Improving learning best practices for teaching presentacion octubre 5 -2009

Improving Learning:
Best Practices for
TeachingTeaching
Workshop October 6, 2009

Definition of “Good
Teaching”
“Good teaching is the creating of those
circumstances that lead to significant
learning in others.”learning in others.”
--Finkel, Teaching with Your
Mouth Shut

Significant Learning
• Thinking back over your whole life, what
were the two or three most significant
learning experiences you ever had?learning experiences you ever had?
That is, list the moments (or events) in
which you discovered something of
lasting significance in your life

Questions to ask yourself:
• Did it take place in a classroom?
• Did it take place in a school?
• Was a professional teacher instrumental in making
the learning experience happen?
• Was a teacher-like figure (e.g., coach, minister,• Was a teacher-like figure (e.g., coach, minister,
school counselor, theater director) instrumental in
making the learning experience happen?
• If the answer to 3 or 4 is “yes,” then what did the
teacher (or other person) actually do to help you
learn?
• In general, what factors were instrumental in bringing
about the learning?

Workshop Ground Rules
• Take responsibility
for your own
learning.
• Respect
participants and
presenter.
• Participate.
• Ask questions.
• Listen to learn.
• Honor time limits.
• Silence cell
phones.

QuotationQuotation HookHook
• Agree
66
• Disagree
• Somewhat agree

Quotation HookQuotation Hook
“Using backward
design in
curriculum planning
helps to avoid the
• Agree
• Disagree helps to avoid the
twin sins of activity-
oriented and
coverage-oriented
instruction.”
Grant Wiggins, Jay McTighe
“Understanding by Design”
• Disagree
• Somewhat agree

Understanding [is]
“the capacity to
apply facts,
concepts and skills
• Agree
• Disagree concepts and skills
in new situations in
appropriate ways.”
---Dr. Howard
Gardner
• Somewhat agree

• Agree
• Disagree
“The primary purpose
of classroom
assessment is to
inform teaching and
improve learning,
99
• Somewhat agree
improve learning,
not to sort and
select students or to
justify a grade.”
---Jay McTighe and Steven
Ferrara
Assessing Learning in the
Classroom

• Agree
• Disagree
“Only in education,
never in the life of
farmer, sailor,
merchant, physician
1010
• Disagree
• Somewhat agree
merchant, physician
or scientist, does
knowledge mean
primarily a store of
information.”
---John Dewey
Democracy and
Education

• Agree
• Disagree
“For every
complex
problem, there• Disagree
• Somewhat agree
problem, there
is a solution
that is simple,
neat, and
wrong.”
---H. L. Menken

21st Century Skills
Accountability & AdaptabilityAccountability & Adaptability
Communication SkillsCommunication Skills
Creativity & Intellectual CuriosityCreativity & Intellectual Curiosity
Critical Thinking, Systems ThinkingCritical Thinking, Systems ThinkingCritical Thinking, Systems ThinkingCritical Thinking, Systems Thinking
Information & Media LiteracyInformation & Media Literacy
Interpersonal and Collaborative SkillsInterpersonal and Collaborative Skills
Problem SolvingProblem Solving
SelfSelf--DirectionDirection
Social ResponsibilitySocial Responsibility
www.21stcenturyskills.orgwww.21stcenturyskills.org

21st Century Learning –
Check List
• It is never just about content. Learners are trying to get better at
something.
• It is never just routine. It requires thinking with what you know
and pushing further.
• It is never just problem solving. It also involves problem finding.• It is never just problem solving. It also involves problem finding.
• It’s not just about right answers. It involves explanation and
justification.
• It is not emotionally flat. It involves curiosity, discovery, creativity,
and community.
• It’s not in a vacuum. It involves methods, purposes, and forms of
one of more disciplines, situated in a social context.

Factors Influencing Achievement
1. Guaranteed and Viable Curriculum 2.
Challenging Goals and Effective Feedback 3. Parent
and Community Involvement 4. Safe and
Orderly Environment 5. Collegiality
and ProfessionalismSchool
6. Instructional Strategies
7. Classroom Management
8. Classroom Curriculum DesignTeacher
Student
9. Home Environment
10. Learning Intelligence/ Background Knowledge
11 Motivation

Instructional Design
Questions
1. What will I do to establish and communicateestablish and communicate learning goals, tracktrack student
progress, and celebratecelebrate success?
2. What will I do to help students effectively interactinteract with new knowledge?
3. What will I do to help students practice and deepenpractice and deepen their understanding of
new knowledge?
4. What will I do to help students generate and test hypothesesgenerate and test hypotheses about new
knowledge?
(Instruction)
(Instruction)
(Instruction)
(Instruction)knowledge?
5. What will I do to engageengage students?
6. What will I do to establish or maintain classroom rules or proceduresrules or procedures?
7. What will I do to recognize and acknowledge adherenceadherence and lack oflack of
adherenceadherence to classroom rules and procedures?
8. What will I do to establish and maintain effective relationshipsrelationships with
students?
9. What will I do to communicate high expectationshigh expectations for allall students?
10. What will I do to develop effective lessonseffective lessons, organized into a cohesive unitcohesive unit?
(Instruction)
(Classroom Management)
(Lesson and Unit Design)

Constructivism
• learning is based on students’ active participation in
problem-solving
• involving critical thinking
• learning activity is relevant and engaging
• “constructing” their own knowledge by testing ideas and
approaches based on their prior knowledge and experience
• applying these to a new situation
• integrating the new knowledge gained with pre-existing
intellectual constructs

Creating Conducive
Environments
• Motivation or personal
importance
• Development of self-efficacy
of the learner
• How student feels about the• How student feels about the
learning
• Brain-friendly environment
– Sense of belonging
– Support for achievement
– Sense of empowerment
• Tileston 10 Best Teaching
Practices.

