem is solved.
46. • Creative Thinking
Problem solving challenges one's creative thinking the quality of the solution to
a problem is an outcome of one creative thinking. Torrance (1974) an autority
on creativity defines creativity as a process of becoming sensitive to problems
deficiencies gaps in knowledge missing elements disharmonies searching for
solution making guesses or formulating a hypothesis about deficiencies testing
and resting this hypothesis possibly modifying and retesting them and finally
communicating the result
1 . Saturation
2. Deliberation
3. Incubation
4. Illumination
47. Creative problem solving can be enhanced by following some of these
strategies.
1. Use brainstorming to stimulate ideas
2 . Use the Delphi technique to make the best use of the experiences of the
people involved and to avoid the gut feel of one person overriding the gut feel
of all the others
3 . Try lateral thinking (de Bono 1979)
4. Challenging anything that blocks the solution
5. Persist and review the objectives while in the process
6. Be imaginative and take risk in what is not ordinary
7. Ask help where you may
8. Break the problem to make it easier to cope with
9. Be open minded be flexible consider the devils advocate ideas
10 . Grow in knowledge by reading listening to others and involving yourself in
different learning experiences
48. • Metacognition
Another mental process that needs attention is thinking about one's
thinking. People usually spend so much time thinking about others,
about their word and about the events in the environment. Taking
time to think about one's thinking will make a difference in the
expressions and outcomes of one's action. Thinking about one's
thoughts that effect one's feelings and action may make the person
realize the impact of his emotions on his behavior. This kind of
thinking is called metacognition. It is a form of thinking in which an
individual develops an awareness of his characteristics, attitudes,
beliefs and actions.
49. • Intelligence
Nickersen Perkins and smith (1985) in Solso 1988 have compiled a list of abilities with they believe represent human
intelligence that would be required of a computer to act humanly intelligent :
The ability to classify patterns. All humans with normal intelligence seem able to assign non-identical stimuli to
classes.
The ability to modify behavior adaptively. To learn adapting to one's environment is amore important mark of
human intelligence.
The ability to reason deductively. Making logical inferences from stated premises lessens mistakes and failures
The ability to reason inductively and generalize. To discover rules and principles from specific circumstances
makes an intelligent person go beyond the information given
The ability to develop and use conceptual models. Much of what we know we infer from our past experiences
with other similar things and events
The ability to understand. The ability to see relationship in problems and to appreciate the meaning of these
relationship in solving a problem is a validation of one's understanding
50. • Theories of Intelligence
Francis Galton's theory of General Intelligence
The term intelligence was popularized in the 1980's by writings of Sir Francis Galton. He is a
cousin of Charles Darwin, who credited for developing the theory of evolution based on
natural selection of inherited characteristic. In Galton view, intelligence is a single general
characteristics that provides the basis for more specific ability that each of us possesses. He
believed that intellectual ability is inherited and if one is generally intelligent, he will likely
develop strong mechanical, artistic, musical, and other kinds of ability.
Alfred Binet's theory General Intelligence
Alfred Binet also viewed as the general ability to reasons and solve problems in a variety of
situations. He based this view in his observation that good students tend to do well on all of
the tasks included in the Binet-Simoun scale, while poor students tend to do poorly on all
task.
51. David Wechsler
David Wechsler (1958 cited in sdorow1990) believed that intelligence
is the capacity to understand the world and the resourcefulness to
cope with the challenges. He further suggested that if may include the
capacity to act purposefully to think rationally and to deal effectively
with the environment (Wechsler 1957). He constructed an intelligence
test with subscales measuring those abilities. He developed version of
his test for use with different age groups. The Wechsler Intelligence
scale for children (WISC) for ages 6-7 and the Wechsler Adult
intelligence scale ( WAIS) for adults. Both has undergone revisions
1974 and 1981 respectively. Each of Wechsler's intelligence scale
contains subtest measuring different aspects of verbal and nonverbal
IQ, a performance or nonverbal IQ, and an overall IQ
52. Horn and Cattell's Two - factor Theory of Intelligence
John Horn and Raymond Cattell (1966) identified two fundamental
types of intelligence. Fluid intelligence which reflects thinking ability,
memory capacity, and speed of information processing is largely
inherited and independent of education. In contrast, crystallized
intelligence is a combination of knowledge and developed skills
brought about by schooling and everyday experiences.
