This presentation provide information about Harappa Civilization. Its discovery, town planning, subsistence strategies of the people, major findings and theories of decline.

1. HISTORY
Harappa Civilization

2. Concepts
GLOBAL MANIA

3. Concepts
Introduction
Discovery of Harappa
Artifacts
Subsistence Strategies
Mohenjodaro
Religion
Decline

4. Introduction
Continuous efforts of archaeologists help us to know
Letabout ancient people. They brought to surface the
us study about one such river valley civilisation that
flourished in Indian subcontinent. The civilisation that
achievements of these people.
has dated back Indian history for almost 5000 years,
i.e., Harappa Civilisation.
Fertile river valleys hadthese ancient of human
The traces of been the cradle
civilisation since time immemorial.
cultures have been explored by
the archaeologists across the
world.

5. Discovery of Harappa

6. Initial Discovery
By Cunningham
Text and inscriptions used as guide
to investigations
Accounts left by Chinese
Buddhist pilgrims used as
reference
Recovering artifacts of cultural
value

7. Harappa Discovered
• In 1924 by John Marshall (Director-General of the
ASI)
• Formally announced to the world

8. John Marshall
• Stint as Director General of ASI
• First professional archaeologist to
work in India
• Brought his experience of working
in Greece and Crete to the field
• Keen to excavate patterns of
everyday life

9. Style of Working
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Excavated along different horizontal units
Measured uniformly throughout the mound
Ignored stratigraphy of the site
Artifacts found from same unit grouped together
Belonged to different strata of soil

10. R.E.M. Wheeler
• Became Director of ASI in 1944
• Rectified the problem of stratigraphy
• Brought a military-like precision to
excavation
• Did not dig along uniform horizontal
lines

11. Phases of the Civilisation
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Civilisation dated between c. 2600 and 1900 BCE
Called the Mature Harappan Culture
Earlier and later cultures existed
Called Early Harappan and Late Harappan
Existed in the same area

12. Effects of Partition
• Resulted in major sites being located
in Pakistan
• Spurred Indian archaeologists to
locate Indian sites
• Settlements recovered in Kutch and
Punjab
• Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhi Garhi and
Dholavira added to list

13. Growing Interest
• International interest in
Harappan archaeology
• Specialists working on the
subcontinent
• Use of modern scientific
techniques including
surface exploration
• Trying to recover traces of
clay, stone, metal and plant
and animal remains
• Available evidence minutely
analysed

14. Discovered Evidence
Found fairly early in
nineteenth century
Reached Cunningham
Importance not realised
Missed significance of
Harappa
Sketch of seal given to
Cunningham

15. Significance Realised
Harappa Seals
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•
Mohenjo-Daro Seals
By discovery of more seals
Recovered by Daya Ram Sahni
More found at Mohenjodaro by R D Banerji
Led to the decision that they belonged to a
common culture

16. Subsistence Strategies

17. Dietary Habits
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Wide range of plants and animals (including fish) eaten
Charred grains found, reconstruct dietary habits
Grains found include lentils, chickpeas and sesame
Millets found from sites in Gujarat
Finds of rice relatively rare

18. Use of Animals
• Animal bones found (include those of cattle, sheep, goat,
buffalo and pig)
• Were domesticated
• Bones of wild species (like boar, deer and gharial) also
found
• Were probably hunted

19. Agriculture
• Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate
that bull was known
• Oxen used to plough field
• Models of plough found – Cholistan and Banawali (Haryana)
sites
• Evidence of a ploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan)

20. Using Water
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Harappan sites located in semi-arid lands.
Irrigation was probably required for agriculture.
Traces of canals found at Shortughai in Afghanistan.
Water reservoirs were found in Dholavira (Gujarat).

21. Mohenjodaro

22. Mohenjo-Daro
• Most well known site
• A planned urban centre
• Better preserved than Harappa (which was destroyed
unintentionally by brick robbers)

23. Layout
• Settlement divided
into two sections:
Layout of Mohenjo-Daro

24. Citadel
• Walled citadel
• Was higher and
smaller
• Physically separated from
lower town

25. • Buildings constructed on mud brick platforms
• Reason for unusual height
• Had prominent structures like Warehouse,
Granary and the Great bath

26. Warehouse
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Massive structure
Probably used for special public purposes
Lower brick portions remain
Upper portions probably of wood
Decayed now

27. Great Bath
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Large rectangular tank
Surrounded by corridor on all sides
Two flights of steps leading to water
Tank made water-tight using mortar of gypsum
Water flowed into large drain

28. Length – 54 mts
Breadth – 33 mts
Thickness of outer wall – 3 mts
Situated in rectangular
verandah
Surrounded by gallery and rooms
Great bath centrally situated

29. Distinctive Structure
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To the north lay a smaller building with eight bathrooms.
Four on each side
Drains from each bathroom connected to a drain.
Scholars suggest that it was meant for some kind of a special
ritual bath.