Natural Critical Learning
Environment
• 5 common elements:
– Intriguing question or problem
– Guidance in helping the students understand the
significance of the question
– Engages students in some higher-order intellectual activity:
encouraging them to compare, apply, evaluate, analyze, andencouraging them to compare, apply, evaluate, analyze, and
synthesize, but, never only to listen and remember. Often
that means asking student to make and defend judgments
and then providing them with some basis for making the
decision.
– Environment also helps students answer the question.
– Leaves students with a question: “What’s the next
question?”
• Ken Bain

BRAIN RESEARCH
•Know the place of detailed facts, figures and data as part of a
greater context, concept or application.
•Understand that learners need time to process, reflect, sort, form
patterns, discover or develop meaning.
•Engage learners in structures for processing beyond the level of•Engage learners in structures for processing beyond the level of
recall and recitation of data. It calls for context, motion, personal
meaning, and/or application.
•View learning as a process based on the richness of personal
experiences each student brings to the situation.

Academic Learning Time
David Berliner
• Pace- Is each learner actively engaged? Timing
and delivery paced well?
• Focus- Are learning activities within core content
and aimed at helping them get better atand aimed at helping them get better at
something?
• Stretch- Are learners being optimally
challenged? Not too easy or difficult.
• Stickiness- Is activity designed such that it will
stick and not be memorized and forgotten?

Address Different Learning
Styles
• Auditory
• Visual
• Kinesthetic• Kinesthetic

Auditory Preferences
– Like to talk and enjoy
activities in which they can
talk to their peers or give
their opiniontheir opinion
– Encourage people to
laugh
– Are good storytellers
– Usually like listening
activities
– Can memorize easily

Teaching to Auditory
Learners
• Use direct instruction, with guiding learning through
application and practice
• Employ peer tutoring, in which students help each
other practice the learning
• Use group discussions, brainstorming, & Socratic
seminars.
• Verbalize while learning, and encourage students to
verbalize as well
• Use cooperative learning activities that provide for
student interaction.

Visual preferences
• Watch speakers’ faces
• Like to work puzzles
• Notice small details• Notice small details
• Like for the teacher to use visuals when
talking
• Like to use nonlinguistic organizers (frames,
concept maps, mind maps, venn diagrams,
fishbone)

Teaching to Visual
Learners
• Use visuals when teaching
• Use visual organizers
• Show students the patterns in learning• Show students the patterns in learning
• Use metaphors

Example of a Frame
CriteriaCriteria Scholarly JournalsScholarly Journals Popular MagazinesPopular Magazines
FormatFormat Grave, seriousGrave, serious Slick, glossySlick, glossy
GraphicsGraphics Graphs, chartsGraphs, charts Photos, illustrationsPhotos, illustrations
SourcesSources Footnotes, bibliographyFootnotes, bibliography Obscure, rarely citedObscure, rarely cited
AuthorsAuthors Scholars, researchersScholars, researchers Staff or freeStaff or free--lancelanceAuthorsAuthors Scholars, researchersScholars, researchers Staff or freeStaff or free--lancelance
LanguageLanguage Terminology, jargonTerminology, jargon SimpleSimple
PurposePurpose Inform, report researchInform, report research Entertain, persuadeEntertain, persuade
PublishersPublishers Professional groupsProfessional groups ProfitProfit
AdvertisingAdvertising SelectiveSelective ExtensiveExtensive
ExamplesExamples Harvard Business ReviewHarvard Business Review
JAMAJAMA
People WeeklyPeople Weekly
Sports IllustratedSports Illustrated

Example of a Spider Map
• Types of Contemporary Materials
Scholarly Journals Substantial News
Sensational Publications
Contemporary Materials
Popular Magazines

Kinesthetic Learners
• Need the opportunity to be
mobile
• Want to feel, smell, and taste
everythingeverything
• May want to touch their
neighbor as well
• Like to take things apart to
see how they work

Teaching Kinesthetic
Learners
• Use a hands-on approach to learning
• Provide opportunities to move
• Use simulations when appropriate
• Bring in music, art, and manipulatives• Bring in music, art, and manipulatives
• Break up lecture so that it is in manageable chunks
• Use discovery learning when appropriate
• Use discussion groups or cooperative learning so
that student have an opportunity to move about and
to talk with their peers.

TEACH TO THE BIG IDEAS IN
ALL CONTENT AREAS
• Important to Know
and Do
• Big Ideas Worth
Understanding
• Nice to Know

Select standards from among those students
need to know
Design an assessment through which students
will have an opportunity to demonstrate those
things
Select a topic from the curriculum
Design instructional activities
Design and give an assessment
Standards-based PracticeTraditional Practice
The Process of Instructional PlanningThe Process of Instructional Planning
things
Decide what learning opportunities students
will need to learn those things and plan
appropriate instruction to assure that each
student has adequate opportunities to learn
Use data from assessment to give feedback,
reteach or move to next level
Give grade or feedback
Move onto new topic

Select standards from among those students need
to know
Design an assessment through which students
will have an opportunity to demonstrate those
things
Select a topic from the curriculum
Design instructional activities
Standards-based PracticeTraditional Practice
The Process of Instructional PlanningThe Process of Instructional Planning
things
Decide what learning opportunities students will
need to learn those things and plan appropriate
instruction to assure that each student has
adequate opportunities to learn
Use data from assessment to give feedback,
reteach or move to next level
Give grade or feedback
Move onto new topic

THINKING MODELS
• Blooms Taxonomy
• Dimensions of• Dimensions of
Learning
• Three Story Intellect

Scaffolding Student Activities
• Attitudes and Perceptions
• Acquiring and Integrating
Knowledge
• Extending and Refining
KnowledgeKnowledge
• Using Knowledge
Meaningfully
• Productive Habits of Mind
Robert Marzano

Bloom’s Taxonomy
• Knowledge - the student remembers facts
• Comprehension - the student understands relations and
context
• Application - the student can apply his knowledge to new
areasareas
• Analysis - the student can analyze and find parts
• Synthesis - the student can create something unique of his
own
• Evaluation - the student can give value judgments based on
facts