53. Spearman's Theory of General Intelligence
Charles Spearman found that scores on certain task correlate highly
with one another. Performance on vocabulary test, reading, and
writing test which correlate highly might reflect the influence of a
verbal ability factor. When a group of people were given variety of
cognitive tasks, their scores on task tented to show high or moderate
or low on all test. This led spearman to conclude that performed on all
the task depend on the operation of a single underlying factor which
he called "g" -a general intelligence factor. However, the correlations
between the tasks correlated were less than a perfect 1.00; Spearman
thought there must also be a specific factor which he called "S“ factor.
54. Thurstone‘S Theory of Primary Mental Abilities
Based on individual's performance on a battery of tests. Louis
Thurstone identifies seven factors which he called Primary Mental
Abilities namely, reasoning, word fluency, perceptual speed, verbal
comprehension, spatial visualization, numerical calculation, and
associative memory.
Though scores or test measuring these abilities had moderately high
correlation with one another, they did not correlate high enough for
Thurstone to assume the existence of a general underlying factor
which would reflect the influence of a specific intelligence related to
the particular ability assessed by the test.
55. Guilford Structure of the Intellect
J.P Guilford suggested that some 120 different abilities make up what
we call intelligence. Each of these represent the interaction among
dimensions that Guillford called cognitive operations (thought
processes), contents (Information the person thinking about ), and
products (result of thinking about the information.
56. The Triarchic Theory of intelligence
Robert Sternberg ( 1984) developed the Triarchic Theory of intelligence
assuming the intelligence is composed of three general types of abilities.
He distinguished between componential intelligence which reflect verbal
reasoning ability, experiential intelligence which is the ability to combine
different experiences in insightful ways to solve specific problem, and
contextual intelligence which is the ability to function in everyday social
situation. (Sdorow, 1990)
The Triarchic theory recognizes the individual ability to function in setting
other than school. It also recognizes that fact that one may excel in one kind
of intelligence without excelling in the other two. However, Sternberg (1986)
believes that each of the three kinds of intelligence can be improved by
special training.
57. • The Theory of Multiple intelligences
Howard Gardner (1983) believed that the brain has enveloped separate system
for different adoptive abilities that he calls intelligences. Each of these seven
types of intelligences is developed in different degrees in every person. Some of
them are assessed by traditional intelligence test like linguistic intelligence,
logical mathematical intelligence, and spatial intelligence, others are not
assessed by tradition intelligence test like bodily - kinetics intelligence,
intrapersonal intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and musical intelligence .
As observed in everyday life a person may excel in one or more of Gardener 's
intelligence, while being average or below average or below in others. In extreme
cases, there are children who are autistics but have musical intelligence, one who
excels in painting but maybe “average” in other areas, the athlete who excel in
sports but is too shy in interview, or one who is mathematics genius but could
hardly carry out a verbal exchange, confidently.
58. According to Gardner the extent which a person will succeed in life depends on
the extent to which he develops the kind of intelligence that are needed in one
culture. For example, for most people especially in the urban areas success
depends more on linguistic intelligence than in any other. One has to learn to
process information in print, otherwise organize and use them to act
communicate effectively. One who lived in other culture, like in a fishing or
farming village will have to depend on their spatial and bodily kinesthetic
intelligence to live productively.
Somewhere in the readings of the author, she encountered an additional
intelligence which is the naturalistic intelligence. People who are very keen
observes of the elements of nature so that they can predict what is to happen
from their observations are examples of this type. Another book cited moral
intelligence an ability to decide on which is more appropriate behavior as
another kind of intelligence. Perhaps as long as there are psychologists trying to
59. • Emotional Intelligence
Recently, Goleman(1994) revived the notion of emotional intelligence.
It refers to the ability to use one’s emotion, as conceptualized by
Salovey, in order to succeed. Actually, it can be synonymous to
Thorndike’s earlier formation of social intelligence, It involves being
aware one’s feelings and mood, managing one’s mood, motivating
oneself, and being able to maintain interpersonal relationships.
Researchers are being conducted to harness emotional Intelligence for
one’s success.
60. • Human Relationship
Interaction with others add meaning to one’s life. Living is worthwhile as
long as we learn to live for what it is. What is life for you? It depends on
one’s experiences and thoughts. But to live life meaningfully is to be able
to say that one has done something to himself and for others. In
Erickson’s psychosocial stages of life, one who is his retirement age
should be able to look back and claim he contributed to the betterment
of another’s life.