30. Lower Town

31. Features : Lower Town
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Was fortified
Several buildings built on platforms
Building activity restricted to a fixed area on the platforms.
Settlement planned and implemented accordingly

32. Houses
• Rooms centred around a courtyard
• Centre of activity like cooking and weaving

33. Construction materials were used in Harappan houses.
Grass and husk
Door
Mud plaster
Window
Reeds
Bricks

34. Layout of Harappan House
No windows in the walls along ground level.
Main entrance did not give view of inner courtyard.

35. Other Rooms
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Bathrooms were paved with bricks in every house.
Staircases were used to go to next floor.
Evidence of wells discovered from some houses.
Every house had one wall on the street.

36. Waste Water
• Eliminated through well planned drainage system
• Drains were laid alongside streets in grid like
arrangement.
• Domestic waste water flowed into street drains.
• Larger drains were lined in the centre of streets.

37. Artifacts

38. Classification of Artifacts
Two Simple Methods
• First: In terms of materials such as stone, clay, metal, bone and
ivory
• Second: In terms of function (more complicated ) –
whether tool or ornament or both or meant for ritual use

39. Function of the Artifact
• Often shaped by its resemblance to present-day things
• Beads, querns, stone blades and pots
• Functions also identified by investigating the context in
which it was found.
• Artifacts found in a house, drain, grave or in a kiln.

40. Classifying Artifacts
• As (a) Utilitarian
(b) Luxury
• Utilitarian includes objects of daily use made of stone and
clay.
• Also includes querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers
(body scrubbers)
• Found distributed throughout the settlement

41. Artifacts of Luxury
• If found rarely, classified by archaeologists as luxury
• Pots of faience considered rare
• Found only in large settlements
• Artifacts made by raw material not available locally, considered
luxury item

42. Design of Beads
• Some made of two or more stones cemented
together
• Some of stone with gold caps
• Some decorated by incising or
painting
• Some had designs etched onto
them
• Shapes numerous – disc shaped, cylindrical,
spherical, barrel-shaped, segmented

43. Material for Beads
Copper and Bronze
Carnelian
Jasper
Steatite
Quartz
Crystal

44. Material for Production
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Materials like clay available locally
Stone, timber and metal procured from alluvial plains
Models of bullock cart suggest transportation of material
Riverine routes along Indus used for transportation

45. Procuring Material
• Shells from Nageshwar and
Balakot
• Lapis lazuli, a blue stone
from Shortughai in
Afghanistan
• Carnelian from Lothal
• Steatite from Gujarat and
Rajasthan
• Copper from Rajasthan
• Gold from South India

46. Burials
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Dead laid out in pits
Hollowed out burial pits lined with bricks
Belief in afterlife prevalent
Proved by existence of pottery and ornaments in graves
Some dead buried with copper mirrors

47. Identifying Centres of Production
• By archaeologists
• Looked for raw materials such as stone nodules, whole
shells, copper ore, tools, unfinished objects, rejects and
waste material
• Waste best indicator of craft work at site

48. Balakot
• Harappan settlement near sea coast
• Specialised centre for making shell objects including
bangles, ladles and inlays
• Taken to other settlements

49. Chanhudaro
• Small settlement (7
hectares)
• Mohenjo-Daro (125
hectares)
• Exclusively devoted to
craft production like
bead-making, shellcutting, metal-working,
seal-making and weightmaking

50. Contact with Distant Lands
• Copper probably brought from Oman.
• Omani copper and Harappan artifacts
have traces of nickel suggesting a common
origin.
• Sea contact with Bahrain
• Mentioned in Mesopotamian texts

51. Sealings in Harappa
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Facilitated long distance communication
Seals pressed on bags of goods
Bag reaching intact meant not tampered with
Sealing conveyed identity of sender

52. Process of Sealing
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Goods were packed properly.
Wet clay applied on it
Impression of seal made on it
Left it to become dry

53. Harappan Script
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Writing present on seals
Most inscriptions short, longest with 26 signs
Script not deciphered till date
Not alphabetical, had too many signs – 375 to 400
Written from right to left

54. Style of Writing
Cramping
Wider
spacing
Cramping
Wider
spacing
• Scripts were probably written right to left.
• It is proved by seals that show wider spacing on right and
cramping on left.
• The writer ran out of space while writing right to left.