Dimensions of Learning
Dimension 1: Positive Attitudes and Perceptions About Learning
Dimension 2: Thinking Involved in Acquiring and Integrating
Knowledge
Dimension 3: Thinking Involved in Extending and Refining
KnowledgeKnowledge
Dimension 4: Thinking Involved in Using Knowledge Meaningfully
Dimension 5: Productive Habits of Mind
Marzano, R. J. (1992) A Different Kind of Classroom: Teaching with Dimensions of Learning
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, USA

Activities for Extending and
Refining Knowledge
Comparing Identifying and articulating similarities and
differences between things
Classifying Grouping things into definable categories on the
basis of attributes
Inducing Inferring unknown generalizations or principles
from observation or analysis
Deducing Inferring unstated consequences and conditions
from given principles and generalizations
Analyzing Errors Identifying and articulating errors in your own
and others’ thinking
Constructing Support Constructing a system of support or proof for an
assertion
Abstracting Identifying and articulating the underlying theme
or general pattern of information
Analyzing
Perspectives
Identifying and articulating personal
perspectives about issues

Levels of Thinking
LEVEL I: Factual
Information
LEVEL II: Extend and
Refine
LEVEL IV: Application

Levels of Questioning
• STANDARD
– Essential Question
• Unit Questions• Unit Questions
–Level I Questions: Factual
Information
–Level II Questions: Extending and
Refining
–Level III Questions: Application

Essential Question: How does humankind progressEssential Question: How does humankind progress
from one stage to another?from one stage to another?
Unit Questions:
Level I: Gathering InformationLevel I: Gathering Information
• What are the characteristics of
hunter-gatherer societies?
• What events moved people
closer to being a civilized
community?
• Who were the first people to
Level II: Extending and RefiningLevel II: Extending and Refining
KnowledgeKnowledge
• How would you compare
hunter-gather societies to move
advanced civilizations?
• How would you classify a
human community as a• Who were the first people to
establish what we consider to
be a civilization?
• Where were the major human
communities located?
• Why were the use of tools and
fire important developments
during this period?
human community as a
civilization?
• How did climatic changes
impact plant life and the
domestication of animals?
Level III: Using KnowledgeLevel III: Using Knowledge
MeaningfullyMeaningfully
• How might these experiences
help us plan future
communities in space?

Introduction
Robert J. Marzano’s The Art and
Science of Teaching
Effective teaching is both an art and a
science.
• Science: Teaching follows research-• Science: Teaching follows research-
based practices to promote student
achievement.
• Art: Teaching is an act of interpretation
and self expression on the part of the
educator.

Three Framework
Characteristics
1. Effective instructional strategies
2. Effective classroom management
strategiesstrategies
3. Effective classroom curriculum design

Three Components of EffectiveThree Components of Effective
Classroom PedagogyClassroom Pedagogy
Effective Classroom Pedagogy
Use of
effective
instructional
strategies
Use of
effective
management
strategies
Use of
effective
classroom
curriculum
design
strategies

Think-Pair-Share
Warm-Up
• Think: Create written definitions for
each of the terms presented on your
handout.
• Pair: Partner with another participant
and compare your definitions and
reflections.
• Share: Prepare key insights with your
partner to share with the rest of the group.

Help Students Make
Connections
• “Teachers should not assume that transfer will
automatically occur after students acquire a sufficient
base of information. Significant and efficient transfer
occurs only if we teach to achieve it.”
» David Sousa. How the Brain Learns (1995)

Strategies for
Connections
• Association
– Refer to previous lessons
– Ask about personal experiences– Ask about personal experiences
– Ask students to predict behaviors or events
• Similarity
• Critical attributes
• Context and degree of original learning

Teaching for Long-Term
Memory
• Types of Memory
– Semantic
– Episodic– Episodic
– Procedural
– Automatic
– Emotional

Teaching for Long-Term
Memory
• Put information into manageable “chunks” 7 +/- 2
• Use questioning strategies
• Use peer teaching
• Use graphic and linguistic organizers
• Use mnemonics, stories, and metaphors
• Use visuals
• Use motion, such as role plays, drama, choral
readings, debates
• Provide practice
• Engage positive emotions

Using Higher-Level
Thinking Processes
• Help them create personal goals for
learning.
• Critical Thinking• Critical Thinking
• Creative Thinking
• Problem solving

Bloom’s Taxonomy
1. Knowledge
2. Comprehension
3. Application3. Application
4. Synthesis
5. Analysis
6. Evaluation

Tools that help students
– Comparison
– Classification
– Induction– Induction
– Deduction
– Error analysis
– Construction support
– Abstracting or pattern building
– Analyzing perspectives
– Marzano 1992., R.J. A Different Kind of Classroom

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy
Anderson, Krathwohl et al,
2000

Original Terms New Terms
• Evaluation
• Synthesis
• Analysis
•Creating
•Evaluating
•Analyzing• Analysis
• Application
• Comprehension
• Knowledge
•Analyzing
•Applying
•Understanding
•Remembering

Change in Terms
• The names of six major categories were changed from noun to verb
forms.
• As the taxonomy reflects different forms of thinking and thinking is an
active process verbs were more accurate.
• The subcategories of the six major categories were also replaced by
verbs
• Some subcategories were reorganised.
• The knowledge category was renamed. Knowledge is a product of
thinking and was inappropriate to describe a category of thinking and
was replaced with the word remembering instead.
• Comprehension became understanding and synthesis was renamed
creating in order to better reflect the nature of the thinking described by
each category.

Change in Emphasis
• More authentic tool for curriculum
planning, instructional delivery and
assessment.
• Aimed at a broader audience.• Aimed at a broader audience.
• Easily applied to all levels of schooling.
• The revision emphasises explanation and
description of subcategories.

