This document discusses representation in media, including how the media constructs rather than reflects reality through careful mediation. It defines representation and discusses how certain groups are commonly represented, such as through stereotypes. Several theories of representation are outlined, including how women are often objectified and gazed at from the male perspective. The document also discusses how stereotypes can both enhance realism for audiences but also reinforce dominant ideologies. It questions whether media representations are ever truly realistic or simply simulations that produce our understanding of reality.
2. Aims/Objectives
• You will be able to describe what
representation is.
• Be able to identify the types of groups
that are represented?
• You will be able to discuss
representation in your products
3. Big question
• The media does not represent and
construct reality, but instead represents
it?
4. Representation - Definition
• How the media shows us things about
society – but this is through careful
mediation. Hence re-presentation.
• For representation to be meaningful to
audiences there needs to be a shared
recognition of people, situations, ideas etc.
• All representations therefore have
ideologies behind them. Certain paradigms
are encoded into texts and others are left
out in order to give a preferred
representation (Levi – Strauss, 1958).
5. Representation
• Representing is about constructing reality, it is supposed to contain
versimilitued and simplify people’s understanding of life.
• Representation refers to the construction in any medium (especially the mass
media) of aspects of �reality� such as people, places, objects, events, cultural
identities and other abstract concepts. Such representations may be in speech
or writing as well as still or moving pictures.
• The term refers to the processes involved as well as to its products. For
instance, in relation to the key markers of identity - Class, Age, Gender and
Ethnicity (the 'cage' of identity) - representation involves not only how identities
are represented (or rather constructed) within the text but also how they are
constructed in the processes of production and reception by people whose
identities are also differentially marked in relation to such demographic factors.
Consider, for instance, the issue of 'the gaze'. How do men look at images of
women, women at men, men at men and women at women?
6. • Richard Dyer (1983) posed a few questions
when analysing media representations in
general.
• 1. What sense of the world is it making?
• 2. What does it imply? Is it typical of the
world or deviant?
• 3. Who is it speaking to? For whom? To
whom?
• 4. What does it represent to us and why?
How do we respond to the representation?
7. How do you think the following
groups are represented in the
media?
Types of people:
• Class
• Age
• Gender
• Ethnicity
• Sexuality
• Disability
8. Theories
• Particularly in relation to film – objectification of
women’s bodies in the media has been a
constant theme.
• Laura Mulvey (1975) argues that the dominant
point of view is masculine. The female body is
displayed for the male gaze in order to provide
erotic pleasure for the male (vouyerism). Women
are therefore objectified by the camera lens and
whatever gender the spectator/audience is
positioned to accept the masculine POV.
9. John Berger ‘Ways Of Seeing’ (1972)
“Men act and women appear”. “Men
look at women. Women watch
themselves being looked at”.
“Women are aware of being seen by a
male spectator”
10. • Jib Fowles (1996) “in advertising, males
gaze and females are gazed at”.
• Paul Messaris (1997) “female models
addressed to women....appear to imply a
male point of view”.
• In terms of magazine covers of women,
Janice Winship (1987) has been an
extremely influential theorist. “The gaze
between cover model and women readers
marks the complicity between women
seeing themselves in the image masculine
culture has defined”.
11. • In Slasher movies the psychopath is finally
stopped by a character, which Carol J.
Clover(1992), calls the ‘Final Girl’.
• The ‘Final Girl’ is always a pure, innocent
girl who abstains from sex and may be less
attractive than the other female characters.
The message here is clear, in horror
movies, if you are a women, Sex = Death.
12. • Jean-Francois Lyotard (1984) and Jean
Baudrillard (1980) share the belief that the
idea of ‘truth’ needs to be deconstructed so
that dominant ideas (that Lyotard argues
are “grand narratives”) can be challenged.
13. • Baudrillard discussed the concept of
hyperreality – we inhabit a society that is
no longer made up of any original thing for
a sign to represent – it is the sign that is
now the meaning. He argued that we live in
a society of simulacra – simulations of
reality that replace the real. Remember
Disneyland?
14. • We can apply this to texts that
claim to represent reality – social
realist films?
• Merrin (2005) argues that “the
media do not reflect and represent
reality but instead produce it,
employing this simulation to justify
their own continuing existence”.
16. • We often judge a text’s realism against our
own ‘situated culture’. What is ‘real’ can
therefore become subjective.
• Stereotypes can be used to enhance
realism - a news programme,
documentary, film text etc about football
hooligans, for e.g, will all use very
conventional images that are associated
with the realism that audiences will identify
with such as shots of football grounds,
public houses etc.
17. 4. Stereotypes?
• O’Sullivan et al (1998) details that a
stereotype is a label that involves a process
of categorisation and evaluation.
• We can call stereotypes shorthand to
narratives because such simplistic
representations define our understanding
of media texts – e.g we know who is good
and who is evil.
18. • First coined by Walter Lippmann (1956) the
word stereotype wasn’t meant to be
negative and was simply meant as a
shortcut or ordering process.
• In ideological terms, stereotyping is a
means by which support is provided by one
group’s differential against another.
19. • Orrin E. Klapp's (1962) distinction between
stereotypes and social types is helpful.
• Klapp defines social types as representations
of those who 'belong' to society.
• They are the kinds of people that one
expects, and is led to expect, to find in one's
society, whereas stereotypes are those who
do not belong, who are outside of one's
society.
20. • Richard Dyer (1977) suggests Klapp’s
distinction can be reworked in terms of the
types produced by different social groups
according to their sense of who belongs
and who doesn't, who is 'in' and who is not
21. • Tessa Perkins (1979) says, however, that
stereotyping is not a simple process. She
identified that some of the many ways that
stereotypes are assumed to operate aren’t
true.
• They aren’t always negative (French good cooks)
• They aren’t always about minority groups or those less
powerful (upper class twits)
• They are not always false – supported by empirical
evidence.
• They are not always rigid and unchanging.
Perkins argues that if stereotypes were
always so simple then they would not work
culturally and over time.
22. • Martin Barker (1989) - stereotypes are
condemned for misrepresenting the ‘real
world’. (e.g. Reinforcing that the (false)
stereotype that women are available for
sex at any time) . He also says stereotypes
are condemned for being too close to real
world (e.g. showing women in home
servicing men, which many still do).
• Bears out Perkins’ point that for
stereotypes to work they need audience
recognition.
23. • Dyer (1977) details that if we are to be told
that we are going to see a film about an
alcoholic then we will know that it will be a
tale either of sordid decline or of inspiring
redemption.
• This is a particularly interesting potential use
of stereotypes, in which the character is
constructed, at the level of costume,
performance, etc., as a stereotype but is
deliberately given a narrative function that is
not implicit in the stereotype, thus throwing
into question the assumptions signalled by
the stereotypical iconography.
24. Think of this question as the first part
of your revision...
“Representations in media texts are often
simplistic and reinforce dominant ideologies
so that audiences can make sense of them”.
Evaluate the ways that you have
used/challenged simplistic representations
in one of the media products you have
produced.
