Water

1. PLAN 1900: Sustainable Cities
Week 8: Managing Urban Water Resources
Anuradha Mukherji
Assistant Professor of Urban and Regional Planning

2. WATER
KEY POINTS:
- Water is a foundation of and essential for life
- Critical to social, environmental and economic
sustainability
- Freshwater for drinking and ecosystems
- Agriculture and industry processes require water
- Tourism based economies depend on water,

3. WATER
THREE KEY AREAS OF EMERGING GLOBAL WATER CRISES:
- Lack of sanitary water and wastewater conditions in the Global
South
- Degradation of freshwater supplies and associated habitats by
human action such as pollution
- Looming shortfall between freshwater supply and demand in urban
and rural areas

4. NATURAL WATER STORAGE SYSTEM
- 97% of earth covered with water and 3% by land, but only 2.5% is fresh
water, over half of that is locked in ice caps, glaciers, and snow mass
- Shallow aquifers have limited volume of water supply, high volume pumping
depletes it quickly, and they can be contaminated from surface sources like
septic tanks
- Deep water aquifers can take decades to centuries to recharge
This image is attributed to http://www.keepbanderabeautiful.org/waterquiz.html

5. RENEWABLE RESOURCE CYCLE
- Water moves from ocean to land and back through evaporation and
precipitation (i.e., rain or snow) – the renewable resource cycle
- Surface water flows into streams and rivers, is stored in lakes, or percolates
into the ground (i.e., shallow or deep aquifers)
This image is attributed to http://www.keepbanderabeautiful.org/waterquiz.html

6. WATERSHED
A land area where all underground and
surface water feeds into a body of
water.
Watershed impacts water quality

7. NORTH CAROLINA RIVER BASINS

8. - Fresh water source: Ground water, surface water & reclaimed water
UNITED STATES
- Primary source of fresh water is surface water (77%) and the ground water
(23%)
- Fresh water increasingly withdrawn, stored and delivered over long distances
SURFACE WATER
- Dependent on climate cycles, topography, precipitation
- Needs treatment to be potable.
GROUND WATER
- May need no treatment for potable purpose
- Susceptible to drought conditions and can deplete if withdrawal from aquifers is
at a higher rate than recharge
UNITED STATES WATER SUPPLY

9. UNITED STATES WATER SYSTEM
- Water distributed through public system –
treated, and distributed via piped system –
have to meet national water quality standards
- Source ranges from a single well to large
systems using multiple ground and/or surface
water sources
- Old water systems (i.e., Boston) have high
percent of water leaks from main water lines
(30-40%), newer cities have less
- Standard measure of water use efficiency –
Gallons used per capita per day (GPCD)
- US has highest GPCDs globally – varies from
50 to 400
"Hayward water tower, California" by Mercurywoodrose - Own work. Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons

10. UNITED STATES WATER USE – GROUND &
SURFACE
This image is attributed to Pijawka & Gromulat @ 2012, Understanding Sustainable cities. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt, p. 94

11. Total Water Use (Freshwater and Saline Water), by Sector (1900–2010)
Notes: Municipal and Industrial (M&I) includes public supply, self-supplied residential, self-supplied industrial, mining, and self-supplied commercial (self-supplied
commercial was not calculated in 2000–2010). Agriculture includes aquaculture (1985–2010 only), livestock, and irrigation. Between 1900 and 1945, the M&I category
includes water for livestock and dairy.
Sources: Data for 1900–1945 from the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ) (1991). Data for 1950–2010 from USGS (2014a). Population data from Williamson (2015).

