This presentation describes the trends in the shrimp farming industry in Latin America with focus on the contribution of pond natural food to shrimp growth

1. AN OVERVIEW ON THE CONTRIBUTION OF
NATURAL FOOD ITEMS TO SHRIMP GROWTH IN
AQUACULTURE PONDS
Alberto J.P. Nunes
LABOMAR*, Brazil
1E-mail: albertojpn@uol.com.br
*Part of Universidade Federal do Ceará
AQUA 2009 – Facing Future Challenges
Guayaquil, Ecuador
Session 4 - Shrimp Culture
October 15th, 2009
11:30 am

2. Shrimp Farming in LA is Changing!!
 MARKETS/PRICES: economical slow-
down. Increasing competition from
Asian countries, tighter margins, search
for emerging markets.
 COSTS: less capital input with feeds,
PLs, labor and energy to control
production costs to remain competitive
and reach break-even. Risk
management crucial.
 FEEDS: volatility in the price and supply
of commodities. Shift to locally available
ingredients. More and more difficult to
rely on traditional ingredients.
 CULTURE METHODS: operate under
semi-intensive conditions applying
efforts to recover and keep ponds in a
good condition in order to take full
advantage of natural food.

3. How to Survive: Lessons from a Neighbor
100
90
MT ECONOMICAL
80 DRIVERS
ha
Shrimp Production 70
ha in Operation
60
50
40 TECHNOLOGICAL
INPUTS
30
20
EXPERIMENTAL PHASE
10
0
Year 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03
Economical and  Poor expertise in shrimp farming  Shift to L.  High market demand
Technical  Inappropriate species vannamei  High USD rates
Environment  Lack of proper infrastructure  Commercial diets  Attractive shrimp prices
available  Intensification
 Feeding trays
 Paddle wheel
aeration
Brazil took 20 years to reach industrial scale in shrimp farming held
by economical and technical constraints

4. Brazil s Model to Shrimp Farming
Intensification
prevailed over
increase in
production
through
expansion in
farming area
STANDARD REARING METHODS: DESIGNED TO ACHIEVE:
 Closed production cycle  Short production cycles (120-150 days)
 Intensive soil preparation  High shrimp yields (3.5-7.0 MT/ha/crop)
 Indirect shrimp stocking (nursery  Focused on small size categories (10-12 g)
tanks)  FCR 1.5-1.8
 40-80 shrimp/m2
 Paddle-wheel aeration
 Feeding exclusively in feeding trays

5. Conventional Intensification
Intensification achieved through greater capital inputs:
1. Aeration rate
Shrimp/m2
hp/ha
2. Stocking density
3. Feeding rates Min Max
40 6 8
Required intensive labor and energy due to greater control
of feed input, disease and water quality
50 8 12
24,000 40.0
60 14 16
21,000 Shrimp Yield 35.0 70 16 18
Aeration Rate
18,000 30.0
80 18 20
Yield (kg/ha/crop)
Aeration Rate (hp/ha)
15,000 25.0
12,000 20.0
90 20 22
9,000 15.0 100 22 24
6,000 10.0
1 hp/ha for every 220-
3,000 5.0 345 kg/ha of shrimp
0 0.0 biomass exceeding the
25 44 42 57 53 146 151 159 173 163 threshold of 2,000 kg.
Shrimp/m2 1kW = 1.34 hp
Exemple of one shrimp pond in Brazil subjected to
intensification over 10 production cycles with L. vannamei

6. Paddle-Wheel Aeration Became Indispensable

7. 60.00 6,000
Shrimp/m2 Shrimp Yield (kg/ha/crop)
50.00
47.34
42.55 4,150
40.00
3,833
4,000
31.58
2,853
30.00
20.00 2,000
74.3% 81.0% 66.0%
10.5 g 10.4 g 9.6 g
10.00
0.00 0
2001 2002 2003 2001 2002 2003
Production Data From:
Loss of Efficiency over Time  5 States in NE Brazil
 Slower growth  408 data points (harvests)
 22 grow-out farms
 Higher FCRs
 11,153 MT of shrimp harvested
 Problems with survival  1,880 ha of grow-out ponds
2.00 FCR 1.00
Weekly Growth (g) and Days of Grow-out
1.60 1.65
1.60 1.47 0.80
0.67 0.66 0.64
1.20 0.60
0.80 0.40
127 d 128 d 134 d
0.40 0.20
0.00 0.00
2001 2002 2003 2001 2002 2003

