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ABSTRACT
DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 4 3 0 0 6 4 U D 0 3 2 9 0 6
AUTHOR C o l e m a n , B e v e r l y E u g e n e
TI TL E S c h o o l V i o l e n c e a n d S t u d e n t A c h ie v e m e n t i n R e a d i n g a n d
Ma t h e ma t ic s a mo n g E i g h t h G r
.
a d e r s .
PUB DATE 1 9 9 8 - 0 4 - 0 0
NOTE 1 4 8 p , ; P h . D . D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s a t
Urb a n a -Ch a mp a ig n .
PUB TYPE D i s s e r t a t i o n s / T h e s e s - D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n s ( 0 4 1 ) - -
T e s t s / Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ( 1 6 0 )
EDRS P RI CE M F 0 1 / P 0 0 6 P l u s P o s t a g e .
DESCRIPTORS A c a d e m i c A c h ie v e m e n t ; B e h a v i o r P a t t e r n s ; * G r a d e 8 ; * J u n i o r
Hig h S c h o o l S t u d e n t s ; J u n i o r H i g h S c h o o l s ; * M a t h e m a t i c s
A c h ie v e me n t ; Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ; * R e a d i n g A c h i e v e m e n t ; * S c h o o l
S a f e t y ; S t u d e n t A t t i t u d e s ; V i c t i m s o f C r i m e ; * V i o l e n c e
I DENTI FI ERS N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y 1 9 8 8
Th i s s t u d y a n a l y z e d b a s e - y e a r s t u d e n t d a t a fi l e s f r o m t h e
1988 N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y (NE L S : 8 8 ) c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l l y t o
i d e n t i f y r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d s t u d e n t a c h i e v e m e n t i n
r e a d i n g a n d m a t h e m a t i c s . T h e a n a l y s i s i d e n t i fi e d s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r v a r i a b l e s
r e l a t e d t o t h r e e me a s u re s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e : ( 1 ) p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r , s u c h a s
b e i n g s e n t t o t h e o f fi c e f o r m i s b e h a v i n g , p a r e n t s b e i n g w a r n e d a b o u t
b e h a v i o r , o r fi g h t i n g w i t h o t h e r s t u d e n t s ; ( 2 ) v i c t i m i c a t i o n , w h e t h e r h a v i n g
s o me t h in g s t o l e n , r e c e i v i n g a d r u g o f f e r , r e c e i v i n g t h r e a t s o r h a r m ; a n d ( 3 )
p e r c e p t i o n o f v i o l e n c e i n d i c a t e d b y s t u d e n t r e s p o n s e s t o h o w t h e y p e r c e i v e d
v i o l e n c e p r o b l e m s i n t h e i r s c h o o l . B a c k g r o u n d v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e
a n a ly s e s w e r e s e x , r a c e / e t h n i c i t y , s o c i o e c o n o m i c s t a t u s q u a r t i l e , s c h o o l t y p e
( p u b l i c , C a t h o l i c , o t h e r r e l i g i o u s p r i v a t e , n o n r e l i g i o u s p r i v a t e ) , a n d s c h o o l
c ommunit y l o c a t i o n ( u r b a n , s u b u r b a n , a n d r u r a l ) . A s s o c i a t i o n s o f s c h o o l
v i o l e n c e me a s u re s p l u s s t u d e n t b a c k g r o u n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o n s t u d e n t
a c h ie v e me n t s h o w t h a t w h e n t h e i n c i d e n c e o f n e g a t i v e p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r
in c r e a s e s , t h e r e i s a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t o n a c h i e v e m e n t . S t u d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g
v i c t i m i z a t i o n a n d s t u d e n t s p e r c e p t i o n s o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e i r s c h o o l s s h o w
l o w e r l e v e l s o f e f f e c t o n a c h i e v e m e n t . I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s c h o o l p r a c t i c e s a n d
s u g g e s t io n s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h a r e d i s c u s s e d . T h r e e a p p e n d i x e s c o n t a i n
s ummaries o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e r e p o r t s , a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e NE L S : 8 8 , a n d t h e
NELS:88 e i g h t h g r a d e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . ( C o n t a i n s 1 4 t a b l e s a n d 1 3 8 r e f e r e n c e s . )
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SCHOOL VI OLENCE AND STUDENT ACHI EVEMENT I N READI NG AND
MATHEMATICS AMONG EI GHTH GRADERS
BY
BEVERLY EUGENE COLEMAN
E S . , S o u t h e r n I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y a t C a r b o n d a l e , 1 9 6 1
Un. ' _v ers it y o t I l l i n o i s a t Ur b a n a - Ch a mn a i g n , 1 9 6 5
THESI S
S u b m i t t e d i n p a r t i a l f u l fi l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
t o r t h e d e g r e e o f D o c t o r o f P h i l o s o p h y i n E d u c a t i o n
i n t h e G r a d u a t e Co 1 1 e g e o f t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s a t Urbana-Champaign, 1 9 9 8
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UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN
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THE GRADUATE COLLEGE
BEVERLY EUGENE COLEMAN
APRIL 1 9 9 8
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SCHOOL VIOLENCE AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT I N READING AND
!'1AIHEMATICS AMONG EIGHTH GRADERS
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BEsr COPYAVAILABLE
SCHOOL VIOLENCE AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT I N READING AND
MATHEMATICS AMONG EIGHTH GRADERS
B e v e rly Eugene Coleman, P h . D .