12. UNITED STATES WATER USE
OUTDOOR & INDOOR USE:
- Residential and domestic uses represent largest volume of water use – 60-70%
of total public water supplies
- Two types of use – indoor and outdoor
- Climate impacts consumption demands for outdoor use – dryer or hotter
seasons see more use (15-60%: watering grass & garden, cooling towers,
pools)
- Indoor use has less variation,
based on age of home as
well as income, age and
number of residents
- About 50% of indoor use is in
the bathroom and 25% in the
laundry
This image is attributed to Pijawka & Gromulat @ 2012, Understanding Sustainable cities. Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hunt, p. 91

13. Residential Water use (Mean daily per capita) from 12 study sites in the U.S.
(Mayer et al. 1999, AWWR study)

14. Residential Per Capita Water Use, by State (2010), Source: USGS (2014b)
United States Geological Survey (USGS) (2014b). United States, county-level data file.
http://water.usgs.gov/watuse/data/2010/ index.htm

15. UNITED STATES WATER USE
INCREASED EFFICIENCIES vs POPULATION AND ECONOMIC GROWTH
- Federal Regulation: Water efficiency standards has increased efficiency of new
toilets, shower heads, faucets, clothes washer, and dishwashers
- Overall decline in per capita water use over last 20 years – conservation at all
levels of government, business, and individuals; rate increases; laws
This image is attributed to Frost, August 2013, The Water Demand Revolution, Planning Magazine. American Planning Association, p. 14

16. WATER POLLUTION & DEGRADATION OF FRESH
WATER SUPPLIES

17. TYPES OF WATER
POLLUTION SOURCES
- Point Source: Industrial & Municipal
Facilities, Residential
- Non-Point Source: Urban, Roads,
Agricultural, Atmospheric, Forestry,
Construction

18. Hog Farms in Eastern North Carolina, Non-Point Water Pollution Source

19. Hog Farms in Eastern North Carolina, Non-Point Water Pollution Source

20. TYPES OF SEWAGE SYSTEMS IN THE US
1. Combined Sewage System
(CSOs – Combined Sewage
Overflow)
2. Separate Sanitary System

21. combined sewer overflows (CSOs)
Thought of as a type of “Urban wet weather” discharge
POTW: publically owned
treatment works

22. TYPES OF SEWAGE SYSTEMS IN THE US
CSOs – Combined Sewage
Overflow

23. COMBINED SEWAGE SYSTEMS IN THE US

24. FUTURE WATER ISSUES & CHALLENGES
WATER SHORTAGE – Shortfall between fresh water supply and demand
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT – Conflict over limited water resources
WATER MANAGEMENT – Sustainable planning, anticipatory governance &
flexible adaptive strategies
PRIVATIZATION OF WATER – Purchase of water rights by global entities and
loss of access among local communities

25. https://www3.epa.gov/watersense/our_water/tomorrow_beyond.html
Strains on water supplies and Population Changes

26. "Ogallala changes 1980-1995" by Kbh3rd - Own work. Licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons
Ogallala Aquifer, US
- One of the largest in the US
- Stretches under 174,000
square miles of eight high
plain states
- Primary source of water for the
region for 100 years
- Being pumped too fast to
recharge and at risk of
depletion over next 25-30
years

27. https://www3.epa.gov/watersense/our_water/tomorrow_beyond.html
•Consequences for communities:
Strains on water supplies and aging water
treatment systems
• Higher water prices to ensure continued access to a reliable and safe
supply
• Increased summer watering restrictions to manage shortages
• Seasonal loss of recreational areas like lakes and rivers when the
human demand for water conflicts with environmental needs
• Expensive water treatment projects to transport and store
freshwater when local demand overcomes available capacity

28. ""Arizona cap canal". Licensed under Public domain via Wikimedia Commons -
http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Arizona_cap_canal.jpg#mediaviewer/File:Arizona_cap_canal.jpg
Central Arizona Project
Canal diverts water from the
Colorado River to supply water to
municipal (e.g., Phoenix &
Tucson), industrial, agricultural,
and Indian customers in Arizona

29. By Ikluft (Own work) [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html) or CC-BY-SA-3.0-2.5-2.0-1.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia
Commons
California Aqueduct
System of canals, tunnels, pipelines that
convey water collected from Sierra
Nevada mountains and valleys of
Northern and Central California to
Southern California

