Fungus, a really amazing creation with lots of potentials.. Mushrooms among them are really unique and tasty... here is some basics regarding mushrooms and basics of mushroom production.

1. PREPARED BY : AKASH.P , B.Sc. Agriculture, COA, VNMKV, PARBHANI
AKPCOAVNMKV12-16

2. “THE LARGEST LIVING THING ON
EARTH IS A FUNGUS”
MORE PRECISELY , A SPECIFIC
HONEY FUNGUS MEASURING 2.4
MILES (3.8KM) ACROSS IN THE
BLUE MOUNTAINS IN THE
OREGON IS THOUGHT TO BE
LARGEST LIVING ORGANISM ON
EARTH
THESE FUNGUS ARE BELONGING
TO THE Armillaria GENUS , WHICH
IS POPULARLY KNOWN AS
HONEY FUNGUS.
AKPCOAVNMKV12-16

3. AKPCOAVNMKV12-16

4.  MUSHROOMS ARE THE EUCARYOTIC SPORE
BEARING ORGANISMS UNDER MACRO FUNGI,
LACKING CHLOROPHYLL AND GROW ON DEAD
DECOMPOSSED MATTER AS SAPROPHYTES.
 THE WORD “MUSHROOM”
“FUNGO”
(FLOURISH , GROWING OUT FROM THE
TREES OR GROUNDS)
“SPHONGGOS”/ “SPHOGGOS”(SPECIES
HAVING SPONGE LIKE STRUCTURE)
“MOUSSERON”/MOSS
LATIN
GREEK
FRENCH
SANSKRIT - “KSUMPA”
HINDI - “KHUMB”(BUTTON)
“DHINGRI”( OYSTER)

6.  MAIN BODY OF FUNGUS IS MADE UP OF HYPHAE
 HYPHAE FORMS MYCELIUM
 MYCELIUM FORMS THE BODY OF FUNGUS THE THALLUS
 SO MUSHROOMS ARE MADE UP OF THICK COLLECTIONS OF
HYPHAE
 THERE ARE AROUND TWOHUNDRED THOUSAND SPECIES OF
IDENTIFIED FUNGUS
 MUSHROOMS ARE COMING UNDER MACRO FUNGI. THE
OTHER ONE IS MICRO FUNGI
 A SINGLE FRUITING BODY CAN PRODUCE MORE
THAN10000MILLIONS OF SPORES
 SPORES ARE FOUND IN GILLS

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9.  PROTEIN
* 2.5-3%( FRESH WEIGHT ) & 20-35% ( DRY WEGHT)
* GOOD QUALITY AND HIGH DIGESTIBBILITY
* LYSINE & TRYPTOPHAN (ESSENTIAL AMINA ACIDS)
PRESEN IN IT NOT IN CEREALS
* IT CONTAINS LEUCINE , ISOLEUCINE , VALINE , THREONINE ,
TYROSINE & PHENYLALANINE
* BUT METHIONINE AND CYSTEINE ARE LESS IM
MUSHROOMS AND PRESENT IN CEREALS .
 VITAMINS
* RICH IN B COMPLEX & C.
* NO LOSS OF VITAMINES DURING COOKING.
* IT CONTAINS V-B12 AND FOLIC ACID WHICH ARE ABSENT
IN GREEN VEGETABLES.
* HIGH POTASSIUM CONTENT AND HIGH K:Na RATIO’.
* SO GOOD FOR PERSONS WITH HIGH BP OR HEART
PROBLEM

10. MINERALS
RICH SOURCE OF MINERALS LIKE POTASSIUM,
PHOSPHORUS, COPPER AND IRON BUT CALCIUM
PERCENTAGE IS LOW IN IT.
CARBOHYDRATE & FAT
CARBOHYDRATE AND FAT CONTENT OF
MUSHROOM IS VERY LOW .
ENERGY VALUE
MUSHROOMS ARE GOOD SOURCE OF
ENERGY