Co lle g e o f E d u c a t io n
U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s a t Urb a n a -Ch a mp a ig n , 1 9 9 8
F re d e ric k A . Ro d g e rs, A d v i s e r
Base y e a r s t u d e n t d a t a fi l e s f r o m t h e 1988 N a t i o n a l
E d u ca tio n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y (NEL S:8 8 ) w e r e a n a ly z e d c r o s s -
s e c t i o n a l l y t o i d e n t i f y r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e twe e n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e
and s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n re a d i n g a n d ma t h e ma t ics. T h e
a n a ly s is i d e n t i fi e d s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o t h r e e
measures o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e : p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r - - s e n t t o o f fi c e
f o r misb e h a vin g , p a r e n t s wa rn e d a b o u t b e h a v io r, fi g h t i n g w i t h
o t h e r s z u d e n t s ; v i c t i m i z a t i o n — h a d so me t h in g s t o l e n , r e c e i v e d
druz, o f f e r , r e c e i v e d t h r e a t s o r h a rm; a n d p e rc e p t i o n o f
v i c l e n c e — (s t u d e n t s re sp o n d e d t o h o w t h e y b e rc e iv e d v i o l e n c e
p ro b le ms i n t h e i r s c h o o l a s s e r i o u s , mo d e ra t e , m i n o r , o r n o
rrc ' t le mj s u c h a s p h v s i c a l c o n fl i c t s a mo n g s t u d e n t s ,
ro b b e ry t h e f t , v a n d a l i s m o f s c h o o l p r o p e r t y , u s e o f a l c o h o l a n d
d ru cs, p o s s e s s i o n o f weapons, p h y s i c a l a n d v e r b a l a b u se o f
le a ch e rs. B a c k g r o u n d v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s : s e x ,
r a c e . e t h n i c i t y , s o c io -e c o n o mic s t a t u s q u a r t i l e , s c h o o l t y p e
(p u b lic , C a t h o l i c , o t h e r r e l i g i o u s p r i v a t e , n o n - r e l i g i o u s
p r i v a t e ) , a n d s c h o o l co mmu n it y l o c a t i o n (u rb a n , su b u rb a n ,
r u r a l ) . A s s o c i a t i o n s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e me a su re s p l u s s t u d e n t
background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o n s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t showed t h a t
'.:}en t h e i n c i d e n c e o f n e g a t iv e p e rs o n a l b e h a v i o r in c re a s e d ,
t h e re wa s a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t o n a ch ie ve me n t . S t u d e n t s
e x p e rie n c in g v i c t i m i z a t i o n a n d s t u d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n o f v i o l e n c e
i n t h e i r s c h o o ls showed l o w e r l e v e l s o f e f f e c t o n a ch ie ve me n t .
I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s c h o o l p r a c t i c e s a n d s u g g e s t io n s f o r f u t u r e
re se a rch a r e d is c u s s e d .
©Co p yrig h t b y B e v e r l y Eudene Coleman, 1 9 9 8
(3
1
i i i
ABSTRACT
Th is s t u d y a n a ly z e d b a se y e a r s t u d e n t d a t a fi l e s f r o m t h e
1988 N a t i o n a l E d u c a t io n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y (NE L S :8 8 ) c r o s s -
s e c t i o n a l l y t o i d e n t i f y r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e twe e n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e
and s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n re a d i n g a n d ma t h e ma t ics. T h e
a n a l y s i s i d e n t i fi e d s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o t h r e e
measures o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e : p e r s o n a l b e n a v i o r - - s e n t t o o f fi c e
f o r misb e h a vin g , p a r e n t s wa rn e d a b o u t b e h a v i o r, fi g h t i n g w i t h
o t h e r s t u d e n t s ; v i c t i m i z a t i o n — h a d so me t h in g s t o l e n , r e c e i v e d
drug o f f e r , r e c e i v e d t h r e a t s o r h a rm; a n d p e rc e p t í o n o f
v í o l e n c e - - ( s t u d e n t s re sp o n d e d t o h o w t h e y p e rc e i v e d v í o l e n c e
o ro b le ms i n t h e í r s c h o o l a s s e r í o u s , mo d e ra t e , m í n o r , o r n o
such a s p h y s i c a l c o n fl i c t s a mo n g s t u d e n t s ,
r o b b e r y i t h e f t , v a n d a l i s m o f s c h o o l ip ro p e rt y , u s e o f a l c o h o l a n d
d ru o s, D o s s e s s i o n o f weapons, p h y s i C a l a n d v e r b a l a b u se o f
t e a ch e rs. B a c k g r o u n d v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e a n a l y s í s : s e x ,
ra ze e : h n i c i t y , s o c i o -e c o n o mi c s t a t u s q u a r t i l e , s c h o o l t y p e
(p u b lic , C a t h o l í c , o t h e r r e l i g i o u s p r í v a t e , n o n - r e l i g i o u s
p r í v a t e ) , a n d s c h o o l co mmu n it y l o c a t i o n (u rb a n , s u b u rb a n ,
r u r a l ) . A s s o c i a t i o n s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e me a su re s p l u s s t u d e n t
background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o n s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t sh o we d t h a t
when t h e i n c i d e n c e o f n e g a t i v e p e rs o n a l b e h a v i o r in c re a s e d ,
t h e re wa s a n e g a t í v e e f f e c t o n a ch ie ve me n t . S t u d e n t s
e xp e rí e n cin g v i c t i m i z a t i o n a n d s t u d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n o f v i o l e n c e
in t h e i r s c h o o l s sh o we d l o w e r l e v e l s o f e f f e c t o n a ch ie ve me n t .