UNDERSTANDING BY DESIGN
-Focusing on Instructional Priorities
• TARGETING
• ASSESSING
• TEACHING• TEACHING

Level One Assessment
Items
• Requires students to recall facts [who, what, when,
and where], terms, specific information concepts,
trends, generalizations, and theories or to
recognize or identify contained in maps, charts,
tables, graphs, or drawings.tables, graphs, or drawings.
Examples:
Recall or recognize an event, map, or document
Describe the features of a place or people
Identify key figures in a particular context

Level Two Assessment
Items
• Requires students to contrast or compare people, places,
events, and concepts; give examples, classify or sort items
into meaningful categories; describe, interpret or explain
issues and problems, patterns, reasons, causes, effects,
significance or impact, relationships, and points of view or
processes.processes.
Examples:
Describe the causes/effects of particular events
Identify patterns in events or behavior
Categorize events or figures into meaningful groupings

Level Three Assessment
Items
• Requires students to draw conclusions, cite evidence, apply
concepts to new situations; use concepts to solve problems,
analyze similarities and differences in issues and problems;
propose and evaluate solutions; recognize and explain
misconceptions; make predictions; make connections and
explain main concepts.explain main concepts.
Examples:
Analyze how changes have affected people or places
Apply concept in other contexts
Form alternate conclusions or solutions

Instruction
Learning Experiences
• Instruction
–Concrete to
the Abstract

Three Story Intellect
GatheringGathering
KnowledgeKnowledge
Level ILevel I
DescribeDescribe
RecallRecall
TellTell
ListList
Extending andExtending and
RefiningRefining
Level IILevel II
CompareCompare
ContrastContrast
InterpretInterpret
Explain How/WhyExplain How/Why
Using KnowledgeUsing Knowledge
Level IIILevel III
ImagineImagine
Predict/SpeculatePredict/Speculate
EvaluateEvaluate
Constructing supportConstructing support
HypothesizeHypothesize
AbstractAbstract
ListList
IdentifyIdentify
Time sequenceTime sequence
Define vocabularyDefine vocabulary
and conceptsand concepts
RecognizeRecognize
events andevents and
episodesepisodes
1111
ClassifyClassify
Cause/AffectCause/Affect
InferInfer
DistinguishDistinguish
Inductive reasoningInductive reasoning
Analyzing perspectiveAnalyzing perspective
AbstractAbstract
AnalyzeAnalyze
JudgeJudge
Deductive reasoningDeductive reasoning
Extended TransferExtended Transfer
Decision makingDecision making
Problem solveProblem solve
Issue investigationIssue investigation

GatheringGathering
KnowledgeKnowledge
Level ILevel I
DescribeDescribe
RecallRecall
TellTell
ListList
RefiningRefining
Level IILevel II
CompareCompare
ContrastContrast
InterpretInterpret
UsingUsing
KnowledgeKnowledge
Level IIILevel III
ImagineImagine
EvaluateEvaluate
Constructing supportConstructing supportListList
IdentifyIdentify
RecognizeRecognize
episodesepisodes
ClassifyClassify
InferInfer
HypothesizeHypothesize
AbstractAbstract
AnalyzeAnalyze
JudgeJudge
Extended TransferExtended Transfer
Problem solveProblem solve

GatheringGathering
KnowledgeKnowledge
Level ILevel I
DescribeDescribe
RecallRecall
TellTell
ListList
RefiningRefining
Level IILevel II
CompareCompare
ContrastContrast
InterpretInterpret
Using KnowledgeUsing Knowledge
Level IIILevel III
ImagineImagine
EvaluateEvaluate
HypothesizeHypothesizeListList
IdentifyIdentify
RecognizeRecognize
episodesepisodes
ClassifyClassify
InferInfer
AbstractAbstract
AnalyzeAnalyze
JudgeJudge
Extended Transfer TaskExtended Transfer Task
Problem solvingProblem solving

Scaffolding Instructional
Strategies
• Direct Instruction
• Indirect Instruction
– Constructivism– Constructivism
– Hands-on
• Experiential Learning
– Real Life Situations
• Independent Study
– Projects

Scaffolding Teaching
Strategies
• Essential Question: Why is the Bill of Rights so
important in the lives of all Americans?
– Gathering information (individual research)
• Handout a list of guide questions concerning the Bill of Rights.
• Have the students go on online to research the answers to the
questions.questions.
• Ask a summarizing questions at the end of their research: What rights
are protected by the Bill of Rights?
– Extending and Refining Knowledge (working in groups)
• Have the students classify the rights you have researched in terms of
personal rights and rights which apply to the total community.
• Use a Venn Diagram to compare and contrast the rights
– Application: Using Knowledge Meaningfully (presentation to the group)
• Have the students write a brief paragraph:
– Which one of the rights protected by the Bill of Rights do you think
is the most important to you as a student in school? Provide
details to support your answer

Scaffolding Teaching Strategies
Level I: Gathering Information
• Essential Question: How do consumers acquire goods and services?
Take the class on a tour of the school. Have them identify community
workers in our school. As workers are identified (e.g., teacher,
nurse, principal, janitor, cafeteria worker, grounds person) stop the
workers and ask them questions about their jobs and the tools they
use. Note the important details about what each worker does.
workers and ask them questions about their jobs and the tools they
use. Note the important details about what each worker does.
Back in the classroom, generate a list of the workers the students met
on their tour of the school. Write this information on the board in the
form of a chart. Include a description of what the students learned
about the jobs.
Summarize the lesson by visiting the following website to review other
community worker jobs.
http://teacher.scholastic.com/commclub/
http://bensguide.gpo.gov/k-2/neighborhood/index.html
Have the students describe what each worker is doing on the website.
Add these workers to your Community Workers Chart on the board.