55. Script Found
• On a variety of objects
• On copper tools, rims of jars, copper and
terracotta tablets, jewellery and bone rods

56. Harappan Weights
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Very precise stones called Chert
Usually cubical
Had no markings
Used to regulate exchanges

57. • Lower denominations were Binary (1, 2, 4, 8,16, 32 etc.
up to 12,800)
• Higher denominations followed decimal system
• Smaller weights used for weighing jewellery
• Metal pans also found

58. Authority in Harappa
• Indications of complex decisions
taken by higher authority
• Uniformity in pottery, seals and
weights across settlements
• Uniformity in ratio of bricks
• Settlements in specific locations
Priest King

59. Differing Opinions on Authority
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As understood by some archaeologists
Harappan society had no rulers.
Equal status enjoyed by all citizens.
Others feel that Mohenjo-Daro had a separate ruler.
Some feel that there was a common state.

60. Religion in Harappa
• Seen by structures that may have been
assigned ritual significance
• Includes the Great Bath
• Also fire altars found at Kalibangan and
Lothal
• Terracotta figurines of women who are
heavily jewelled have been found.
• Some had elaborate head-dresses.
• Names like Mother Goddess signify a
religious bent.
Mother Goddess?

61. Religious Beliefs and Practices
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Reconstructed by examining seals
Some depict ritualistic scenes
Some with plant motifs indicate nature worship
Others with the ‘Unicorn’ indicate mythical creatures.

62. Proto Shiva Seal
• Shows a figure seated cross-legged in a “yogic”
posture surrounded by animals
• Regarded as depiction of “proto-Shiva”

63. Decline of the Civilisation

64. Signs of Decline
Seen around c.1800 BCE
Mature Harappan sites abandoned
Transformation of material culture witnessed while
distinctive artifacts disappeared

65. • Sites located in Gujarat, Haryana, Western Uttar
Pradesh witnessed simultaneous increase in population
• House construction techniques show decline

66. Factors for Decline
• Historians not unanimous over causes of decline
• Propounded many theories for decline
 Ecological imbalance
 Shifting of river beds
 Frequent flooding
 Aryan invasion

67. Listing the Factors
• Ecological imbalance: Increased human interference led to
ecological changes and subsequent decline in land and
agriculture. Shifts in monsoon pattern and changes in
temperature left the area more arid.
• Shifting of river beds: Changes in the drainage patterns and
correspondent widespread flooding would have disrupted
agricultural base.
•Harappa: River Indus is at present flowing 4 km away
from the present site.

68. • Frequent flooding: It has been opined by historians that many
Harappan sites were destroyed due to frequent flooding.
•Mohenjodaro: Evidence has been found that it was
devastated 7 times by floods.
• Aryan invasion: Mortimer Wheeler presented the view that
Aryans invasion may have led to the decline of Harappan
civilisation.
•Discovery of skeletons at Mohenjodaro without proper
cremation. (Mohenjodaro = Mound of dead)
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69. Now, on your FINGER TIPS…
• Citadel: It was a fortress for protecting a town in the
Harappan civilisation. This was built on a higher level in
comparison to the town. Citadel was located on the western
side of the settlement.
• ASI: It stands for the Archaeological Survey of India. The
department works under the Ministry of Culture. It is a
premier organisation for archaeological research and
protection of cultural heritage sites in India.
• Stratigraphy: It is the study of strata or layers. It refers to the
application of the Law of Superposition to soil and geological
strata containing archaeological materials in order to
determine the relative ages of layers.

70. Continuing slides are supportive
slides, need not to be seen
individually.

71. Excavation of Harappa Civilisation
Charles
Masson
John Marshall
R.D Banerjee
1853-56
1828
Alexander
Cunningham
1946
1921
1920
1922
Mortimer Wheeler
D.R Sahni

