Inheritance and interfaces implementation are often used in languages like Java in order to express "Is-a" and "Can-do" capabilities. In Scala we can do better by separating these concerns using the concept of type classes.

1. Type classes 101
Classification beyond inheritance
Alexey Raga

2. String
Int
List[Boolean]
case class Name(value: String)
case class Age(value: Int)
case class Person(name: Name, age: Age)
case class Gang(leader: Person, members: List[Person])
Types classify data

3. String
Int
List[Boolean]
case class Name(value: String)
case class Age(value: Int)
case class Person(name: Name, age: Age)
case class Gang(leader: Person, members: List[Person])
Types classify data

4. public class Person
implements ISerialisable
{
public String name;
public String address;
...
}
public void saveToDisk(ISerialisable obj) { … }
Types classify data

5. Types classify data
public class Person
implements ISerialisable, IJsonSerialisable, IXmlSerialisable, IPrettyPrint
{
public String name;
public String address;
...
}

6. Expression problem
trait Expr
case class Lit(value: Int) extends Expr
case class Add(x: Expr, y: Expr) extends Expr
val expr = Add(Lit(15), Lit(6))

7. Expression problem
● Operation extension
add new operations: eval, prettyPrint, etc.
● Data extension
add new expressions: Mul, Pow, Neg, ec.
● Static type safety
no isInstanceOf / asInstanceOf

8. Expression problem
● Operation extension
add new operations: eval, prettyPrint, etc.
● Data extension
add new expressions: Mul, Pow, Neg, ec.
● Static type safety
no isInstanceOf / asInstanceOf

9. Expression problem
trait Expr {
def eval: Int
def print: String
}
case class Lit(value: Int) extends Expr {
def eval = ???
def print = ???
}
case class Add(x: Expr, y: Expr) extends Expr {
def eval = ???
def print = ???
}

10. Expression problem
trait Expr {
def eval: Int = this match {
case Lit => ???
case Add => ???
}
def print: String = this match {
case Lit => ???
case Add => ???
}
}
case class Lit(value: Int) extends Expr
case class Add(x: Expr, y: Expr) extends Expr

11. We can do better

12. Classification
Plants Animals
?

13. Classification
Fungi

14. Classification

15. Classification

16. Classification

17. Classifying types
trait Serialisable[A] {
def serialise(obj: A) : Array[Byte]
}
object PersonSerialisable extends Serialisable[Person] {
def serialise(obj: Person): Array[Byte] = ???
}
def saveToDisk[A](obj: A, ser: Serialisable[A]) = {
val data = ser.serialise(obj)
???
}
saveToDisk(Person("john", 99), PersonSerialisable)

18. Type classes classify types
trait Serialisable[A] {
def serialise(obj: A) : Array[Byte]
}
implicit object PersonSerialisable extends Serialisable[Person] {
def serialise(obj: Person): Array[Byte] = ???
}
def saveToDisk[A](obj: A)(implicit ser: Serialisable[A]) = {
val data = ser.serialise(obj)
???
}
saveToDisk(Person("john", 99))

19. Type classes classify types
// already defined in Scala
// def implicitly[T](implicit e: T) = e
def saveToDisk[A: Serialisable](obj: A) = {
val ser = implicitly[Serialisable[A]]
val data = ser.serialise(obj)
...
}
saveToDisk(Person("john", 99))

20. Testimony ;)

23. Just saying...
import serialisation.json._
//import serialisation.csv._
//import serialisation.xml._
def saveToDisk[A](obj: A)(implicit ser: Serialisable[A]) = {
val data = ser.serialise(obj)
???
}
saveToDisk(Person("john", 99))

24. Type classes in Scala
trait Ordering[T] {
def compare(x : T, y : T) : Int
def lteq(x : T, y : T) : Boolean = compare(x, y) <= 0
def gteq(x : T, y : T) : Boolean = compare(x, y) => 0
...
}
trait Numeric[T] extends Ordering[T] {
def plus(x : T, y : T) : T
def minus(x : T, y : T) : T
def negate(x : T) : T
...
}

25. Type classes in Scala
trait Ordering[T] {
def compare(x : T, y : T) : Int
def lteq(x : T, y : T) : Boolean = compare(x, y) <= 0
def gteq(x : T, y : T) : Boolean = compare(x, y) => 0
}
trait Numeric[T] extends Ordering[T] {
def plus(x : T, y : T) : T
def minus(x : T, y : T) : T
def negate(x : T) : T
}
trait TraversableOnce[+A] {
def sum[B >: A](implicit num : scala.Numeric[B]) : B = ???
def min[B >: A](implicit cmp : scala.Ordering[B]) : A = ???
def max[B >: A](implicit cmp : scala.Ordering[B]) : A = ???
}