8. Making Severe Changes to Survive
100 IMNV
USD Rate
Antidumping taxes
Low shrimp prices
20% domestic
30% intl.
50 70% domestic
80% intl.
Annual Production
(MT x 103) of Farm-Reared Shrimp
in Brazil
0
83 88 93 98 03 08
Historical events that led to confirmation of the Infectious Myonecrosis Virus (IMNV) in Brazil
Stressful farming conditions... First gross signs of disease and Confirmation of viral origin of
problems in production... pathogen...
2001-2003 2002-2003 2004

9. Des-intensification: taking one step-down
Too much business risk
Large amounts of capital required
Semi-intensive operation Drop in production justified by >
Intensive operation turn-over and < production costs
Semi-Intensive operation

10. High intensive shrimp
production (80 shrimp/m2) in
5-ha ponds
Photo from a shrimp
farm in NE Brazil in
Nov. 2003

11. Pulling out aerators from
shrimp ponds
Photo from a shrimp
farm in NE Brazil in
Dec. 2008

12. Shrimp pond before application of microbial additives
Photo from a shrimp
farm in NE Brazil in
Nov. 2005

13. Same pond soil after 4-month application of microbial additives
Viveiro antes da Aplicação com
Probiótico
Photo from a shrimp
farm in NE Brazil in
Oct. 2006

14. Rethinking Conventional Intensification
Advantages of Semi-Intensive
Systems:
(1) Operates with water exchange to
regulate dissolved oxygen levels:
mechanical aeration is not
always required
(2) Feed is distributed through
broadcasting over water: labor is
reduced compared to feeding Photo: Santana Jr.
trays Semi-intensive production is the
(3) Functions well with large ponds: most popular shrimp farming system
reduced construction in Latin America
investments
(4) Organic or chemical fertilization
of culture water promotes the
growth of natural food: reduces
FCRs

15. In SI ponds, there is much
more than shrimp and feeds…
FEEDS FERTILIZERS
DPN
Water P
G
F Water IN
L Copepods Diatoms
DN
Amphipods
H M, E, D L
F F DN
DPN
Water OUT Bacteria H
F
Shrimp
Crab Bacteria
M, E, D F
PN
Polychaetes
PN U U S
Detritus Bacteria Detritus
Sediment S
A A

16. In ponds, natural food is one of the determinant
factors to performance
% Natural Food
Stocking
Species Density Growth Stage Stomach 13C Author(s)
P. monodon 4 pcs./m2 0.8 g – 15-35 g 100% --- Bombeo-Tuburan et al. (1993)
P. monodon 7 pcs./m2 0.35 g – 17.6 g 63.7% --- Focken et al. (1998)
P. monodon 8 pcs/m2 PL – 22 g 79% --- Moorthy and Altaff (2002)
P. subtilis 10 pcs./m2 1.6 – 14.6 g 75.1% 84.4% Nunes et al. (1997)
P. japonicus 10 pcs./m2 PL22 – 22 g 37-43% --- Reymond and Lagardere (1990)
P. vannamei 20 pcs./m2 1.5 g – 12 g --- 53-77% Anderson et al. (1987)
Triño and Sarroza (1995) and Moss
1. Spares requirements for et al. (2006): feed vitamins and
minerals and vitamins minerals were reduced with no cost
to performance of P. monodon and
2. Improves biological P. vannamei
performance
3. Promotes better growth Martinez-Cordova et al. (2002)
increased shrimp yield and reduced
FCR in fertilized ponds with P.
Martinez-Cordova et al. (2003) stylirostris
boosted P. vannamei growth by
reducing protein and lipid levels in
diets