13. PADDY STRAW MUSHROOM/ CHINEES MUSHROOM / TROPICAL
MUSHROOM Volvariella spp.

24. Common Edible Mushrooms In India
 Agaricus bisporus
syn. Psalliota arvensis
 Agaricus arvensis
 Agaricus campestris
syn. Psalliota campestris
 Agrocybe praecox
syn.Phliota praecox
 Amanita caesaria
 Amanita vaginata
syn. Amanitopsis vaginata
 Armillaria mellea
 Bovista plumbea
 Calvatia cyathiformis
 Calvatia utriformis
syn. Calvatia caelata
 Cantharellus cibarius
 Coprinus atramentarius
 Coprinus comatus
 Coprinus micaceus
 Flamulina velutipes
syn. Colybia velutipes
 Heterobasidion annosum
syn. Fomes annosus
Polyporus annosus
Polyporus irregularis
 Hirneola auricular
syn. Auricularia auricula
 Hydnum sepandum
syn. Dentinum sependum
 Laccaria laccata
syn. Clitocybe laccata
 Lactiporus sulphureus
syn. Polyporus sulphureus
 Leucocoprinus cepaestipes
syn.Lepiota cepaestiprs
 Lycoperdon perlatum
syn. Lycoperdon gemmatum
 Macrolepiota mostoidea
syn. Lepiota mastoidea
 Macrolepiota procera
syn. Lepiota procera
 Morchella deliciosa
 Morchella esculenta
 Pleurotus fabellatus
 Pleurotus ostreatus
syn.Pleurotus
salignus
 Pleurotus sajor-
caju
syn. Lentinus sajor-
caju
 Pleurotus eous
 Pleurotus florida
 Pleurotus
columbinus
 Hypsizygus ulmaris
 .
 ..
 …
 …..
 …….
 ………
 ……………..

26.  POISONOUS MUSHROOMS ARE CALLED TOADSTOOLS.
SOME OF THE IMPORTANT EXAPLES ARE Amanita
phalloides (THE DEATH CAP) , A. muscaria (FLY AGARIC)
AND A. verna. ( DESTROYING ANGEL) .
 MUSHROOM POISONING/TOXICITY OCCURS AFTER
INGESTION OF MUSHROOMS THAT CONTAINS TOXIN.
 ABOUT 100 SPECIES OF MUSHROOMS CAUSE SYMPTOMS
WHEN INGESTED AND ONLY 15-20 MUSHROOM SPECIES
ARE POTENTIALLY LETHAL .
 NO SIMPLE RULE EXISTS FOR DISTINGUISHING EDIBLE
MUSHROOMS FROM NON EDIBLE POISONOUS
MUSHROOMS .
 IN MORE THAN 95% OF MUSHROOM TOXICITY CASES ,
POISONING OCCURS AS A RESULT OF MIS
IDENTIFICATION( e.g.:-in the case of immature Amanita spp
& Coprinus comatus)

27.  MUSHROOMS COMING UNDER THE GENUS Amanita ,
Cortinaris , Omphalotus , Gyromitra , Coprinus … etc. ARE
HAVING TPXINS IN THEM.
 ALPHA- AMANITIN , ORELLANINE , MUSCARINE ,
GYROMITRINE ARE SOME DEADLY TOXINS FOUND IN
MUSHROOMS
 TOXINS CAN CAUSE ORGAN FAILUERS , NEURO TOXIC
EFFECTS … etc. SO CHANCES OF RECOVERY IS VERY VERY
LESS .
 BUT MOST OF THE MUSHROOM POSONING RESPOND
WELL TO TREATMENT .
 LIQUOR SHOULD BE AVOIDED ALONG WITH THE
MUSHROO DISHES .
 PUMPKIN OR BROAD BEANS , WHEN CONSUMED LONG
WITH MUSHROOMS CAN CAUSE FOOD POISONING.