I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s c h o o l p r a c t í c e s a n d s u g g e s t io n s f o r f u t u r e
re se a rch a r e d is c u s s e d .
i v
DEDI CAT ION
My wo rk i s d e d ic a t e d t o t h e l o v i n g memory o f Mamma A d d ie ,
my mo t h e r, A d d i e M o r r i s Coleman Go ss, wh o se s p i r i t u a l g u id a n ce ,
encouracement_ a n d i n s p i r a t i o n a r e w i t h me f o r e v e r .
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
There a r e s e v e r a l p e o p le wh o we re o f g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e d u r i n g
the p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s . I a m e x t r e m e l y g r a t e f u l t o my
Ma jo r P r o f e s s o r , D r . F r e d e r i c k A . Ro d g e rs . H i s t h o u g h t f u l
g u id a n ce a n d a s s i s t a n c e wa s i n y a l u a b l e i n t h e u n d e r t a k i n g a n d
co mp le t io n o f t h i s s t u d y . I wo u ld a l s o l i k e t o t h a n k t h e members
o f my Co mmit t e e , D r s . A d e l e P r o c t o r , T e d Ma n o la ke s, Th o ma s
McGre a l, a n d W i l l i a m T r e n t . I a l s o wa n t t o t h a n k M r s . J o a n
Tru mb le , D r s . O l i v e r Mo le s , a n d P a t r i c i a Da b b s f o r b a ckg ro u n d
m a t e r i a l s ; D r s . S a m Peng, T a i Ph a n , a n d K a r l Boughan f o r g u id a n ce
w i t h d a t a a n a l y s i s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; M r s . B e t s y I n fl e s f o r
l o g i s t i c a l a s s i s t a n c e ; a n d Mrs . E v e l y n G ra d y f o r h e r a s s i s t a n c e
w i t h t e c h n i c a l e d i t i n g a n d fi n a l p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s d o cu me n t.
Most o f a h , I wa n t t o t h a n k my f a m i l y . M y e d u c a t i o n a n d t h i s
st u d y wo u ld n o t h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t t h e i r p a t i e n c e ,
encouraaement, s u p p o r t , a n d l o v e .
T h is t h e s i s i s i n t e n d e d t o p ro mo t e t h e e xch a n g e o f i d e a s
among r e s e a r c h e r s , p o l i c y m a k e r s , a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s . T h e v i e w s
e xp re sse d i n i t a r e p a r t o f o n g o in g r e s e a r c h a n d a n a l y s i s a n d d o
not n e c e s s a r i l y r e fl e c t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
Department o f E d u c a t i o n .