Inside every individual is an interaction. His personal characteristics are
manifested in his behavior which others in the group experience as he
relates with them. These personal characteristic are products of his
hereditary endowments, his interaction with his environments and the
realization that comes with maturity.
61. Theories of Social Interactions
Symbolic Interactionism (George Herbert Mead)
• The self emerges from social interactions through the understanding
of symbols. She learns to understand the symbols in her society as she
sees them. At first she imitates them, but they don’t have meaning.
Later, she learns to produce the symbols, She likewise learns to imitate
what others are doing to express herself to/ with others. As she
matures, she is able to understand many symbols and adjust behavior
according to her perception of symbols in the situations. If she has
acquired the symbols of the people around, then there will be more
harmonious interpersonal relations.
62. • Social Learning Theory
A person’s self-concept is an aspect of his personality that will affect
his interpersonal relations. The sum total of a person’s though or idea
about his appearance, his family, his experiences and the recognition
he gets from the people around him all contribute to his self-concept.
During childhood an individual develops his self-concepts as his
interacts with the members of his family. When he feels he is loved, he
sees himself positively. When he goes to school, he begins to compare
himself to others. If he sees himself comparable with others, he
continues to feel good about himself. If he habitually fails or generally
disliked by others he develops negative self-concept.
63. You can observe how these two kinds of personal orientations differ as
to attitudes towards others and their work. While one who has high
self-concept usually volunteers to do something, the one with low self-
concept will shun responsibility because of lack of a sense that he can
do it. It self-efficacy in the language of Social Learning Theory. Thus,
one who has low self-concept is usually shy and withdraw while the
others is open to experience and is outgoing.
The feedback one gets from peers, significant others or even new
acquaintances continue to form the self-concept of an adolescent. The
comments she receives defined her identity which influences her
reactions to other events. It (feedback) is also the basis for future
plans and goals in life.
64. However, as one matures, she develops a self-awareness that may influence
her self-concept better than that provided by information from others.
Through careful observation of her feelings, thought and behavior, she
develops a better self-concept. She knows her strengths and weaknesses. If she
able to do things successfully, she develops a sense of worthiness or self-
esteem. Sometimes she may not feel successful but knowing that she tried her
best, that she did something, gives the individual high assurance of self-worth
because she may realize that not everything is under her control.
As an individual matures, the self becomes the source of self-esteem. It is the
individual himself who know his feelings, thoughts and capacities. He evaluates
what he was done. If he think he has done it well according to his own
thoughts, feelings, and capacities, he develops high self-esteem.
65. • Attribution Theory
Another beliefs that affects one’s interpersonal behavior is attribution. It refers to the
perception of the cause of a person’s behavior. If a person attributes the outcomes of his
action to his personal efforts, characteristics or attitudes, he has internal orientation. How
do you think will this affect. His attitudes? How about when one sees that others, luck or
circumstances beyond his control, are responsible for his outcomes? How will he behave in
future projects? Having external orientation usually draws little or no effort in doing
something better. People who have internal attribution are perceived to be more self-reliant,
more persistent, and more persevering. They are more likely to succeed specially in
academic situations. Perhaps it can also improved our interpersonal relations. When we risk
something in somebody whom we like to be our friend, a friendship might develop. Taking
responsibility for the direction and quality of relationship will result in a more active and
responsive interpersonal relations
66. • . Heider suggests: "The greater the personal force contributing to the
production of an outcome, the greater the actor's responsibility for the
occurrence of that effect." In an interpersonal context, a person's
attribution of a behavior can affects his behavior to the situations.
• We judge situations and other people on the basis of our own perceptions,
expectations, experiences, motives, and feelings. We fail to consider the
other person's concerns and motives. It will help if we find out first the
other person's thought and feelings. We will achieve better relationship if
we check out perception and our communication. Take care not to be
biased or too emotional. Being considerate of the other person's thoughts
and feelings can make a difference in our expressions.
67. • Carl Roger's Theory of Interpersonal Relations
Congruence is the term to indicate accurate matching of experiences,
awareness, and communication of an individual. Actual psychological
experience is being accurately represented in his awareness and his
communication.
Each one of us recognizes the need to be in congruence with persons we deal
with. In your interaction with others, perhaps, you may have met and
observed persons who really mean what they say and try to reciprocate or
match the feelings and empressions of others. With them, we exactly know
where we stand. However, there are also others, who, with certainty always
put up a front, a façade and we wonder what they really feel.