29. Amanita phalloides
Death cap
Amanita muscaria
Fly agaric
A
m
a
n
i
t
a
v
e
r
n
a
FO
OL
’S
M
US
HR
O
O
M

33. u
ARYANS ROLE : Around 1500 B.C. , the Aryans migrated into Indian
subcontinent who used an intoxicating drink soma in their religious
rites.
RIG VEDA : There are many songs on such soma in the Rig Veda that
refers to Amanita muscaria ( Wasson, 1969).
STONE CARVING : O’Heer and his associates (1886) found traces of
puffballs and many other fungi carved on some stones.
MAYAN PERIOD : Mushroom shaped stone carvings were found in
Central America and some highlands of Guatemala . These were
assumed to be used in their many ceremonies . Mushroom shaped
objects resembling to Amanita muscaria were figured in the astrological
paintings of Mayancodices. During this period, various names of
mushroom fungi were given e.g. Agarikon , Amanita, Bolites etc.
ROMAN PERIOD : The Romans were very selective, elite and artistic in
their food habits . They felt a feast is complete and luxurious on serving
different mushroom preparations e.g. Amanitous caesaria and Boletus
edulis.

34. PLEUROTUS
SPP.

35. “The fruiting bodies of this fungi
resemble the shell of sea oyster and
hence called Oyster mushroom . This
mushroom is widely cultivated in
Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, West Bengal and Assam
than any part of India.”

36. 1917: Falck first described successful
cultivation of Pleurotus ostreatus on tree
stumps and logs
1951 : Lohwag first grew Pleurotus on a saw
dust mixture.
1959 : Three scientists namely Block, Tsao and
Hau grew large number of fruit bodies on
sterile saw dust/oat meal mixtures.
1962 : Bano and Srivastava reported mass
production on straw –based substrates and
their work gave the right way for large scale
commercial exploitation . They obtained
increased yield by using paddy straw

37.  VARIETY OF SUBSTRATE
 CHOICE OF SPECEIES( colour, texture, shape, aroma )
 SIMPLE CULTIVATION TECHNOLOG
 LONGER SHELF LIFE
• @ Room temperature fresh mushroom can be kept
for about 24-48hrs
• Dried mushroom (2-4% moisture) can be used
instantly used after soaking in hot water for 5-10
minutes.
• It can be easily dried and stored.
 HIGHEST PRODUCTIVITY
• Can harvest about 500-700KG fresh mushroom
within 45-60 days from 1 tonne (1000KG or 10QTL)

38. Stipe

39. 38 SPECIES ARE RECORDED UNDER PLEUROTUS GENUS
ALL VARIETIES OF OYSTER MUSHROOM ARE EDIBLE EXEPT
Pleurotus olearius & Pleurotus nidiformis.
25 species are cultivated
P.ostreatus, P.flabellatus, P.Florida, Sajor-caju, P.sapidus,
P.cystidiosus, P.eryngii, P.fossulatus, P.opuntiae,
P.cornucopiae, P.yuccae, P.platypus, P.djamor, P.tuber-
regium, P.australis, P.purpureo-olivaceous, P.populinus,
P.levis, P.columbinus, P.membraneous

40. SPORES ARE DIRTY WHITE OR LILAC DEPOSITION OF
POWDERY SPORES
THEY ARE HYALINE , SMOOTH & CYLINDRICAL
MYCELIAL GROWTH STARTS 48-96HRS AFTER DISPERSAL
Pleurotus cystidious & Pleurotus columbinus FORMS
COREMIA LIKE STALKED STRUCTURES
PRIMARY MYCELIUM IS CLAMPLESS AND NON-FERTILE
WHILE SECCONDARY MYCELIUM IS FERTILE AND HAVE
CLAMP CONNECTIONS

41. Pleurotus olearius
Pleurotus nidiformis

49. SPAWN IS SIMPLY THE SEED OF MUSHROOM, WHICH CONSISTS OF
MYCELIUM OF THE FUNGUS GROWN ON SUITABLE SUBSTRATE LIKE
CEREAL GRAINS.