9
v i
TABLE O F CONTENTS
L I S T OF TABLES v i i i
CHAPTER
I NTRODUCTI ON 1
B a c k g r o u n d 1
D e s c r i p t i o n o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e 7
S t a t e me n t o f t h e P r o b l e m 8
P u r p o s e o f t h e S t u d y 9
S i g n i fi c a n c e o f t h e S t u d y 1 0
Re s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s 1 1
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e T h e s i s 1 2
REVIEW O F THE LI TERATURE 1 4
The P r e v a l e n c e o f S c h o o l V i o l e n t e 1 4
R e l a t e d A r e a s o f Re s e a r c E 2 2
Summary 2 8
I I I ME THO DS AND PROCEDURES 3 0
D e fi n i t i o n o f Te r ms 3 1
Re s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s a n d Hy p o t h e s e s 3 4
Me t h o d s o f A n a l y s i s 3 5
L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S t u d y 4 6
I V R E S U L T S AND DI SCUSSI ON 4 8
Re s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s 4 8
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e F i n d i n g s 5 9
y S U M M A R Y , CONCLUSI ONS, I MP L I CA TI O NS , RE CO MME NDA TI O NS 6 6
Summary a n d C o n c l u s i o n s 6 6
I m p l i c a t i o n s 6 8
v i i
CHAPTER
V s u m n k R y , CONCLUSI ONS, I MP L I CA TI O NS , RECOMMENDATI ONS
( c o n t i n u e d )
Re c o mme n d a t i o n s 7 0
D i r e c t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r R e s e a r c h 7 3
REFERENCES 7 6
APPENDI X
SUMMARIES O F I MPORTANT SCHOOL VI OLENCE REPORTS 9 6
DESCRI PTI ON OF THE NATI ONAL EDUCATI ON LONGI TUDI NAL
STUDY O F 1 9 8 8 ( NE L S : 8 8 ) 1 0 1
NELS: 88 E I G HTH GRADE QUESTI ONNAI RE 1 0 4
1 3 3
1O
LIST OF TABLES
mable P a g e
1 E i g h t h Gra d e S t u d e n t s b y S e le c t e d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
1988 3 6
2 I n d e p e n d e n t V a r i a b l e I t e ra s 4 3
3 S c h o o l V i o l e n c e F a c t o r S c a le s 4 4
4 P r e v a l e n c e o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e P ro b le ms - S t u d e n t s '
P e rce p t io n 4 9
A s s o c ia t io n Be twe e n L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e
B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s - S t u d e n t P h y s i c a l
C o n fl i c t s 5 2
6 A s s o c i a t i o n Between L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e
B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s R o b b e r y / T h e f t a t
School 5 3
A s s o c ia t io n Between L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e
B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s - V a n d a lis m o f S c h o o l
P ro p e rt y 5 4
E A s s o c i a t i o n Be twe e n L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e
B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s - V e r b a l Ab u se o f
Te a c h e
-
rs
5
5
9 A s s o c i a t i o n Be twe e n L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e
B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s - S t u d e n t P o s s e s s io n o f
eapons 5 6
A s s o c ia t io n Between L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e
B e h a vio rs a n d S c h c
,
o 1 T y p e s
-
P h y s i c
a l
A b u
s e
o
f
Teachers 5 7
11 A s s o c i a t i o n Between L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e
B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s - S t u d e n t Use o f
A lc o h o l 5 8
A s s o c ia t io n Be twe e n L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e
B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s - S t u d e n t Use o f I l l e g a l
Substances 5 3
13 V a r i a b l e Co d in g , S t a n d a rd i z e d Re g re s s io : C o e f fi c i e n t s
and t S co re s f o r In d e p e n d e n t V a r i a b l e s 5 9
14 T o t a l V a ri a n c e b y R S q u a re S co re s a n d S t a n d a rd iz e d
Re g re ssio n C o e f fi c i e n t s 6 3
v i i i
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1
Background
Over t h e p a s t d e ca d e , v i o l e n c e i n A me ric a h a s s t e a d i l y
in cre a se d , s p r e a d i n g a n d p e n e t r a t i n g n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y wh ic h h a s
a ra d u a l l y d e cre a se d c i t i z e n s ' c o n fi d e n c e i n t h e a b i l i t y t o
p ro t e ce t h e i r f a m i l i e s a n d c o mmu n it ie s . F o r t h e fi r s t t i m e
sin ce t h e 1 9 7 0 s, t h e i n c i d e n c e o f v i o l e n t a c t s a g a i n s t s t r a n g e r s
o ccu rs mo re f r e g u e n t l y t h a n v i o l e n c e b e twe e n i n d i v i d u a l s wh o
know e a ch o t h e r (Hu g h e s a n d Ha sb ro u k, 1 9 9 6 ) . A m e r i c a , t h e p r e -
e min e n t m i l i t a r y p o we r, i s a t - r i s k b e ca u se o f t h e o n s la u g h t o f
v i o l e n : i n c i d e n t s i n v a d i n g e v e r y p h a se o f d a i l y l i f e i n u rb a n ,
suburban, a n d r u r a l l o c a l e s ( C e p e r l e y a n d S imo n , 1 9 9 4 ; B a l l a r d
1996; Ho f f ma n , 1 9 9 6 ). V i o l e n c e a n d t ra u ma i n u rb a n
n e ich b o rh o o d c o mmu n it ie s c r e a t e d e s t r u c t i o n a t u n s a f e l e v e l s
th a z i m b a c t t h e s c h o o l l e a r n i n g e n v iro n me n t i n u rb a n s c h o o l s .