68. • Empathic Understanding: A Tool for Interpersonal
Relationship
• Being empathic is a very special way of being with other person. It is one of the
most delicate and powerful way of using ourselves. It also the most potent factor in
bringing about changing and learning
• Listening to feelings and reflecting them ate important aspects of empathic
understanding, "It is an experiencing of the consciousness behind another's
outward communication, but continuous awareness that this consciousness is
originating and proceeding in other. Empathy is the ability to understand how the
other feels and thinks about a particular situation.
69. • What are the effects of empathy? Empathy is related to positive outcomes
so proven by social researchers.
• Empathy dissolves alienation. The person feel he is no longer an isolate
because someone is able to understand him
• The recipient feel valued, cared for, and accepted as the person he is
which later facilitates to listening more to himself and understanding
himself better. By letting the other person know "where you are"
emotionally, being able to communicate clearly or what term congruence
is the basis for building a relationship. The three of them-congruence,
empathy, positive regard-provide illumination and healing, our precious
gifts to other person.
70. • The Filipino Interpersonal Values
• Filipinos are admired for their capacity for smooth interpersonal relations.
They value the "kapwa-tao". They will exert effort to please the other
person. They hold the "kapwa" in high esteem that they give him the best
of themselves and their resources.
• Pagbibigay-galang, mabuting pagtanggap, pakikipagpalagayang loob, hiya,
utang na loob,bayanihan, and pakikisama are Filipino vocabularies that
give color to the Filipino Interpersonal relations.
71. • The Role of Self-esteem in Interpersonal Relations
• Have you taken the indicatives or risk in doing something you thoughts you cannot
do?
• How do you feel after each situation? How does it feel to try and give your best to
what you are doing?
• How does it feel to help other do a task or just lift their hopes and spirits?
• How does it feel when someone says I was motivated by your concern for me?
• There are many things that we do for ourselves and for self-respect. We change our
lives and other's lives too, because we believe we can or we have to. The sense of
confidence in our capacity to do something is self-efficacy. Self-respect is the feeling
we develop from trying to give our best to what we think we can ought to do. These
two components make up self-esteem.
72. • Self-efficacy + Self-respect= Self-esteem
• A sense of esteem or worthiness gives a person the confidence to take risk
and so she is able to help other persons. Her effort gives her additional
experience and insight about herself and her capacity. She develops a
sense of well-being or respect for herself. The acceptance and respect she
give herself is felt for others. If she able to accept herself for what she is
and respect herself for what she can do, she will also able to give the same
to others. She experience of success approximation of what is expected
develop trust.
• Hence, there is improvement in every undertaking. These feelings of
acceptance, respect, and trust of oneself is experienced also for others,
Thus, a person with healthy self-esteem can establish a harmonious or
facilitative relationship with others.
73. • What is Communication?
• Communication is a process in which one person or group transmit some
type of information to another person or group who interprets the
message and sends feedback in return
• The message is transmitted to the receivers. A sender's ability to encode
ideas, thoughts and feelings will affect how it is going to be decoded or
interpreted by the receiver. After decoding, the receiver may send a reply
or feedback. The process may be very simple but there are factors may
affect the whole process. Personal factors will have some influence on the
performance of the sender and the receiver. The situation of the
environment, like atmosphere, will also have an impact on how the
message is transmitted and received.
74. Types of Communication
• Nonverbal Communication
-While we do transmit a great of information to other through words,
we also communicate with them non-verbally through an unspoken
languages of gazes, expressions, and body movements. The distance we kept
from the other person or the way we use physical space gives non-verbal
cues. The manner and style or personal grooming are also channels for non-
verbal communication.
75. • Reading Facial Expressions
-The six different emotions universally understood/conveyed by facial
expressions are happiness, sadness, suprises, fear, anger, and disgust. We
have to watch the facial expression to find out the ither's feelings. If however
the other person doesn't want us know hos feelings, he may conceal them.
Some professionals must learn to conceal their true feeling like the doctor
who worries about his patient, the consumer who wants to get a bargain, or
the caregivers who would not want their client to feel embrrassed. One who
would want to read person though his facial expression can detect
concealment by the timing of:
76. • Gazes and Stares: the Language of the Eyes
-The ayes are the windows of the soul. They transmit eloquently a
great deal of our thought and feelings. Have you seen a smile that seem to be
lacking in genuineness because the look in the eyes of the person seems to
say he is not really happy?
• Can you tell the difference between the casual look and the look full of
love? Have you been alarmed by the stare of another person?