50. INGRADIENTS :
Potato 200g
Dextrose or glucose 20g
Agar-agar 20g
Distilled water 1 litre
o Wash 200g of potatoes, peel off the skin with a sharp knife. Cut the potatoes
into pieces
o Put the potato pieces into 500ml of water in a saucepan with lid and boil for
20minutes or until potatoes become soft. Alternatively, cook the potatoes by
steaming for 15 minutes in pressure cooker or an autoclave.

51. o Melt the agar-agar in 500ml of water in, in one litre flask . This should be
melted in a water bath or in a pressure cooker. The agar-agar may spill out
when intensity of heat is high. Therefor, close the mouth of the flask with a
cotton plug. For saving time and electricity, both potatoes and agar-agar can
be heated at a time in a pressure cooker or an autoclave by steaming for 15
minutes.
o Strain and squeeze the juice from the cooked potatoes through a muslin
cloth.
o Add 20g of dextrose or glucose to the potato extract.
o Mix the molten agar and potato extract . Make up the volume to 1 litre by
adding warm water. And check the pH of solution and adjust it at 6 by
adding drops of 0.1N HCl or 0.1N NaOH. If the pH is 4 or below, the agar
does not solidify after autoclaving.
o Pour the media in to conical flask and plug it with cotton and cover them with
a piece of butter paper.
o Allow the steam to go out for 15 min, then close the steam outlet of the
autoclave.
o Sterilize the medium in autoclave at 15lbs psi(Pressure/sq. inch) for 30
minutes. Do not allow the pressure to go beyond 15lbs i.e 121°C. At higher
temperatures dextrose may change its property. The carbohydrates are
partially hydrolyzed at high temperature. Partially hydrolyzed agar also
inhibit growth of fungus

52. o it is very important to add antibiotic to PDA in order to check growth of
bacterial contaminants coming from mushroom tissues. Antibiotic Is destroyed
by heating, therefore it is added after autoclaving. Take out the PDA from
autoclave after sterilization and keep it in laminar air flow room. And add
small quantity(2mg) of antibiotic with the help of inoculation needle to PDA
just prior to its solidification. Stir the medium and pour to desired.
 How to prepare 0.1N solution of Hydrochloric acid?
Take 8.4ml concentrated hydrochloric
acid and add 992ml distilled water.
How to prepare 0.1N solution of Sodium hydroxide?
Take 4.2g of sodium hydroxide in one
liter of distilled water. Store the solution in a bottle with
label.

55. o Select a fresh, big size fruit body of the mushroom. It
should not contain much of water.
o Split the mushroom longitudinally into two equal halves in
a laminar air flow cabinet.
o With a new blade, cut a cube of tissue 3mm x 6mm from
the inner side of the junction of cap and stalk.
o Place the tissue on PDA slant or plate and incubate at 25°C
for 10 days. The antibiotic Streptopenicillin or streptomycin
should earlier be added to PDA. After 48 hrs , the block
turns into powdery white cottony growth indicating
success of the culture.
o Store the flask containing pure culture of the mushroom in
a refrigerator when the cottony mycelium covers the entire
PDA surface.

58. Sorghum > Pearl millet > Wheat=Paddy
In paddy Bacterial contamination is less due to harder
husk.
Yield of Oyster mushroom ά 1/Protein content of grain
Protein content of Wheat and Paddy grain is 12% and
7% respectively.
For Button mushroom wheat is best.