72. Charles Masson
• A deserter of EEIC’s Bengal artillery
• 1827 – Left regiment at Agra, reached Indus lands
• Territory not the part of EEIC’s Indian possession
• First European to narrate about Harappan ruins
• Wrote – “Narratives of Various Journeys in
Balochistan, Afghanistan and the Punjab”
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73. Alexander Cunningham
• Regarded as father of Indian Archaeology
• Influenced by James Princep
• His collection of rare Indian coins is on
display at British Museum.
• His most important contribution lies in
identifying the lost cities of India.
• He actively contributed in the excavation of
Sarnath, Sanchi and Mahabodhi temple.
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74. John Marshall
• Director General of ASI from
1902 to 1928
• Involved native Indians to
contribute in excavation of
their own country
• 1913: Excavated Taxila
• Revealed Harappan civilisation
to the world
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75. D. R Sahni
• Discovered and excavated
Harappa
• Aware of presence of
ancient monument but
never assumed of a city
• Found some seals and
considered it to be of
pre- Aryan period
• Excavation of 50 mts
depth made
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76. R.D Bannerjee
• Discovered and excavated
Mohenjodaro
• Adopted stratigraphy method
for excavating the site
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77. Mortimer Wheeler
• Became Director General of
ASI in 1943
• Explored details of Indus Valley
Civilisation at Mohenjodaro
• Returned in 1948, became
professor of Archaeology
• 1949-50 – Archaeological
Adviser to the Government of
Pakistan
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78. Amazing Facts
• Harappans were the first cotton producers of the world.
• Chnahudaro was the only site that had no citadel.
• A weighing scale made up of ivory has been found from
Lothal and Mohenjodaro.
• The doors of houses in Lothal opened on main street.
• The evidence of fortification of lower town found in
Kalibangan.
• The evidence of mummy found in Lothal testifies
relations with Egypt.

79. Global Mania

80. Mesopotamia

81. Geography of Mesopotamia
Unpredictable rivers (Tigris and Euphrates)
Flat land open to invasion
Situated in semi-arid climatic zone
Centre of the
civilisation
Steppes
Plains
Mountain of
Iran
Desert
Inhabitable
region
Desert
Desert

82. In the north,
lies a stretch of upland
called a steppe where the north-east lies
In
animal herding is done. undulating plains
green,
with enough rainfall to
grow crops.
To the east,
Locating Mesopotamia tributaries of
the Tigris provide routes of
communication into the
mountains of Iran.
The south is a desert - the first
cities and writing emerged here.
The Rivers Euphrates and Tigris
Land of Diverse Environments
made the regions fertile.

83. • Mesopotamia was a succession of societies.
Sumerian (Sumer)
Akkad
First Babylon
Assyria
Second Babylon

84. Sumerian Society
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Based on city-states
Geography influenced development
Theocratic form of government
Divided into classes
Class System
Monarch/nobility
Priests/scribes
Commoners
Slaves

85. Ziggurats – stepped towers topped by temples

86. Ziggurats were the focal point of the city-state.

87. Cuneiform – First system of writing

88. Cuneiform tablet with envelope

89. Cuneiform – Developed
to keep record of business
transactions and taxes
Later used for literature
The first work of literature
was the Epic of Gilgamesh
– a Sumerian flood story

90. Deciphered letters in Cuneiform and their
equivalent English Alphabets
Writing was reserved for the wealthy classes

91. Sumerian Trade
• Trade links with Egypt and Harappa
• Sumerian mathematics based on 60 (clock and circle)
• Sumerian astronomical charts basis for modern
astronomy
• Sumerians invented quadratic expressions

92. Akkad
Conquered Sumer – Akkad first empire
Attempted to centralise power
Sargon I – First emperor
Absorbed Sumerian culture

93. Babylon
Conquered Akkad
Continued Sumerian
culture
Code of Hammurabi
 282 laws
 Based on Lex Talonis
(eye for an eye) and
social class

94. Assyria
Conquered
Babylon
Highly organised
military
Ruthless and
hated
Largest of
Mesopotamian
empires

95. Neo Babylon
Founded by king
Nebuchadnezzar
Introduced
hanging gardens
Continued
Sumerian culture
Conquered by
Persians
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98. Egyptian Civilisation
• Developed along river Nile
• Also known as ‘Gift of Nile’
• Geography – Natural barriers
 Desert
 Mediterranean and Red seas
• Form of government – Theocracy
• Bureaucracy – vizier
• Three major periods – Old, Middle and New
Kingdoms

99. The Old Kingdom
Unification of Upper and
Lower Egypt – King
Menes (Narmer)
Pharaoh (a God) –
separated from population
Era of peace
Some trade with
Mesopotamia/Africa

100. The first pyramid
Construction of Pyramids began
Slavery not existed or was on less scale
Kingdom fell due to power struggles with nobility

101. The pyramids at Giza

102. Contrary to popular belief, the pyramids were not
built with slave labor but by the Egyptian people.
How was it done?