Level II: Extendng and Refining
Read to the class: If you give a Mouse a Cookie by Laurie Joffee Numeroff.
Talk about the goods and services the mouse wanted. Use a chart on the
board to categorize the goods and services talked about in the story.
Continue the discussion by asking what goods and services the students
wanted. Add these to the chart in the proper column. Be sure you havewanted. Add these to the chart in the proper column. Be sure you have
them explain why they think it is a good or a service.
Use the following website for additional information about the difference
between a good and a service:
http://teacher.scholastic.com/commclub/
http://www.econedlink.org/lessons/em197/flash/activity1.html
http://mcwdn.org/ECONOMICS/GoodService.html
Help the students summarize the lesson by selecting one of the goods and/or
services and illustrating it and then presenting it to the class with a n
explanation of why it is a good or service.

Level III: Application
Use the following website to see actual people working in a community:
http://www.econedlink.org/lessons/EM195/dogpics/slideshow.htm
This slideshow contains pictures and captions describing the daily activities at
a kennel.
Have the students work in pairs to generate a list of kennel goods and a list ofHave the students work in pairs to generate a list of kennel goods and a list of
kennel services. Have them share their lists with the class.
Have the students predict what would happen in the following situations:
What would happen to the kennel if there were no dogs in the
community?
What might the kennel do if everyone in the community had a cat
instead of a dog? What goods and services would the kennel then
provide?

DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING (DOL 3)
Level II Thinking Skills
• COMPARING
• CLASSIFYING
• SUPPORTED
INDUCTION
• ANALYZING
ERRORS
• CONSTRUCTING
SUPPORTINDUCTION
• SUPPORTED
DEDUCTION
SUPPORT
• ABSTRACTING
• ANALYZING
PERSPECTIVES
• QUESTIONING

Collaborative learning
• Good teacher to student communication
• Student to student communication

Bridging Gaps between
Learners
• Build self-efficacy
• Eliminate bias
– Linguistic– Linguistic
– Stereotyping
– Exclusion
– Isolation
– Selectivity

Using Authentic Assessments
• What is it that we want students to know and
to be able to do as a result of learning?
• Examinations and assignments become a
way to help students understand theirway to help students understand their
progress in learning, and they also help
evaluate teaching.
• Evaluation and assessment stress learning
rather than performance

McRel - Mid-continent Research
for Education and Learning
• Marzano and other researchers at
McRel have identified 9 instructional
strategies that are most likely tostrategies that are most likely to
improve student achievement in all
content areas and grades.
• This is outlined in Marzano’s book,
“Classroom Instruction that Works”

Strategies
1. Identifying similarities and differences
2. Summarizing and note taking
3. Reinforcing effort and providing recognition
4. Homework and practice4. Homework and practice
5. Nonlinguistic representations
6. Cooperative learning
7. Setting objectives and providing feedback
8. Generating and testing hypotheses
9. Cues, questions, and advance organizers

Instructional Strategies
broken down
• Three types - Cognitive, Academic and
Motivational

Cognitive Strategies
• Identifying Similarities/Differences
• Nonlinguistic Representations• Nonlinguistic Representations
• Generating and Testing Hypotheses

Academic Strategies
• Summarizing and Note Taking
• Homework and Practice
• Cues, Questions and Advance Organizers
(Activating Prior Knowledge)

Motivational Strategies
• Reinforcing Effort and Providing Recognition
• Cooperative Learning
• Setting Objectives and Providing Feedback

Summary of Research from:
http://manila.esu6.org/instructionalstrategies/stories/storyReader$12
• Guidance in identifying similarities and differences
deepens students' understanding of and ability to
apply knowledge.
• Independently identifying similarities and differences
deepens students' understanding of and the ability to
apply knowledge.apply knowledge.
• Representing similarities and differences in graphic or
symbolic form deepens students' understanding of
and ability to apply knowledge.
• Identifying similarities and differences can be
accomplished by: comparing, classifying, creating
metaphors, and creating analogies.

Implementation
• Students benefit first by direct instruction -
this has to be modeled
• Point out similarities and differences. Present
students with similarities and differences
explicitly when this helps them reach aexplicitly when this helps them reach a
learning goal. As a result of the teacher's
instruction, students recognize similarities
and differences in order to understand
something specific.
• After which, let students explore similarities
and differences on their own

Similarities & Differences
COMPARING: Identifying similarities & differences
between or among things or ideas.
CLASSIFYING: Grouping things that are alike into
categories based on their characteristics.categories based on their characteristics.
CREATING ANALOGIES: Identifying relationships
between pairs of concepts
(Relationships between relationships)
CREATING METAPHORS: Identifying a general
pattern in a specific topic then finding another topic
that is different, but has the same general pattern.

• Compare
• Classify
• Create metaphors and analogies
Finding similarities and differences can
increase student achievement by 45%
• Create metaphors and analogies

• The brain seeks patterns, connections,
and relationships between and among
prior and new learning
Finding Similarities and
Differences
prior and new learning
• The ability to break a concept into its
similar and dissimilar characteristics
allows students to understand and often
solve complex problems by analyzing
them in a more simple way

Identifying Similarities and Differences
(Mean Effect Size 1.32)
• Generalization
– Use explicit guidance
– Have students
independently
• Classroom Practice
– Comparing
– Classifying
– Metaphors
independently
identify similarities
and differences
– Use graphic and
symbolic forms
– Use a variety of
methods
– Metaphors
– Analogies
• For all four practices
use
• Teacher-Directed
• Student-Directed
• Graphic Organizers

Marzano’s Conclusions About FindingMarzano’s Conclusions About Finding
Similarities and DifferencesSimilarities and Differences
• The Marzano factor with the highest statistical effect
size related to research-based factors impacting
student achievement is the act of finding similarities
and differences.
• Comparison, contrast, and classification should be a
regular part of all students’ learning experiences.
• Using comparison/contrast and classification as a
basis for designing teaching-learning-assessment
tasks can greatly enhance students’ deep processing
and understanding of the curriculum they are studying.