Hia h l e v e s o f u rb a n unemployment a n d p o v e r t y h a ve b e e n c i z e d a s
causes (K o b e r, 1 9 9 4 ; USEd, NCES, Ch a lle n g e , 1 9 9 6 ) . S i n c e t h e
la ce 1
9 8 0 s
,
t r
e n
d s
s
h
o
w
t
h
a
t
u
r
b
a
n
p
a
trauma a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y b e in g r e fl e c t e d i n su b u rb a n a n d r u r a l
co mmu n itie s a s w e l l ; h o we v e r, l e s s i s known a b o u t ca u se s (K a d e l
and F o llma n , 1 9 9 3 ; Ha b e rma n , 1 9 9 4 ; L a rs o n , 1 9 9 4 ; S h a n ke r, 1 9 9 5 ;
B a l l a r d a n d McCoy, 1 9 9 6 ) . I n o r d e r t o kn o w mo re a b o u t s c h o o l
v io le n c e , m o r e e n lig h t e n me n t a b o u t v i o l e n c e i n g e n e ra l i s
re q u ire d .
I n c r e a s i n g l y , s c h o o l s o u t s i d e u rb a n a re a s a r e n o l o n g e r t h e
sa fe h a ve n s t h e y o n ce we re . S c h o o l s t h ro u g h o u t A me ric a a r e
a t - r i s k o f n o l o n g e r b e i n g p l a c e s wh e re s t u d e n t s a r e f r e e t o
d e ve lo p a n d l e a r n t h e s k i l l s r e q u i r e d t o become s u c c e s s f u l ,
p ro d u c t i v e , a n d c o n t r i b u t i n a c i t i z e n s ( W a l k e r a n d Gre sh a m,
1997). A 1 9 9 3 N a t i o n a l S c h o o l B o a rd s A s s o c i a t i o n (NSBA) s t u d y
re p o rt e d t h a t o f 7 2 0 s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , 8 2 p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d a n
in c re a s e i n v i o l e n c e o v e r t h e p a s t fi v e y e a r s , a c r o s s a h l
g e o g ra p h ic a r e a s ( N a t i o n a l S c h o o l B o a rd s A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 9 9 3 ) .
D a i l y , n e w s me d ia r e p o r t s s u p p o r t t h e s e t r e n d s . F o r e xa mp le ,
two w i d e l y r e p o r t e d h i g h s c h o o l s h o o t i n g i n c i d e n t s , e a c h b y a
st u d e n t gunman, o c c u r r e d d u r i n g f a l l o f t h e 1 9 9 7 -9 8 s c h o o l y e a r .
I n e a r l y O c t o b e r 1 9 9 7 , a ma l e s t u d e n t a t P e a r l H i g h S c h o o l,
lo c a t e d i n a s u b u rb a n c o mmu n it y o u t s i d e J a c k s o n , M i s s i s s i p p i ,
was c h a rg e d w i t h t h e s h o o t i n g d e a t h s o f t w o s t u d e n t s a n d w i t h
wounding s e v e r a l mo re s t u d e n t s . F i v e o t h e r P e a r l H i g h ma le
st u d e n t s a n d o n e m a l e g ra d u a t e o f t h e s c h o o l w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y
ch a rg e d w i t h c o n s p i r a c y i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e s h o o t i n g s . I n
e a r l y De ce mb e r 1 9 9 7 , a ma l e s t u d e n t a t He a t h H i g h S c h o o l,
lo c a t e d i n r u r a l We s t P a d u ca h , K e n t u c k y , w a s c h a rg e d w i t h fi r i n g
a s t c l e n s e mi a u t o ma t i c p i s t o l i n t o a c i r c l e o f p r a y i n g s t u d e n t s .
T h is i n c i d e n t wa s t h e fi r s t s h o o t i n g e v e r t o o c c u r i n t h e 7 , 0 0 0 -
st u d e n t McCra cke n Co u n t y s c h o o l d i s t r i c t (J a c o b s o n a n d Wh i t e ,
1997). I n l a t e F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 8 , t w o ma le m i d d l e s c h o o l s t u d e n t s
i n a Ma ry l a n d s u b u rb we re a r r e s t e d a t t e r t r a n s p o r t i n g a h o me -
made bomb o n a s c h o o l b u s a n d p l a n t i n g t h e bomb i n a s c h o o l
l o c k e r . T h e p r i n c i p a l d i s c o v e r e d t h e bomb a n d e v a c u a t e d t h e
sch o o l b u i l d i n g b e f o r e t h e bomb e x p lo d e d . T h e s t u d e n t s
a l l e g e d l y u s e d t h e s c h o o l l o c k e r a s a t e mp o ra ry p a s s - o f f p o i n t
1
4
3
f o r t h e bomb. M o s t r e c e n t l y , d u r i n g l a t e Ma rch 1 9 9 8 , i n r u r a l
Jonesboro, A rk a n s a s , t w o h e a v i l y a rme d 1 1 a n d 1 3 y e a r o l d b o ys
we a rin g ca mo u fla g e c l o t h i n g a n d h i d i n g among t r e e s fi r e d o n a
group o f t h e i r We st sid e Mi d d l e S ch o o l c la s s ma t e s a n d t e a c h e rs a s
th e y s c u r r i e d o u t s i d e d u r i n g a f a l s e fi r e a l a r m . T h e ambush,
j u s t o u t s i d e t h i s t o wn o f 5 0 , 0 0 0 , l e f t f o u r f e ma le s t u d e n t s a n d
a t e a c h e r d e a d a n d 1 1 o t h e r s wounded (S c h wa rt z , 1 9 9 8 ). Y o u t h
v io le n c e i n s c h o o l s e t t i n g s a p p e a rs t o b e random, sp o n t a n e o u s,
and u n p re d i c t a b l e . S e l f - i n fl i c t e d y o u t h v i o l e n c e i s c i t e d among
co n ce rn s o f A me rica n I n d i a n y o u t h who se e t h e i r v i o l e n t w o r l d
c l a i mi n g y o u t h t h ro u g h d ru g -in d u c e d d e a t h s, g a n g v i o l e n c e , a n d
teen s u i c i d e s (Cro w, 1 9 9 7 ). T h e s e i n c i d e n t s a n d co n ce rn s
p re se n t e xa mp le s o f t h e e vid e n ce t h a t i n c r e a s i n g v i o l e n c e
o c c u rrin g i n co mmu n it ie s h a s n o t e s
.