59. o Wash the grain thoroughly with sufficient water three times to remove dust,
chaffy grains and debris.
o Soak the grains in sufficient water for 30 minutes . Boil water in an aluminium
saucepan and put grains into the water. The water level should be about 2 cm
above the grains. Continue to boil the grains for 30 min. with intermittent
stirring . Test for softening of cooked grain by pressing between fingers. Stop
boiling when very few grains show splitting. Over boiling will result in
complete splitting of grains.
o Drain off excess water by spreading the cooked grains on a sieve made of
wire mesh.
o Mix thoroughly 20g of good quality Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) with 1kg of
cooked grain. The purpose of coating the grains is to raise the pH. It should be
a 8.5 or above, before autoclaving. The pharmaceutical grade of CaCO3 is best
as well as economical. The growth of the spawn is fast when the pH of grain is
optimum at 7.5. Growth of spawn is slow , when the pH is 6. The cheaper
grade of CaCO3 viz. French chalk does not raise the pH to desired level. In
consequence, the competitor moulds viz. Trichoderma and Penicillium will
dominate. A finer powder of CaCO3 gives the best coating on the grains when
compared to a coarse powder.

61. The second generation (T2) fungal culture prepared from
mother culture (T1) on the sterilized grain is called mother
spawn

62. The mother spawn should be prepared in empty saline
bottles or conical flasks. They are convenient for inoculating
the spawn packets. Further , the chance of contamination is
less in glass bottles.
METHOD:-
o Fill the grains in empty saline bottles up to 3/4th of its
capacity.
o Put the cotton plug and cover it with a piece of butter
paper.
o Keep the bottle in autoclave or a pressure cooker for
sterilization at 121°C and 15lbs psi.

63. Laminar air flow machine is a must for spawn
production.The machine should kept inside a small isolated
room of 3x3m size
Mop the floor of inoculation room with a cloth soaked in
water to which 4 spoon full of bleaching powder is added.
This is done in evening hours.
Prepare a solution of formalin @ 10ml/liter of filtered water.
A fine mist of this solution is sprayed in the air, inside the
inoculation chamber. The spores of contaminating fungi are
suspended in the air inside inoculation chamber, when a
fine mist of formalin solution is sprayed in the air these
spores also get wiped out from the air.
Arrange all materials viz. Spirit lamp, match box,
inoculation needle, cotton and substrate on working place
of laminar air flow
Switch on UV light for 20minutes just before inoculation
Wash your hands and wear an apron for avoiding
contamination

64. o Keep the sterilized bottles containing grains in the inoculation room.
o Keep ready the spirit lamp, cotton, wax coated match stick box and
inoculation needle on the working table of laminar air flow cabinet.
Switch on the UV light for 20 minutes.
o Cut a piece of about 1x 2cm size agar along with growing mycelium
with the help of stiff inoculating needle. Lift the piece with the hook of
inoculating needle . Transfer the mycelium aseptically in to the mother
spawn bottle. The spawn growth is fast when the size of inoculum is
big. Put a sticker label with the name of the species, date.
o Keep the inoculated bottles in an incubator at 24°C for Pleurotus spp.
and Agaricus bisporus. Volvariella sp. and Caloyba indica should be
kept at 28 to 30°C.
o Watch the growth of mother spawn frequently. Discard immediately the
contaminated bottles.
o The growth of mother spawn will be completed after 15 days of
inoculation. Allow the spawn to mature for 5 more days. The growth of
mycelium will become dense. The spawn is now ready for putting into
planting/commercial spawn.

66. Commercial spawn is prepared in polypropylene bags by multiplying
from the mother spawn up to 3rd (T3) or 4th (T4) generation. This spawn is
used for planting in the mushroom beds. Further sub culturing of the
spawn from T4 generation usually reduces the efficiency and vigor of the
spawn leads to reduction in mushroom production.
METHOD:-
o Take the polypropylene bags of 15 x 21 cm size. The bags should
have double sealing at bottom, or else water may enter during
autoclaving
o Fill 200g of cooked grains
o Put cotton plug for aeration into the spawn and tie it with a rubber
band. Cotton plug is a must for aeration and respiration of growing
mycelium.
o Sterilize them at 15lbs/sq. inch for 2 hours.
o Keep the sterilized bags on laminar air flow under UV light foe 30
minutes.
o Select fully grown mother spawn (T2) bottle.
o Transfer two spoon full of mother spawn to the packet and close it
with cotton plug.