26. Type classes in Scala
trait Ordering[T] {
def compare(x : T, y : T) : Int
def lteq(x : T, y : T) : Boolean = compare(x, y) <= 0
def gteq(x : T, y : T) : Boolean = compare(x, y) => 0
}
trait Numeric[T] extends Ordering[T] {
def plus(x : T, y : T) : T
def minus(x : T, y : T) : T
def negate(x : T) : T
}
trait TraversableOnce[+A] {
def sum[B >: A](implicit num : scala.Numeric[B]) : B = ???
def min[B >: A](implicit cmp : scala.Ordering[B]) : A = ???
def max[B >: A](implicit cmp : scala.Ordering[B]) : A = ???
}
val sum = List(1,2,3).sum
val min = List(1,2,3).min

27. Type classes in Scalaz
trait Equal[A] {
def equal(a1 : A, a2 : A) : Boolean
}
trait Show[A] {
def shows(a : A) : String
}
trait Functor[F[_]] {
def map[A, B](fa: F[A])(f: A => B): F[B]
}
trait Semigroup[A] {
def append(a1 : A, a2 : => A) : A
}
trait Monoid[A] extends Semigroup[A] {
def zero : A
}

28. Deriving proofs
//tuple of Equals is also an Equal
implicit def tuple2Equal[A: Equal, B: Equal]: Equal[(A, B)] =
new Equal[(A, B)] {
def equal(a1: (A, B), a2: (A, B)) : Boolean =
a1._1 === a2._1 && a1._2 === a2._2
}
//tuple of Semigroups is also a Semigroup
implicit def tuple2Semigroup[A: Semigroup, B: Semigroup]: Semigroup[(A, B)] = {
new Semigroup[(A, B)] {
def append(p1: (A, B), p2: => (A, B)) =
((p1._1 |+| p2._1), (p1._2 |+| p2._2))
}
}

30. Expression problem
package ep
trait Expr
case class Lit(value: Int) extends Expr
case class Add[A <: Expr, B <: Expr](x: A, y: B) extends Expr

31. Expression problem
● Operation extension
add new operations: eval, prettyPrint, etc.
● Data extension
add new expressions: Mul, Pow, Neg, ec.
● Static type safety
no isInstanceOf / asInstanceOf

32. Expression problem
package ep.evaluate
import ep._
trait Eval[A <: Expr] {
def eval(expr: A) : Int
}
object Eval {
def evaluate[A <: Expr](expr: A)(implicit evA: Eval[A]) = evA.eval(expr)
implicit object LitEval extends Eval[Lit] { def eval(expr: Lit) = expr.value }
implicit def addEval[A <: Expr, B <: Expr](implicit evA: Eval[A], evB: Eval[B]) = {
new Eval[Add[A, B]] {
def eval(expr: Add[A, B]) = evA.eval(expr.x) + evB.eval(expr.y)
}
}
}

33. Expression problem
package ep
import evaluate._
Eval.evaluate( Add(Lit(15), Lit(6)) ) === 21

34. Expression problem
package ep.expressions
import ep._
import evaluate._
case class Mul[A <: Expr, B <: Expr](x: A, y: B) extends Expr
object Mul {
implicit def mulEval[A <: Expr, B <: Expr](implicit evA: Eval[A], evB: Eval[B]) = {
new Eval[Mul[A, B]] {
def eval(expr: Mul[A, B]) = evA.eval(expr.x) * evB.eval(expr.y)
}
}
}

35. Expression problem
import evaluate._
import expressions._
Eval.evaluate( Mul(Lit(2), Add(Lit(15), Lit(6))) ) === 42

36. Expression problem
package ep.operations
import ep._
import ep.expressions._
trait PPrint[A <: Expr] {
def print(expr: A) : String
}
object PPrint {
def prettyPrint[A <: Expr](expr: A)(implicit pa: PPrint[A]) = pa.print(expr)
implicit object LitPrint extends PPrint[Lit] {
def print(expr: Lit) = expr.value.toString
}
implicit def mulPrint[A <: Expr, B <: Expr](implicit pA: PPrint[A], pB: PPrint[B]) = {
new PPrint[Mul[A, B]] {
def print(expr: Mul[A, B]) = pA.print(expr.x) + " * " + pB.print(expr.y)
}
}

37. Expression problem
import expressions._
import operations._
import evaluate._
PPrint.prettyPrint( Mul(Lit(2), Add(Lit(15), Lit(6))) ) === "2 * (15 + 6) = 42"

38. Expression problem
● Operation extension
add new operations: eval, prettyPrint, etc.
● Data extension
add new expressions: Mul, Pow, Neg, ec.
● Static type safety
no isInstanceOf / asInstanceOf

39. ● Add behaviours retroactively
No need to change existing data types
● Solution to the Expression problem
Operation and data extension with static type safety
● Different kinds of operations
“instance” (A => String), “factory” (String => A), etc.

42. What about us?
Isn't it enough?
No we're not in paradise
This is who we are
This is what we've got
No it's not our paradise