Identifying Similarities
and Differences
1. Explicitly guide students in identifying similarities and
differences.
2. Ask students independently to sort items into categories
based upon their similarities and differences.
3. Present and help students create graphic and symbolic
comparisons.
4. Reinforce key cognitive skills:
a. Comparing c. Metaphors
b. Classifying d. Analogies

Tools for Identifying
Similarities and Differences
• Venn Diagram
• Comparison &
Classification Matrices
• Category Matrix
• Metaphor Creation
Through the Literal-
Abstract-Literal
Process
• Analogy Template:• Category Matrix
• Ball-Chain Graphic
Organizer & Double
Bubble Graphic
Organizer
• Analogy Template:
A:B::C:D
• Analogy Graphic
Organizer
• Sentence Stems: ____
and ____ are similar
because _____. They
are different because
_______.

The Venn DiagramThe Venn Diagram
Similarities/Similarities/Socialism/Socialism/ CapitalismCapitalismSimilarities/Similarities/
AreasAreas
OfOf
CongruenceCongruence
Socialism/Socialism/
UniqueUnique
CharacteristicsCharacteristics
CapitalismCapitalism
UniqueUnique
CharacteristicsCharacteristics

Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 (Comparison
Matrix)
Characteristic
1
Similarities and
Differences
Characteristic
2
Similarities and
Differences
Characteristic
3
Similarities and
Differences
Characteristic
4
Similarities and
Differences

The Comparison MatrixThe Comparison Matrix
Items to Be Compared
Characteristics
External
body
features
LionLion ElephantElephant DolphinDolphin
features
Habitat
Sources of
Energy

BallBall--Chain Graphic OrganizerChain Graphic Organizer
Literary
Texts
Prose
Poetry
Dramatic
LiteratureFiction
Non- Ballad
LiteratureFiction
Fiction
Novel
Novella
Short
Story
Essay
Editorial
Tragedy
Drama
Comedy
Lyric Dramatic
Monologue
Ode
Sonnet Haiku

Double Bubble GraphicDouble Bubble Graphic
OrganizerOrganizer
Forms of
Government
Coexists with
representative
governments
Often perceived as
police states
Monarchy Dictatorship
Dominated by
a single
person
Numerous
historical
examples
Usually
comes into
power through
heritage
Usually comes
into power
through force

A and B are similar because they both
________________
________________
________________
A and B are different becauseA and B are different because
A is __________, but B is ___________.
A is __________, but B is ___________.
A is __________, but B is ___________.

Fun and Enjoyment are similar because they both
________________.
________________.
________________.
Fun and Enjoyment are different becauseFun and Enjoyment are different because
Fun is ___, but Enjoyment is ___________.
Fun is____, but Enjoyment is ___________.
Fun is ____, but Enjoyment is ___________.

A win and a victory are similar because they both
________________.
________________.
________________.
A win and a victory are different because
Win is ___, but Victory is __________.
Win is ___,but Victory is ________.
Win is ___,but Victory is ________.

Fractions and Decimals are similar because they
both ________________.
________________.
________________.________________.
Fractions and Decimals are different because
Fractions __, but Decimals __.

A monarchy and a dictatorship are similar
because they both ________________.
________________.
________________.
A monarchy and a dictatorship are differentA monarchy and a dictatorship are different
because
a monarchy___, but a dictatorship____.

Comparing Terms: Format
1: Sentence Stems
•This format provides sentences to be completed by
students.
•The first set of sentences asks students to fill in similarities
between the two terms, and the second set asks forbetween the two terms, and the second set asks for
differences.
•Sentence stems provide very structured guidance
for students, thus helping them to avoid common
errors in their thinking. Sometimes students jump
into a comparison task without first identifying the
characteristics on which they will base their
comparison.

Sentence Stems Examples
• ______ and ______ are similar because they both…..
• _______________________
• _______________________
• _______________________• _______________________
•______ and ____ are different because
•______ is _____, but _______ is ________
•______ is _____, but _______ is ________
•______ is _____, but _______ is ________

Sentence Stems
Examples
• Monarchy and dictatorship are similar because
they both…..
• Are forms of government.
• Are governments with major power given to one
person.
• Have examples from history in which the
powerful person was a tyrant.

Sentence Stems Examples
continued
• Monarchy and dictatorship are different
because …
• In a monarchy, the ruler is often in power
because of heritage, but in a dictatorship, the
ruler often comes to power through force or
coercion.coercion.
• In monarchies today, the rulers are often
perceived to be loved by the people, but in
dictatorships, the rulers are often feared and
hated by the people.
»A monarchy can coexist with a
representative government, but a
dictatorship often is a police state.

Comparing Terms:
Format 2: Venn Diagram
•Forms of
•Can coexist with
representative
•Often perceived
•Forms of
government
•Single person
rule
•Many are
tyrants
representative
government
•Loved by people
•Inherited power
as police state
•Rulers often
hated and feared
•Comes to power
through coercion or
force
DIFFERENCES DIFFERENCES
SIMILARITIES

Comparing Terms:
Format 3: Double Bubble

FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
Co-exist with
represent.
government
Ruler is
hated or
feared

Comparing Terms:
Format 4: Matrix
Item 1 Item 2 Item 3
Characteristic
1
Similarities
&1 &
Differences
Characteristic
2
Similarities
&
Differences
Characteristic
3
Similarities
&
Differences

Comparing Terms:
Format 4: Matrix
•In the column headings, students place the terms they are going to
compare.
•In the rows, the students identify the general characteristics on
which they will base their comparison.
•In the cells, they briefly describe each term as it relates to each
characteristic.characteristic.
•Finally, students look at their information and draw conclusions
about the similarities and differences.
•The matrix lends itself to comparing more than two
terms at a time.
•Its power lies in the fact that it provides an organizer for
the information about a term. Once complete it guides
students to think about, and discuss, the similarities and
differences in some detail.