17. Influential Factors to the Growth Contribution of NF
STAGE
CULTURE SYSTEM  Post-larvae
Herbivorous  Juvenile
 Shrimp stocking density  Adult
 Soil characteristics Carnivorous
 Fertilization strategies Omnivorous
SPECIES
 Predominant feeding
behaviour and diet
Penaeus monodon
Litopenaeus vannamei

18. Pond Natural Food Items
 Detritus
• Much made up from dead
vascular plant material
• Faecal pellets bound together with
diatom particles and microbes
(fungi, bacteria and protozoans) Bioflocs (microbial detritus) from an
• Nutritional value depends on the experimental heterotrophic zero-water
stage of decomposition exchange system at LABOMAR, Brazil
• High levels of structural plant
materials (cellulose and lignin)
results in poor assimilation by
shrimp
• Reported to be found in shrimp
proventriculus throughout all
growth stages (can make up 1/4 of
all food ingested)
• Ingested food by penaeids is
difficult to identify; often and
erroneously classified as detritus Highly organic soil of a shrimp pond,
possibly containing high levels of detritus
from vascular plants

19. Going heterotrophic under lab conditions
Bioflocs formation
C:N ratio of 20:1
Application in water
Low protein diets
Bacterial flocs
Dried mollasses Phytoplankton bloom
Innoculation

20. Under floc conditions, shrimp can grow well
with low protein diets
Shrimp/m2 In. WGT (g) Fn. WGT (g) Grams/wk Survival (%) Yield (g/m2)
50 – A 3.99 ± 0.35ac 21.22 ± 1.10a 1.68 ± 0.12a 92.8 ± 7.6 771 ± 116
75 – A 3.28 ± 0.22bc 18.57 ± 1.26c 1.49 ± 0.11ab 72.7 ± 10.7 751 ± 158
100 – A 3.58 ± 0.14abc 17.27 ± 1.29c 1.33 ± 0.12b 67.2 ± 21.7 766 ± 308
50 – H 3.70 ± 0.36ab 20.22 ± 0.43b 1.61 ± 0.04ac 81.6 ± 15.6 629 ± 167
75 – H 3.26 ± 0.75c 17.99 ± 1.67c 1.33 ± 0.05bc 85.1 ± 10.4 883 ± 152
100 – H 3.31 ± 0.25bc 16.95 ± 0.35c 1.48 ± 0.16b 80.0 ± 15.7 1,002 ± 225
ANOVA < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 ns ns
Growth of P. vannamei under an autotrophic versus heterotrophic
system over 72 days of culture
Data: Fonseca (unpublished)
23.5% CP 36.9% CP

21. Presence of organic matter, bacterial detritus and epiphytes
will favor meiofaunal abundance if oxygen is not depleted

22. Pond Natural Food: Plant
 Algae basis of the food web
 Typically identified as plant remains
in shrimp stomachs
 Potential sources include:
• Emergents: terrestrial plants,
mangroves Rare
• Submerged macrophytes
Soil sample from a shrimp pond colonized by
(seagrass), seeds Common algae
• Algae: living forms and epiphytes
(microphytobenthos) Frequent
 Epiphytes: diatoms and blue-green
(cyanobacteria) are the major groups
 More often found in juvenile rather
than in adult penaids
 Important food source to many
meiofaunal organisms
 Appear to be a minor nutritional
Phytoplankton bloom in a shrimp pond
source to some shrimp species

23. Shrimp Usually Move Away from Plant
and Detritus as they Grow
Plant 8.60% Day 40 - 41 Plant 3.90%
Day 10 - 11
Prey 20.26%
Prey 14.40%
Minerals 4.92% Minerals 2.29%
Feed 4.79%
Feed 7.18%
Detritus 5.06%
Vacuity 45,80% Detritus 19.10%
Vacuity 63.70%
Day 50 - 51 Plant 3.60%
Day 20 - 21 Plant 3.42%
Prey 13.07%
Prey 13.67%
Minerals 2.27%
Minerals 3.09%
Feed 7.05%
Feed 5.36%
Detritus 4.44%
Detritus 15.55%
Vacuity 69.57%
Vacuity 58.91%
Source: Nunes et al. (1997)