103. The Middle Kingdom
• Pharaohs were more accessible.
• They derived support from middle class.
• Extensive trade links with Mesopotamia,
Mediterranean, and Africa
• Fell to Hyksos, supposed to be of Asiatic origin

104. The New Kingdom
Egyptians gained knowledge
of war from Hyksos.
Era of war and expansion
Large slave population
First female ruler: Hatshepsut

105. Amenhotep IV (Akhenaton)
Established monotheism
Aton: Sun God
Shifted capital from Thebes to el-Amarna
Akhenaton and his wife, Nefertiti
Queen Nefertiti
Had very short reign

106. Tutankhamen
Succeeded throne at the age of 9 yrs
Polytheism restored by Tutankhamen
Restored traditional privileges to
priesthood
Tried to restore relations with
neighbours
Quite successful, suggested by gifts
recovered from his tomb
Forensic experts have created the
real Tutankhamen

107. Tomb of Tutankhamen

108. Ramses II
Prolific ruler, fought to reclaim
territories in Africa and West
Asia
5th year of reign fought battle of
Kadesh
Won territories, later lost to
Hittites
Conquered by nomadic sea
people
Last real independent kingdom

109. The Treaty of Kadesh

110. Ramses the Great today
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111. The Chinese Civilisation

112. Geography of the Civilisation
Flourished on banks of river Huang He
River popularly known as “China‟s Sorrow” because
of its devastating floods
Northern borders vulnerable
Western borders mostly covered by desert
South-west frontier: Mighty Himalayas
Eastern frontier: Pacific Ocean
Civilisation centred around Arable land

114. People and Rulers
• Yangshao/Longshan People
• Xia Dynasty – mythical?
• Shang Dynasty:
3,000 states – Fragmented
King – Head shaman
Dynasty based on divine rule
Technologically advanced
Bureaucracy increasingly sophisticated

115. Writing and Script
Writing found on:
Oracle Bones
Prominently
ideographic symbols
Primarily for religious
purpose

116. Bronze Craft
Bronze
Sophisticated
metallurgy skills
Controlled by
elites
Used for
religious rituals
and weapons
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117. Learning through Maps

118. Four Great Civilisations
Mesopotamian
Civilisation
Egyptian Civilisation
Harappan
Civilisation
Chinese
Civilisation

119. Early Harappan Settlements
Damb Sadaat
Siswal culture
Kot Diji
Amri-Nal cultures

120. Mature Harappan Settlements
Sites located in India
Manda
Harappa
Mitathal
Ganeriwala
Mohenjodaro
Chanhudaro
Banawali
Kalibangan
Dholavira
Lothal
Rangpur
Sites located in Pakistan
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121. Harappa Trade
Silver
Harappa
Copper & Steatite
Copper
Carnelian
Gold

122. Amri-Nal Culture
Situated in Sindh province of
modern Pakistan
Excavated by N.G Majumdar
First site to provide evidence of
pre-Harappan artifacts
No evidence of fortification
Created artificial gulf for defence
Evidence of reindeer found
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123. Kot Diji Culture
Situated on the left bank of river Indus in the
Sindh province of Pakistan
Excavated by Fazl Ahmad Khan (1955)
Major discovery: Arrows made of stone
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124. Damb Sadaat Culture
Located in Baluchistan,
outside Indus Valley
Similarities evident in
ceramic form and design
Shows – these areas were in
contact during middle and
late third millennium B.C.
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125. Siswal Culture
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Located in Hissar district of Haryana
Three stages of Harappan culture revealed
Brought to light early Harappan ceramic culture with
super imposition of late Siswal ceramic culture
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126. Mix „n‟ Match
Identify the Site

127. Group these archaeological sites on the basis
of their distribution in India and Pakistan.
Ganeriwala
Manda
Harappa
Mitathal
Dholavira
Banawali
Mohenjodaro
Chanhudaro
Rangpur
Lothal
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Solution

128. Identify the Site
• Located in Khadir Byet of Rann of Kutch
• Stone slab having largest letters of
Harappan script found
• Located in Gujarat
• Only site having three lines of
fortifications
Ans: Dholavira

129. • Situated on left bank of river Ravi
• First description provided by Charles Masson
• Railway contractors used bricks of this settlement
• Excavation began in 1921 under D.R Sahni
Ans: Harappa

130. • Situated on bank of River Bhogava
• One of the production centres of the civilisation
• A bead factory discovered from the site
• Contributed in Harappan trade with distant lands
Ans: Lothal

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