c a p e d t h e
s c h o o l s .
In t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s, s c h o o l s f a i l i n g i n t h e i r m i s s i o n t o
se rve t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t wa s t h e e d u c a t io n a l c o n c e rn
cre se n t e d i n A Na t io n a t R i s k re le a s e d i n A p r i l 1 9 8 3 (USEd , R i s k
Re p o rt, 1 9 8 3 ) . T h i s la n d ma rk r e p o r t d i d n o t a d d re s s wh a t h a s
sin ce become a c e n t r a l f o c u s w h i c h w i l l d e fi n e o u r c o u n t r y ' s
l u t u r e — v i o l e n c e i n t h e s c h o o l t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g e n viro n me n t
and t h e r e s u l t i n g i mp a c t o n s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t . F e w p e o p le
would c h a lle n g e t h e fi n d i n g s o f r e c e n t s c h o o l v i o l e n c e r e p o r t s
wh ich d e c l a r e t h a t A me ri c a ' s s c h o o ls a n d c la s s ro o ms h a ve changed
d r a m a t i c a l l y d u r i n g t h e p a s t d e ca d e b e ca u se o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e
sch o o l s e t t i n g . V i o l e n c e i s a s e r i o u s p ro b le m a n d t h e
h e ig h te n e d a wa re n e ss o f t h e p u b l i c ' s co n ce rn a b o u t v i o l e n c e i n
sch o o ls h a s b e e n r e fl e c t e d i n s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t r e p o r t s c i t i n g
4
sch o o l t r a g e d i e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m i n c i d e n t s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e
(Na t io n a l S c h o o l S a f e t y Ce n t e r, 1 9 9 3 ; A p p le b o me , 1 9 9 4 ; Jo h n so n
and Imme rwa h r, 1 9 9 4 ; H a r r i s , 1 9 9 5 ; USEd, NCES, V i c t i m i z a t i o n ,
1995; USHHS, CDC, 1 9 9 5 ; USEd, P r e s s , 1 9 9 6 ; E l a m e t a l . , 1 9 9 4 ,
1995, 1 9 9 6 , a n d 1 9 9 7 ; USEd, NCES, C r i m e , 1 9 9 7 ; USED, NCES,
V io le n ce , 1 9 9 8 ) . S u m m a r i e s o f r e c e n t i m p o r t a n t s c h o o l v i o l e n c e
re p o rt s a r e p re s e n t e d i n A p p e n d ix A .