67. o Label it neatly
o Incubate the spawn packets at specific
temperatures for different species. The chances of
spoilage due to Trichoderma sp. Is more at warm
temperature( above 25°C ) the best temperature
for Pleurotus sp. Is 23-24°C
o A cotton like growth can be seen from the
inoculum after 48hrs of inoculating the packets.
o If excessive sweating is found inside the bag , it
indicates that bags are contaminated.
o It will take about 12-15days for complete spawn
growth.
o 15-20 days old spawns are better for beds.
o Spawns can be stored at room temperature up to
one month from the day of inoculation and up to 3
months in refrigerators at 4°C.

69. TAKE HEALTHY,WASHED GOOD QUALITY WHEAT/PADDY GRAIN
BOIL THE RAINS IN WATER FOR 30 MINUTES
MIX CaCO3 @ 20G/KG OF COOKED GRAIN
DRY THE GRAIN UNDER SHADE FOR 1HOUR
DRAIN OUT WSTER ON A SIEVE

70. FILL 300G OF GRAINS IN BOTTLES/POLYPROPYLENE
INOCULATE IT WITH GROWING MYCELIUM/SPOON FULL OF MOTHER
SPAWN
INCUBATE IN BOD AT 23-24°C FOR 12-15 DAYS.
PUT COTTON PLUG AND AUTOCLAVE AT 15LBS/SQ.INCH FOR 1.5 TO 2
HOURS
MOTHER SPAWN/COMMERCIAL SPAWN IS READY

72.  The best duration for sterilization of grain is 2hrs at 15lbs/sq.
inch in order to reduce the chances of contamination
 Add Thiophanate methyl or Caebendazim @ 0.5g/kg cooked
grain before autoclaving foe checking Trichoderma and
Penicillium spp.
 15-20 days old spawn is the best for preparing mushroom
beds
 Spawns can be stored under room temperature up to 30
days from the date of inoculation.
 After one month spawn can be stored under refrigeration
for another 3 months
 But the yield of mushroom may reduce as days increased.

73. Rice straw is best among all the cellulosic materials. Straw exposed to rain
is not used. Soybean straw contains 5% of crude protein. C:N ratio of wheat straw
is 100-15:1 , oat straw is 50-100:1 News paper is 400-850:1 etc.
Already discussed in previous slides.
o Take the chopped straw and soak it in empty oil drum with water for 6-8 hrs
o Drain out the excess water and sterilize it in steam( autoclaving at 15 lbs psi
or hot water( @85°C for 30 min)
o Hot straw will chop down the contamination and help in quicker growth of
mycelium of desired fungus.
o Spread the straw on a clean floor for cooling and there should not be water
drip down when squeezed in palm.

74. o Spray Carbendazim @ 0.5g/l . 200 ml is sufficient for spraying straw sufficient
for one bed. 0.3% garlic extract can also used for spraying the straw just
before spawning. This is very effective against Trichoderma sp. The green
mould.
o Garlic extract can be prepared by mixing 50ml of water in 50g peeled garlic
paste. 3ml of above preparation along with 1liter of water will give 0.3%
garlic extract. Which can be sprayed on straw.
o After hot water treatment 1kg of straw become 3kg.
o CHEMICAL STERILIZATION is practiced by soaking 12-14kg of straw in 100 liter
of water, 125ml of formaldehyde and 7.5g Carbendazim for 15-18 hrs.
o Take a polythene bag of 40 x 60 cm size . High quality opaque polythene bags
are good for spawn run.
o Tie the bottom of bag with jute thread for circular bottom of the bed.
o The spawning rate is 30g/kg of wet straw i.e. 3% . Usually 100g of spawn is
required for one bed of mushroom.
o We have to break the lumps of planting spawn with fingers.
o Put 10cm straw in bag and press it to 6cm for air free. And 25g of spawn is
sprinkled towards sides of the layer.
o Bag is filled with five layers of straw ad 4 layers of spawn.