Comparing Terms:
Format 4: Matrix
Monarchy Dictatorship Democracy Similarities &
Differences
How the
leader
comes to
power
Usually
Inherits power;
Serves for life
Usually takes
power through
force; Often is
leader for life
Leaders are
elected;
Often does
not have total
power
Monarchy and
Dictatorship are more
alike & democracy is
different. Monarchies and
dictatorships take or give
power to an individualpower to an individual
while in demo. the people
decide by election who
will govern.
The reaction
of the people
Usually loved
except by
persecuted
groups
Often the
dictator is
hated or
feared
People often
split but
know they
can elect
soon
The role of
the people
People expect
to obey
People expect
to obey
Power
through vote

Solving Analogy Problems
• A complete analogy contains two terms in
the first set (A and B) that have the same
relationship as the two terms in the
second set (C and D). A common format
for an analogy statement is A is to B as C
is to D.
• If only one term is missing, the field of• If only one term is missing, the field of
possible accurate answers is narrowed
considerably:
– Martin Luther King, Jr. is to civil
rights as _______ is to
women’s rights

• When two terms are missing, an
analogy can be completed with a
wider variety of answers. Many
different perspectives can be
applied to compete the analogy:
• Harry Truman is to World War II as
_____ is to ______
• Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee is
to Native Americans as
_____ is to _______

• As students solve the analogy
problems, make sure they include a
description of the relationship that both
sets of terms have in common.
• Use a graphic organizer to clearly
highlight the importance of defining howhighlight the importance of defining how
the items in each set are related.
Term A Term BAS
Term C
Term D“Relating
Factor”

Solving Analogy
Problems
Synagogue Judaism
Mosque
AS
A place of IslamMosque A place of
worship
Islam
•Analogy problems with two missing terms
provide opportunities for students to think beyond
the obvious relationships, thereby helping them to
gain new insights into the analogy terms.

Creating Metaphors
• Metaphors expose how objects or ideas that seem
quite different might actually be, at a more general
level, very similar.
• The goal of creating metaphors is to guide students
into seeing general relationships between new termsinto seeing general relationships between new terms
they are learning and another term
which they are more familiar
with although the terms seem
very different.

Creating Metaphors
• To engage students in metaphorical thinking
try the following steps:
• Step 1: List the specific characteristics of a
targeted term.
• Step 2: Rewrite those characteristics in more
general language.
• Step 3: Identify another specific• Step 3: Identify another specific
term and explain how it also
has the general characteristics
identified during Step 2.

Creating Metaphors
• At first, students might need significant
guidance and modeling, especially as
they try to decide just how general the
language in Step 2 should be
• Teachers who use metaphors report• Teachers who use metaphors report
that students who struggle with
assignments requiring extensive writing
sometimes demonstrate
deep levels of insight when
the focus is on this type of
thinking.

A Sample MetaphorA Sample Metaphor
(Part I)(Part I)
1.1. Literal:Literal: The Cell
2.2. General/Abstract Pattern:General/Abstract Pattern: A
living system composed ofliving system composed of
structures, processes, and
roles that sustain life.
3.3. Literal Comparison:Literal Comparison: The
Starship Enterprise

A Sample MetaphorA Sample Metaphor (Part II)
1.1. Literal Element 1:Literal Element 1: The Cell’s Nucleus
2.2. General/Abstract Pattern:General/Abstract Pattern: The part that
runs the whole system
3.3. Comparison Element 1:Comparison Element 1: The bridge
4.4. Literal Element 2:Literal Element 2: Selectively permeable
membrane
5.5. General/Abstract Pattern:General/Abstract Pattern: A part that
keeps out bad things and lets in good
6.6. Comparison Element 2:Comparison Element 2: The transporter
room

Creating a Metaphor forCreating a Metaphor for
TeachingTeaching
• Think of a metaphor or analogy for
being a teacher: Being a teacher is like
being a(n)________________ .
• Use Marzano’s “Literal Element/
General/Abstract Pattern” model to
elaborate on your metaphor.
• Share your metaphor and elaboration
with a partner.

Application Activity 2Application Activity 2
1. Use this metaphor template to create an
original metaphor for one of the learningoriginal metaphor for one of the learning
theories presented in your handout.theories presented in your handout.
2. Share your metaphor with a partner.2. Share your metaphor with a partner.
3. How might the ideas and strategies
reflected in this learning theory be used
to improve student achievement?

BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY
CreatingCreating
Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things
Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing.
EvaluatingEvaluating
Justifying a decision or course of action
Checking, hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging
AnalysingAnalysing
Breaking information into parts to explore understandings and relationshipsBreaking information into parts to explore understandings and relationships
Comparing, organising, deconstructing, interrogating, finding
ApplyingApplying
Using information in another familiar situation
Implementing, carrying out, using, executing
UnderstandingUnderstanding
Explaining ideas or concepts
Interpreting, summarising, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining
RememberingRemembering
Recalling information
Recognising, listing, describing, retrieving, naming, finding

Comparing
The process of identifying and articulating
similarities and differences among items.
1. Select the items you want to compare.
2. Select the characteristics of the items on2. Select the characteristics of the items on
which you want to base your
comparison.
3. Explain how the items are similar and
different with respect to the
characteristics you selected.

Comparing
The process of describing how things
are the same and different
1. What do I want to compare?
2. What is it about them that I want to
compare?compare?
3. How are they the same? And how are
they different

Venn Diagram
Object One Object Two

Use a Venn to compare…
• Numbers
• Animals
• Places
• People
•Illustrations or
illustrators
•Holidays
•Celebrations• People
• Land forms
• Weather
• Books
• TV programs
•Celebrations
•Religions
•Farms
•Food
•Plants etc.

Characteristics Item 1 Item 2 Item 3 Similarities/difference
s
1
2
3
4

T-Bar Analysis
Object One Object Two

Language of Comparison
• Explicit teaching of the vocabulary that
students can use when sharing their thinking
and learning:
• In comparison
• Compared to
• Similarly• Similarly
• Whereas
• Alternatively
• But
• Although
• On the other hand
• However
• In contrast

Key Points: Comparing
1. Because the process of comparing can be overused, it
is important to ask if it is the best process to use to help
students extend and refine the identified content
knowledge.
2. Students need extensive modeling, practice and2. Students need extensive modeling, practice and
feedback in order to become skilled at identifying
meaningful and interesting characteristics to use in
comparison tasks.
3. Students should understand that the purpose of doing
a comparison task is to extend and refine knowledge.
A question such as “What did you discover?” helps to
reinforce this understanding.