The ma g n it u d e o f c r i m e , v i o l e n e e , v i c t i m i z a t i o n , a n d
a sso cia t e d d i s r u p t i o n i n A me ri c a ' s s c h o o l s s e v e r e l y i m p a i r s t h e
e d u ca t io n a l p ro c e s s a n d t h e n o rma l p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e ve lo p me n t o f
many s t u d e n t s . B e c a u s e t h e t ra u ma i n t h e u rb a n co mmu n it y a t
la rg e i s e ve n mo re p re v a l e n t , a ca sca d e o f h i g h l y d i s r u p t i v e
f a c t o rs n e g a t i v e l y i mp a c t s s t u d e n t s ' a ca d e mie a ch ie ve me n t (USEd,
Ne two rk, 1 9 9 3 ). T h e a rg u me n t h a s b e e n made t h a t f o r c h i l d r e n ,
i n n e r - c i t y e x p e rie n c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e s c h o o l l e a r n i n g
e n viro n me n t, c a n b e co mp a re d t o l i f e i n c o mmu n it ie s a t w a r
(G a rb a rin o e t a l . , 1 9 9 2 ; L e w i s a n d Fo x, 1 9 9 3 ; USEd, NCES,
S a e t y , 1 9 9 6 ). I n some su b u rb a n a n d r u r a l c o mmu n it ie s ,
e xp e rie n ce s a r e r a p i d l y b e co min g e q u a l l y d a n g e ro u s (S h a n k e r,
1995; B a l l a r d a n d McCoy, 1 9 9 6 ). O n e o f t h e mo s t c r i t i c a l
p ro b le ms c o n f r o n t i n g e d u c a t o rs t o d a y i s t h e a b i l i t y t o
imme d ia t e ly a n d d r a m a t i c a l l y imp ro v e t h e a ca d e mie p e rf o rma n ce
l e v e l s o f s t u d e n t s e s p e c i a l l y i n e n v iro n me n t s wh e re s c h o o l
v io le n c e i s p r e v a l e n t . D a t a o n v i o l e n c e i s r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e
f ro m t h e c o n s t a n t fl o w o f v i o l e n c e i n f o r m a t i o n w i d e l y
d isse min a t e d t h ro u g h me d ia r e p o r t s , p u b l i c s u rv e y s , e l e c t r o n i c
i n f o rma t i o n a n d t h e re s e a rc h l i t e r a t u r e (A s c h e r, 1 9 9 4 ; USEd,
5
NCES, C r i m e , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e c h a lle n g e f o r p o l i c y ma k e rs a n d
p r a c t i t i o n e r s i s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r e p o r t e d
t re n d s t o s c h o o l p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s a n d d e ve lo p e f f e c t i v e
p r a c t i c e s t o c u r b s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d i n c re a s e s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g
(Youth V io le n c e P o lic y ma k e rs G u id e , 1 9 9 6 ) .
School d i s t r i c t s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a r e re s p o n d in g t o
sch o o l c r i m e a n d v i o l e n c e b y e mp lo yin g me a su re s s u c h AS
i n s t a l l i n o me t a l d e t e c t o r s , h i r i n g a n d a rmin g s e c u r i t y g u a rd s,
lo c k in a a n d c h a i n i n g s c h o o l d o o rs , ma n d a t in g s c h o o l u n i f o rms ,
and c o n d u c t in g ra n d o m se a rch e s o f s t u d e n t b o o kb a g s a n d l o c k e r s
(Fla n n e ry, 1 9 9 7 ). S o m e s c h o o ls h a ve b e e n a l t e r e d t o t h e e x t e n t
t h a t t h e y re s e mb le d e t a in me n t f a c i l i t i e s w h i c h d e t r a c t s f r o m t h e
n o s i t i v e l e a r n i n g e n viro n me n t . S e v e r a l r e c e n t r e p o r t s h a ve
suocested t h a t e a s y a v a i l a b i l i t y o f g u n s a n d weapons t o y o u t h
gangs h a s made a p ro f o u n d imp a c t o n o u r s o c i e t y o v e r t h e l a s t
decade c r e a t i n g a p e rc e p t i o n t h a t v i o l e n c e i s a common
o ccu rre n ce i n o u r d a i l y l i v e s ( C e p e r e l y a n d Simo n , 1 9 9 4 ; L a rs o n ,
1994; We ise n b u rg e r, e t a l . , 1 9 9 5 ; S c h wa rt z , 1 9 9 6 ; USEd, NCES,
Crime , 1 9 9 7 ). T h e t o n e o f some r e p o r t s su g g e st s t h a t a l a r g e
n o rz io n o f t h e n a t i o n h a s become d e s e n s i t i z e d t o t h e e x t e n s i v e
and d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s o f v i o l e n c e (N o rl a n d , 1 9 9 2 ; N o rt h w e s t
Re g io n a l L a b o ra t o ry , 1 9 9 4 ; S t e p h e n s, 1 9 9 4 ; Ma ze n a n d He sta n d ,
1996; E d e lma n , 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 5 , a n d 1 9 9 6 ). S c h o o l s a f e t y h a s become
a p r i o r i t y f o r p a re n t s , s t u d e n t s , t e a c h e r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ,
p o l i t i c i a n s , a n d p o lic y ma k e rs . O n e o f t h e N a t i o n a l E d u c a t io n
Goals f o r t h e y e a r 2000 i s t o c r e a t e s c h o o l e n v iro n me n t s t h a t
a re f r e e o f v i o l e n c e a n d d ru g s (USEd, 1 9 9 3 , NCES G o a l s ).