24. Phytoplanton growth dependent on N, P and Si
12.0 275
11.0 Shrimp body weight 250
10.0 N
3.3-ha pond
225
42.4 pcs./m2
Shrimp Body Weight (g)
9.0 P
Nutrient Input (kg/ha)
200
8.0 Si
175
85 days of grow-out
7.0
150
0.97 g/week
6.0
125
FCR 1.85
5.0
100
52.9% survival
4.0
75 2,507 kg/ha
3.0
2.0 50
1.0 25
0.0 0
-6 1 8 15 22 29 36 44 50 57 64 71 78
Days of Rearing
Cummulative inputs (kg/ha) of nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P) and
silicate (Si) through the application of chemical fertilizers and feed.
Source: Fonseca, 2006

25. B A C IL L A R IO P H YC EA E D IN O P H YC EA E C YA N O P H YC EA E
2 0 ,0
N: P EU G L EN O P H YC EA E F IT O F L A G EL A D O S
100
1 5 ,0
R a zã o N :P (á to m o s )
P 90
D 80
1 0 ,0 N :P = 1 6 :1 (R e d fie ld )
D e n s id a d e ( % )
70
60
5 ,0
50
40
0 ,0
30
1 ,0
20
P N: S i
10
0 ,8 D
R a zã o N :S i (á to m o s )
0
N :S i = 1 6 :1 6 (R e d fie ld )
0 ,6 P -6 1 8 15 22 29 36 44 50 57 64 71 78
D ia s d e C u ltiv o
0 ,4
9000 2,400
0 ,2
Densidade
8000
bH
cH
)
Cla a
2
bCD
2,000
bFH
bFGH
0 ,0
cCE
Densidade (no. cels./ml x 10 7000
cDF
bC
bDEG
Cla a (log x µg/l)
3 0 ,0 S i: P 6000 1,600
bI
2 5 ,0 P
5000
1,200
cA
D
R a zã o Si:P (á to m o s )
bAB
S i:P = 1 6 :1 (R e d fie ld ) 4000
2 0 ,0
bA
3000 0,800
1 5 ,0
2000
1 0 ,0 0,400
1000
5 ,0
0 0,000
0 ,0 -6 1 8 15 22 29 36 44 50 57 64 71 78
-6 1 8 15 22 29 36 44 50 57 64 71 78
D ia s d e C u ltiv o
Dias de Cultivo
Source: Stock, R.F. et al., 2006. Dinâmica da Comunidade Fitoplanctônica em um Viveiro de
Engorda de Camarão Marinho (Litopenaeus vannamei) no Estado do Ceará. Dissertação de
Mestrado. Labomar/UFC. Fortaleza, CE, Brasil. 90 p.;

26. Various pennate diatoms found
in a shrimp pond in NE Brazil
Photos: Fonseca (2006)

27. Various filamentous
cyanobacteria found in a shrimp
pond in NE Brazil
Photos: Fonseca (2006)

28. Mass production of microalgae for innoculation in
grow-out ponds

29. Shrimp pond with dead benthic algae

30. ...and the day after

31. Pond Soil is the Major Site for Shrimp Preys
 Meiobenthos = meiofauna
 Prey  Meiofauna = microscopically small, motile aquatic
• Foraminiferans animals, living mostly in and on soft substrates in all
• Rotifers depths, in the marine and freshwater environments
 Pass through the coarse sieve size of 500 µm, but
• Nematodes retained at 44 µm
• Polychaetes  Smaller than macrofauna, but large than microfauna
• Mollusks
• Amphipods
• Branchipods
• Cladocerans
• Copepods
• Insect larvae
• Fish remains
Polychaete Collection

32. Rotifers Amphiods Nematodes
Ostracods Polychaetes Protozoa
Copepods Polychaetes
Cladocerans Photos: S.C. Marcelino and W.M.C. Lima (2004)