Key Points:
1. Comparing is the reasoning process that is the most
commonly used in K-12 classrooms. Be careful that it is not
over-used. Consider the question, “Why are the students doing
this comparison?
2. One key to a rigorous comparison is to identify
characteristics that are meaningful and interesting. Brainstorm
for characteristics as a class. Use expanded comparison –
Students complete a matrix and then add additional
characteristics of their own that are meaningful.
•

Key Points:
3. Students need to understand that the purpose of doing a
comparison task is to extend and refine knowledge. “What
insights did you gain?” “What new connections did you make
with other content?” or “What did you discover or rediscover as
a result of doing the comparison?”a result of doing the comparison?”
4. Provide the students with graphic organizers or
representations to help them understand and use the process of
comparing. A Venn diagram or a matrix works very easily.
5. Use teacher-structured and student-structured tasks.
•

1. Football Baseball Chess Golf
Chances of
players
suffering from
serious injury
Average annual
compensationcompensation
Percentage of
women playing
competitively
Average number
of years players
can compete

2. Football Baseball Chess Golf
Size of crowds
attending events
Chances of
players appearing
on a Wheat-Bix
boxbox
Numbers of
people watching
or listening via
the media
Chances of high
school players
winning a
scholarship

BLOOM’S REVISED TAXONOMY
CreatingCreating
Generating new ideas, products, or ways of viewing things
Designing, constructing, planning, producing, inventing.
EvaluatingEvaluating
Justifying a decision or course of action
Checking, hypothesising, critiquing, experimenting, judging
AnalysingAnalysing
Breaking information into parts to explore understandings and relationships
Comparing, organising, deconstructing, interrogating, findingComparing, organising, deconstructing, interrogating, finding
ApplyingApplying
Using information in another familiar situation
Implementing, carrying out, using, executing
UnderstandingUnderstanding
Explaining ideas or concepts
Interpreting, summarising, paraphrasing, classifying, explaining
RememberingRemembering
Recalling information
Recognising, listing, describing, retrieving, naming, finding

Classifying :
The process of grouping things into definable
categories on the basis of their attributes
1. Identify the items you want to classify.
2. Select what seems to be an important item, describe its key
attributes and identify other items that have the same
attributes.
3. Create the category by specifying the attribute(s) that the
items must have for membership in the category.
4. Select another item, describe its key attributes and identify4. Select another item, describe its key attributes and identify
other items that have the same attributes.
5. Create this second category by specifying the attribute(s) that
the items must have for membership in the category.
6. Repeat the previous two steps until all items are classified and
the specific attributes have been identified for membership in
each category.
7. If necessary, combine categories or split them into smaller
categories and specify the attribute(s) that determine
membership in the category.

Classifying
The process of grouping things that are alike into
categories
1. What do I want to classify?
2. What things are alike and could be put into a
group?
3. How are these things alike?3. How are these things alike?
4. What other groups can I make and how are
the things alike in each group?
5. Does everything now fit into a group?
6. Would it be better to split up any of the
groups or put any groups together?

Graphic Organizers for
Classifying
Categories

Exercise: Life and Death
Would you classify the following as living, dead or ? Explain
Living Dead
?
1. Mummies
2. Fossils
3. Lightning
4. Bacteria4. Bacteria
5. Seaweed
6. The Loch Ness Monster
7. Thoughts
8. Coral Reefs
9. Petrified wood
10. Ghosts
11. Active Volcanoes
12. The sun
13. Fingernails
14. Pearls

Geography Terms
Basin
Bay
Canal
Canyon
Cape
Channel
Continent
Delta
Harbor
Highland
Hill
Isthmus
Lowland
Marsh
Mesa
Mountain
Plateau
Port
Prairie
Rain forest
Reservoir
Source (of a river)
Strait
StreamDelta
Divide
Fall line
Fjord
Foothill
Glacier
Gulf
Mountain
Range
Mouth (of a river)
Peak
Peninsula
Plain
Stream
Swamp
Tributary
Tundra
Valley
Volcano

Key Points: Classifying
1. Categories should be related to one another or parallel.
2. It is important to focus on attributes that are
important and meaningful to the content.
3. Students must understand the defining characteristics
of the categories well enough to justify placement ofof the categories well enough to justify placement of
the items - which gets more difficult with complex
content.
4. Having students classify and then reclassify is a key to
helping them notice unique distinctions and connections
that they might not have noticed had they classified the
items only once.

Key Points: Classifying
In the second step of the process of classifying, students
group items based on a specific attribute. When they get
to step 4, they create another category and again specify
the attribute. In order to focus the classification process,
it is important that this second attribute, as well as eachit is important that this second attribute, as well as each
subsequent attribute, be related to the first.
Having students classify and then reclassify is often a
key to helping them notice unique distinctions among
items that they could miss if they classify items only
once.

Problem Solving
• Overcoming limits or barriers that
are in the way of reaching goals

Questions the Process
Helps Explore
• What am I trying to accomplish?
• What are the limits or barriers that are in the way?
• What are some solutions for overcoming the limits or• What are some solutions for overcoming the limits or
barriers?
• Which solution will I try?
• How well did it work?
• Should I try another solution?

Steps in the Process
1. Identify the goal you are trying to accomplish.
2. Identify the constraints or limiting conditions.
3. Determine exactly how these constraints or limiting conditions are
preventing you from reaching your goal.
4. Identify different ways of overcoming the constraints or meeting
the limiting conditions.
5. Select and try out the alternative that appears to be the best.
6. Evaluate the effectiveness of the alternative you have tried.
7. Identify different ways of overcoming the constraints or meeting

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