30. This image is attributed to Frost, August 2013, The Water Demand Revolution, Planning Magazine. American Planning Association, p. 14
THE COLORADO RIVER COMPACT
In 1926, seven basin states of Colorado
River watershed agreed through a
Compact to allocate to each state a
share of the river
Allocation based on population and the
assumption that last 20 years of water
gauge measure of river’s flow would
predict future cycles
Those 20 were the wettest in 500 years
and resulted in over allocation
Based on assumption that natural
systems would remain ‘stationary’

31. Source: Buford Elevation Data,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
31
The serious drought in 2007-2008 put Metro Atlanta region in critical condition
as the Lake Lanier was predicted to be depleted within 3-4 months.
Metro Atlanta Water Drought in 2007-2008

32. 32
 Historically, increase of water demand and shortage of seasonal water supply in
drought period has been a concern and caused regional and political conflicts
among AL, GA,and FL (Tri-state Water Wars)
 Continuing population/employment growth calls for sustainable urban water use
planning effort in the region
Tri-state water wars
TRI-STATE WATER WARS

34.  EPA WaterSense Website:
 https://www3.epa.gov/watersense/our_water/water_use_today.html
 Water use Calculator:
 https://www3.epa.gov/watersense/our_water/start_saving.html#tabs-3
 WaterSense State Fact Sheet
 https://www3.epa.gov/watersense/our_water/state_facts.html
 NC State Fact Sheet :
 https://www3.epa.gov/watersense/docs/north_carolina_state_fact_she
et.pdf

35. Sustainable Water Use

36. 36
Sustainable
Water Use
Effectively
Manage
Sustainable
Infrastructure
Maintain a
Good Quality of
Water
Balance
Supply and
Demand
Under
population &
economic
Growth
Definition of Sustainable
Water Use (Kotas, 2008)
A pattern of water use which
ensures satisfaction of needs for
both the present and future
generations
SUSTAIANBE WATER USE

37. 37
More compact urban growth pattern can reduce
the consumption level of natural resources
such as water and energy

38. 38
Sprawl
With Low
Density
Development
% of single family housing ↑
A size of lot ↑
A size of turf-grass and lawn ↑
A size of building ↑
Family size ↑
Outdoor pools ↑
Impervious surface ↑
Over all water demand ↑
per capita water usage ↑
New demand in suburban↑
Storm water runoff ↑
New infrastructure needs and
costs burden increase ↑
Spatially dispersed water
demand pattern
Impact of Sprawl (Low Density Development) on Urban Water Use

39. DIVERSYING WATER PORTFOLIO
RECYCLING WATER
CONSERVING WATER BY CURBING USE
MANAGING ACQUIFERS CAREFULLY
IMPLEMENTING INNOVATIVE WATER RATE STRUCTURES
WATER USE RESTRICTIONS
DESALINATING OCEAN OR BRACKISH WATER
WATERSHED-BASED OR REGIONAL APPROACH TO WATER
MANAGEMENT

40. cisterns

41. DIVERSIFYING WATER PORTFOLIO –
DESALINATION
This image is attributed to Laird, August 2013, With a Grain of Salt, Planning Magazine. American Planning Association, p. 32
California Portfolio: Colorado River, State Water Project, Conservation, Waste Water
Recycle, & Storm water Capture
Desalinated water typically
costs $2,000 an acre foot, double that of water from recycling wastewater.
Argument: More reliable, cheaper over time as imported water becomes costly

42. This image is attributed to Frost, August 2013, The Water Demand Revolution, Planning Magazine. American Planning Association, p. 14
AMERICAN SOUTHWEST - LAS VEGAS & PHOENIX
PHOENIX – GMA (1980s)
- Relies on Central Arizona
Project (primary), Ground &
Reclaimed Water
- Anticipatory Governance
Model a range of futures
Prepare flexible strategies
Implement as anticipated
- Residential landscaping
- Reuses almost 100% of its
effluent – agriculture & turf
irrigation (30%), power
production (30%),
environmental uses (40%)
- Water acquisition impact fee
with building permit
Predicting, Planning vs Anticipatory Governance