75. o Mycelial run is faster in dark dark room at 25°C with in 14 days.
o Additional 4 days are needed for the maturity of the mycelium.
o Cream coloured patches on the surface indicates the maturity of beds.
o After maturation the polythene bag is teared of with a sterilized knife and
take the straw bowl out.
o Make a dug with index finger at the top Centre of opened bed.
o There should be proper ventilation and diffused light.
o The best temperature is 23°C
o Humidity of the room should be maintained at above 75-80% so as to avoid
evaporation from the beds.
o There should not be direct sunlight.

76. o Transfer the beds to the cropping room
o Water need not be sprayed on beds for first two days after removing the
polythene .
o Spray water on the beds in the morning and evening hours.
o The first flush of mushroom will appear 6-7 days after opening the bag. The
second and third crop will come at one week interval. The beds should be
removed after one month of opening.
 Green moulds on bed- Trichoderma harzianum
 Ink cap fungus – Coprinus spp
 Browning – Pseudomonas spp.
 Sciarid fly and Phorid fly
 Staphylinid beetle, Scaphisoma beetle, Pleasant beetle
 Slugs ,Snails etc.

80. AKPCOAVNMKV12-16

81. Lactarius indigo
Blue milk mushroom
Panellus stipticus
Blister Oyster
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82. Rhodotus palmatus
The wrinkled peach
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83. Clavaria zollingeri
Violet Coral
Geastrum saccatum
Rounded Earthstar
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84. Clavulinopsis corallinorosacea
Coral Fungi
Aseroe rubra
Anemone Stinkhorn
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85. Lycoperdon umbrinum
Umber Brown Puffball
Amanita muscaria
Fly agaric
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86. Amanita caesarea
Caesar’s Mushroom
Mycena interrupta
Pixel’s Parasol

87. Morchella conica
The Black Morel
Polyporus squamosus
Drayd’s saddle
AKPCOAVNMKV12-16

88. Xanthoria elegans
Elegant Sunburst Lichen
Is a lichenized species of
fungus in the genus Xanthoria ,
family Teloschistaceae.
Recognized by it’s bright
orange or red pigmentation ,
this species grow on rocks ,
often near bird or rodent
perches. It has a circumpolar
and alpine distribution. It was
one of the first lichens to be
used for the rock –face dating
method known as
lichenometry, a technique of
estimating the age of rock
faces by measuring the
diameter of the lichen thalli
growing on them. It grows at
0.5mm/year. AKPCOAVNMKV12-16

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94.  DR. A.S DHAVAN SIR DEAN FACULTY OF AGRICULTURE.
 DR.D.N. GOKHALE SIR ASSOCIATE DEAN AND PRINCIPAL.
 DR.K.T APET SIR, HOD ,DEPT OF PLANT PATHOLOGY AND MODULE INCHARGE. FOR
HIS GUIDANCE AND SUPPORT TO OUR WORK.
 GHANTE SIR, BADGUJAR SIR, NAVGIRE SIR AND MULEKAR SIR FOR THEIR GUIDANCE
IN OUR STUDIES.
 LAXMAM MAAMA AND KADAM MAAMA FOR THEIR GREAT HELP IN LABORATORIES
 NAYANA V R FOR PROVIDING ME LAPTOP FOR THIS WORK
 JOHN KP, YOGENDRA BANSOD, MUKESHMEENA, SHREELAKSHMI AND ATHULYA FOR
THEIR HELP DURING THE WORK.
 ALL MY BATCH MATES OF PATHOLOGY MODULE FOR THEIR GREAT COOPERATION.
 MY TEACHERS PARENTS SISTERS. AND ABOVE ALL THE ETERNAL POWER .. AND
CREATOR OF MANKIND AND THE SUPREME APPRAISER OF MOTHERLAND
 DR.B VENKATESHWARLU SIR HONOURABLE VICECHANCELLOR , VNMKV,
PARBHANI.