77. • Body Language: Gesture, Movement, and Postures
-Another interesting mode of communication. Is the use of body
language, gesture, movements and posture convey as many messages as
there are symbols one can think of and can be understood in return. What
does a thumbs up sign mean? When one cannot sit still or when he paces a
room back and forth, how does he feel? How do you sit when you are alert
and want to participate in discussion? What does person who look at hos
watch want to say or unconsciously feel? What would you think of people
who are well mannered, polite, and respectful?
78. • Physical Appearance
-My father used to narrate his experience about grooming. He was
boding for the construction of four-door apartment building. He came on a
friend's invitation. There were three of them who met the owner. He won the
bidding not on the basis lowest bid but on the basis his good grooming. He
learned he was trusted the project because the owner thought he must be
responsible because he care for his appearance. He showed concern not only
for himself but for other who he was going to interact with. As you might
imagine, people really care about appearance. There are many good things
about being properly groomed.
79. The Use of Space and Architecture
• Are you aware of the distance you maintain with other? The more familiar
with the person, the closer you approach them, unlike when meeting
mere acquaintances or strangers. There are other messages conveyed by
physical space. The bigger the space occupied, the higher position of the
person in the company. Notice the office table of the trainees and the
manager, including the location and materials used in each. The
architectural design of homes, school and offices convey status, interest
and life/work style of its occupant.
• We are aware of the importance of heeding the non-verbal cues when
there is incongruence. Actions speak louder.
80. Understanding Human Personality
• Personality can be defined as the distinctive patterns of thought, emotion,
and behavior that make up an individuals' personal style of interacting
approach, the behavioral approach and the cognitive approach.
• The psychoanalytic approach-inherited predispositions explain individual
difference in personality. The most popular of these approaches is the Big
Five Personality factors namely Openness to experience,
Conscientiousness, Extravension, Agreebleness and Neurotism. (OCEAN)
81. • The humanistic approach- identifies self responsibility and feelings of acceptance,
respect, and trust as the key causes of differences in personality. A person who is
growing toward self actualization can be said to be psychologically healthy.
• Behavioral approach- behavioral theorists see behavior as a result of conditions in
the environment that shape human behavior. Social learning theory emphasizes the
role of models to develop the desired personality.
• Cognitive approach- describe how people process information. People differ in the
way they mentally represent information. How individuals interpret themselves and
their environment determine how they will respond to the world.
• Each of five approaches is of some value when explaining behavior patterns. It is
possible that one theory is appropriate for explaining one aspect of personality and
some others will be more acceptable for explaining other dimensions of personality.
It seems that when studying a person's personality one needs to consider the
different approaches to really understand a person.
82. • Psychological Disorders
-People with Good Mental Health
A normal person possesses to a greater degree the traits:
1. Appropriate perception of reality
2. Ability to exercise voluntary control over behavior
3. Self-esteem and acceptance
4. Ability to form affection ate relationships
83. • Maladaptive behaviors may be categorized into:
• 1. Anxiety disorders
A. Panic
B. Phobias
C. Obsessive compulsive disorders
• 2. Mood disorders
A. Depression
B. Bipolar disorder
• 3. Schizophrenia
• 4. Personality disorders
• There are many ways we can influence our psychological well being. By trying to
analyze our actions and feelings we can enhance our capacity to remain
psychologically health.
84. • PART II- ANALYZING TEST ITEMS
• 1. The Constitution of the Phil. Is to a lawyer while the Professional Code
of Ethics for Teacher is to Teacher.
A. Semantic relationship
B. Symbolic relationship
C. Phonetic relationship
D. Functional relationship
The correct answer is D because the Constitution of the Phil. Is used by the lawyer and
the Professional Code of Ethics is guide to the teacher.
85. • 2. A person's assessment of his current circumtances determines his
response. What will you do in case you were in a not so pleasant
situation?
A. Express your thoughts and feeling to whomever
B. Analyze the situation in different perspective
C. Listen to your friend's opinion
D. Respond the way you think you are happier.
• The correct is B. All the answer are possible but it is more scientific that a person analyzed, or
assesses the different perspectives of the situation before responding.
86. • 3. Karmi was able to achieve her goal of a college degree despite her
family's financial difficulties. She supported herself by taking student-
friendly work schedules. Her determination to change her future
succeeded. Which statement describe her personality development?