33. Nutritional Value
Chemical profile of some prey organims of Penaeus esculentus. Values
presented as dry matter basis. Adapted from Dall et al. (1991).
Nutrients Gastropods Bivalves Amphipods Polychaetes
Water (%) 33.6 56.8 74.3 79.9
Ash (%) 86.4 79.0 30.1 13.2
Protein (%) 10.1 14.0 56.8 71.5
Lipids (%) 1.6 2.2 8.8 9.6
Carbohydrate (%) 1.9 4.8 4.3 5.7

34. 10 - 40 shrimp/m2 - 3.5 - 11.0 g 10 shrimp/m2 - PL22 - 22 g
Source: Allan and Maguire (1992) Source: Reymond and Largadere (1990)
Fish
Insects Protozoans
5.0%
22.2% 10.0%
Protozoans Nematodes
33.3% 5.0%
Insects
30.0%
Polychaetes
15.0%
Crustaceans P. monodon
33.3% Molluscs
10.0%
Polychaetes Crustaceans
11.1% 25.0% P. japonicus
30 shrimp/m2 - PL - 14.8 g 10 shrimp/m2 - 1.6 - 14.6 g
Source: Martinez-Cordova et al. (1998) Source: Nunes et al. (1997)
Fish Protozoans
Molluscs 15.8% 10.5%
23.1% Nematodes
5.3%
Insects
30.8% Insects
5.3%
Crustaceans
21.1%
Crustaceans Polychaetes
46.2% 31.6%
Molluscs P. subtilis
P. vannamei 10.5%

35. Polychaetes
 Oftern dominate the
meiobenthic fauna in shrimp
ponds, accounting for more
than 50% of all meiofauna
 Pond soils may harbor more
than 50,000 polychaetes/m2
 The families capitellids,
spionids and nereids have all
been reported in the stomachs
of penaeid shrimp
 Opportunistic and r-strategistic Capitellidae Eunicidae Pilargidae
animals
 Under strong predation effect
may spawn within 5 to 10
weeks after shrimp stocking
Nereidae Spionidae Sabellidae

36. Polychaetes have a high capacity to recolonize
12.09 g
200
180 Polychaetes/m2 (x 100)
160
140
120 3.95 g
Station 1 Station 2 Station 3 Station 4
100
80
60
40
20
0
10 20 30 40 50
Days of Culture
Source: Nunes, 1995

37. PHYSICO- SEDIMENTARY
COMPLEX
grain size
porosity permeability water flow water supply
OMPLEX composition
CHEMICAL
H2S O2 pH To S‰ H2O
content
MEIOFAUNA
structure and distribution
Source: Giere, 2009
COMPLEX
BIOGENIC
biogenic dissolved
organic bio-
structures turbation
matter
food predation
mucus disturbance
particulate
production
organic
matter, detrit
biofilms us
COMPLEX
SBIOTIC
bacteria phytobenthos macro-zoobenthos

38. Availability of prey items decrease at higher
stocking densities
1,300
Number/m2
Penaeus monodon
5 shrimp/m2
1,250
15 shrimp/m2
400
25 shrimp/m2
350
40 shrimp/m2
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Polychaetes Nematodes Bivalves Insect Remains Algae
Reduction in the presence of the natural food organisms in the stomachs of Penaeus
monodon in Australia as a function of shrimp stocking density (Allan and Maguire, 1992)

39. Artemisa farm - Acaraú, CE, Brazil
10-ha pond Water Inlet
45 enclosures
FNS
NFNS
225 m
SNF
FS
40 m R C L
40 m
140 m
3m 5 10 53 m
10 15
15 20 10
20 m
5 5 15
15 5 5
20 15 20
15 10 5
Final enclosure lay-out 92 m
Wind
10 Direction
10 20
20 15 15
5 5 NE
10 15 10
20 20 10
5 20
33 m
20
30 m
Water Outlet
158 m
Source: Nunes and Parsons (2000)

40.   
Substrate
Transplantation of polychaetes
2.83 cm
 1.83 cm
500 um
Soil collection
Polychaetes
Shrimp feeding
Source: Nunes and Parsons (2000)

41. Availability of NF Penaeus subtilis
decreases at higher
stocking densities
14,000 WITH feed delivery
Polychaete Density (no./m2)
12,000 n = 109
a
10,000
n = 109
8,000 a n = 109
b
6,000
4,000
n = 108 b
2,000
0
5 10 15 20
Shrimp/m2
Effect of stocking density of Penaeus subtilis on the abundance of polychaetes in the
pond bottom in Brazil (Nunes and Parsons, 2000).

42. NF is nos sustainable Penaeus subtilis
when feeds are not
delivered
14,000
Polychaete Density (no./m2)
12,000 WITHOUT feed delivery
10,000
8,000
6,000 n = 109
n = 109 a n = 109 n = 109
a a
4,000 a
2,000
0
5 10 15 20
Shrimp/m2
Effect of stocking density of Penaeus subtilis on the abundance of polychaetes in the
pond bottom in Brazil (Nunes and Parsons, 2000).

43. Delivery of feeds promotes polychaete
growth
90 3.5
n = 72
Dry Polych. Biomass (g/m2)
80 a
3.0
n = 72 n = 72
70
Polych. Dens. (no./m2) x 102
2.5
60
a, b b
50 N = 72 n = 72 2.0
B
40 1.5
c
30 N = 71
N = 54 1.0
A
20 A N = 72
A 0.5
10
0 0.0
Feed+ No Feed+ No Feed+ Feed+
No Shrimp No shrimp Shrimp Shrimp

44. Natural food can sustain good shrimp growth for
the first 4 weeks of culture
80
WGT (g) SUR (%) YIE (kg/ha)
0 h/day 14.66 a 43.21 a 1,243 a
6 h/day 15.87 b 53.64 ab 1,652 ab
Number of macrobenthos/m2
60
12 h/day 13.94 a 60.60 b 1,687 b
24 h/day 14.76 a 61.61 b 1,813 b
40
20
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17
Weeks of grow-out
Abudance of macrobenthos in the soil of 200 m2 ponds stocked with P. vannamei at 30
PL/m2 (Source: Martinez-Cordova et al., 1998). Aeration was supplied by 25-mm
perforated PVC tubes.

45. Soil preparation has a significant impact on
shrimp performance
89.3% Surv.
3.8 FCR
Shrimp WEIGHT
89.0% Surv.
Shrimp BIOMASS
2.1 FCR
13.0
Gain (g) 160
Gain (g)
12.0
92.7% Surv.
2.0 FCR
4.4 FCR
88.2% Surv.
150
11.0
140
10.0
130
9.0
120
8.0
7.0 110
6.0 100
LF HF LF HF LF HF LF HF
Penaeus monodon stocked at 15 shrimp/m2 in 16 pools for 71 days. Source: Allan et al. (1995)
UNPREPARED, four-week soil maturation after fertilization
PREPARED, no soil maturation after fertilization
LF, LOW feeding rates, 50% below recommedation
HF, HIGH feeding rates, normal commercial feeding rates

46. Possibly little effect if vertical surface area per m2 is not large
enough

47. Vertical substrates will promote the growth of algal communities

48. Reduced oxygen supply in the sediment will restrain
meiobenthic organism growth
 Meiobenthic organisms have a high oxygen supply
 Only a few prefer hypoxic conditions
 Tolerant only to short anoxic events

49. Formation of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is toxic
to meiobenthos at low concentrations
H2S will ocurr in soils with acidic pH
and under reducing conditions

50. Recommendations
 More reliable in the first weeks of grow-out
 Allow ponds to mature as much as possible
between crops
 Avoid soil to deteriorate over production
cycles
 Keep good water transparencies between
30 - 40 cm
 Fine-tune shrimp feed requirements to the
farm’s pond natural food availability (protein,
vitamins, minerals)