A. Personality is a product of heredity
B. shaped by one's environment
C. the person's decision.
D. A product of the reaction of people in one's environment.
• The correct answer is C. The rest of the answer are half true. Karmi is mature enough to be
productive and to make decisions and her decisions shape her personality.
87. • 4. What is defined as the distinctive pattern of thought, emotion, and behavior that makes up an
individuals' personal style of interacting with physical and social environment?
A. Psychology
B. Personality
C. Intelligence
D. Heredity
• 5. It is considered the most comprehensive and influential theory of personality. Sigmund Freud,
its proponent, claimed that much of what we think and do is driven by unconscious experience.
A. Evolutionary Psychology
B. Humanistic
C. Psychoanalytic
D. Social learning
• 6. Sigmund Freud instructed his patients to say everything that comes to mind during their
treatment session. This is the method of________.
A. Free Association
B. Hypnosis
C. Meditation
D. Transference
88. • 7. Roderick won the Web Page Design Competition in his school. His work showed he has
superior capacity for abstract thinking and creative expression . What state does he
manifest?
A. Sensory motor
B. Pre-operational
C. Concrete
D. Formal
• 8. What defense mechanism is used when a person give reasons for failure to perform a
behavior?
A. Displacement
B. Projection
C. Rationalization
D. Reaction formation.
89. 9. This perspective holds that individuals have an innate tendency to move toward growth, maturity, and
positive change.
a. behavioral
b. cognitive
c. humanistic
d. psychoanalytic
10. An interrelated set of proposition about a particular phenomenon and supposed to be the most
important source for scientific hypothesis- is referred to as
a. conclusion
b. experiment
c. problem
d. theory
11. He is the author of the first psychology textbook published in 1890.
a. Burhuss Skinner
b. William James
c. Ivan Pavlov
d. James B. Watson
90. 12. Psychology not only seeks scientifically study behavior and mental processes, but also attempts to
a. understand why people do the things they do
b. provide continuity between scientific discipline
c. combined sociological and psychiatric construct
d. apply the knowledge to the service of human welfare
13. Although psychologist study many different topics and use many kinds of method, there is unity
within the field since most psychologist
a. work in more than one subfield
b. emphasize empirical research
c. publish article on their research
d. engage in speculative research
14. These psychologist believed that perception depends on the patterns formed by the stimuli and
on the organization of experience.
a. behavioral b. gestalt
c. humanistic d. psychoanalytic
91. 15. He established the first psychological laboratory in Germany in 1879. His interest were om the
senses, especially vision.
a. Charles Darwin b. Ivan Pavlov
c. Kurt Koffka d. Wilhelm Wundt
16. Which will be logical sequence for solving a problem ?
1. making conclusion
2. defining the problem
3. gathering relevant information
4. generating hypothesis
5. testing hypothesis
a. 1 2 3 4 5 b. 2 3 4 1 5 c. 1 2 3 5 4 d. 2 3 4 5 1
17. This perspective understands behavior in terms of unconscious processes.
a. behavioral b. cognitive
c. psychoanalytic d. subjective
92. 18. All behavior is a result of conditioning and the environment shapes behavior by reinforcing specific
habits according to:
a. structuralism b. functionalism
c. behaviorism d. humanism
19. This is a subfield of psychology which conduct research teaching and learning to influence
development of more effective ways in facilitating learning.
a. experimental psychology b. developmental psychology
c. education psychology d. organizational psychology
20. Which process is involved in integration and meaningful interpretation of information received by
the stimuli?
a. perception b. sensation
c. elaboration d. generalization
21. The most common sleep disorder characterized by long term inability to obtain adequate sleep due
to late onset sleep or frequent wakening is
a. insomnia b. sleep apnea
c. sleep walking d. nightmare
93. 22. This kind of talking oneself which helps the individual to know what to do, what tools to use, what
consequence will be acceptable. What kind of thinking is this?
a. metacognitive b. analytical thinking
c. logical reasoning d. creative thinking
23. What kind of thinking do we engage in when we categorized or organized into categories, or analyze
materials by establishing relationships or patterns in them?
a. critical thinking b. creative thinking
c. generative thinking d. reflective thinking
24. Reactions to a particular situation may vary because of individual differences. Which is not a factor in
the development of schema?
a. culture b. prior knowledge
c. language/vocabulary d. physical attributes
25. This refers to a group of disorders characterized by loss of contact with reality, marked disturbance of
thoughts and perception. Delusion and hallucinations almost always occur.
a. anxiety disorder b. mood disorder
c. personality disorder c. schizophrenia