6
The w i d e a t t e n t i o n t o y o u t h a n d s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s s u e s f r o m
a v a r i e t y o f s o u rc e s i n d i c a t e s t h e n e e d f o r e f f e c t i v e
co o rd in a t e d re sp o n se s b y l o c a l , s t a t e , a n d f e d e r a l a g e n cie s
(Na t io n a l S c h o o l B o a rd s A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 9 9 3 ; Mo y e rs , 1 9 9 5 ;
Edelman, 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 5 , a n d 1 9 9 6 ). I n d i v i d u a l s , g ro u p s , a n d
community o rg a n i z a t i o n s a r e b e g in n in g t o w o rk i n p a r t n e r s h i p
w i t h s c h o o ls t o d e ve lo p a n u mb e r o f d i v e r s e a p p ro a ch e s, mo d e l
p ro g ra ms, s t r a t e g i e s , a n d i n i t i a t i v e s d e sig n e d t o s t o p y o u t h
v io le n c e (USEd a n d DHHS, T o g e t h e r, 1 9 9 3 ; J u s t i c e , 1 9 9 4 ; N a t i o n a l
Conference P a p e rs, 1 9 9 4 ; USGAO, 1 9 9 5 ; L e i s t y n a a n d S h e rb lo m,
Co o rd in a te d co mmitme n ts t o p re v e n t t h e o c c u rre n c e o f
v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s a n d t o p r o v i d e i n t e r v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s , a s
w e l l a s t o s a l v e consequences o f v i o l e n t a c t s , p r e s e n t a
syn ch ro n ize d e f f o r t l e a d i n g t o maximum su cce ss a n d l o n g - t e r m
e f f e c t iv e n e s s i n co mb a t in g v i o l e n c e t h ro u g h o u t co mmu n it ie s
(McCorbs, 1 9 9 4 ; S t e p h e n s, 1 9 9 4 ; USEd, M e r c e r , 1 9 9 5 ). A c c o r d i n g
te v i o l e n c e - p r e v e n t i o n e x p e rt s , n o s i m p l e s o l u t i o n e x i s t s a n d
ending t h e y o u t h v i o l e n c e e p id e mic w i l l n o t b e e a s y (K a d e l a n d
Fo llma n , 1 9 9 3 ). L e a r n i n g ca n n o t t a k e p l a c e i n a n a tmo sp h e re o f
f e a r a n d i n t i m i d a t i o n ( C r a i g , 1 9 9 2 ; USEd, NCES, G o a l s , 1 9 9 3 ;
R i l e y , 1 9 9 3 ; R e g i o n a l L a b o ra t o ry f o r E d u c a t io n a l Imp ro ve me n t,
1995; S h a n ke r, 1 9 9 5 ). A p r i m a r y g o a l o f t o d a y ' s s c h o o ls mu st b e
to d e v e lo p s t r a t e g i e s a n d p ro v i d e re s o u rc e s t h a t w i l l re d u c e t h e
number a n d i n t e n s i t y o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i n c i d e n t s (K n o x, 1 9 9 7 ).
1 3
7
D e s c ri p t i o n o f S ch o o l V i o l e n c e
D a i l y , t h e n a t i o n ' s s c h o o l s a r e b e co min g mo re u n s t a b le
based o n i n c r e a s i n g n u mb e rs o f s t u d e n t s e x h i b i t i n g d i s r u p t i v e
b e h a vio r l e a d i n g t o v i o l e n t a c t s i n t h e s c h o o l s e t t i n g .
D i s r u p t i v e o r e x t e r n a l i z i n g b e h a v io r i s d e s c ri b e d a s demeanor
t h a t i s a n t i s o c i a l , d e fi a n t , c h a l l e n g i n g , n e g a t i v e l y a g g re s s iv e ,
n o n co mp lyin g , a c t i n g - o u t , e t c . T h e i mp a c t o f v i o l e n t a c t s i n
sch o o ls e xt e n d s b e yo n d t h e t y p i c a l mi n o r, s o o n f o r g o t t e n ,
i n c i d e n t s e xp e ct e d o f mo s t s t u d e n t s d u r i n g t h e i r n o rma l c o u rs e
of d e ve lo o me n t . S u c h d i s r u p t i v e s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r c o n t in u e s t o
be o n e o f t h e mo st p ro f o u n d i s s u e s c o n f r o n t i n g s c h o o ls ( B u l l o c k
e: a l . , 1 9 8 3 ; E va n s a n d Eva n s, 1 9 8 5 ; H r a n i t z a n d Eddowes, 1 9 9 0 ;
Kadel a n d Fo ilma n , 1 9 9 3 ).
A m u l t i t u d e o f i n f o r m a t i o n i s ' a v a ila b le o n t h e s u b j e c t o f
v io le n c e a n d i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o e v e r y a s p e c t o f human
e x is t e n c e . S o m e o f t h e d a t a i s f o c u s e d o n t h e e mo t io n a l
consequences o f v i o l e n c e su ch a s v i c t i m s d e v e lo p in g f e e l i n g s o f
so rro w, g r i e f , b e re a ve me n t , s h o c k , d e n i a l , p r o t e s t , a n g e r,
d e p re ssio n , d e s p a i r , re v e n g e , r e j e c t i o n , a n d f e a r (O a t e s , 1 9 8 8 ;
Reasoner, 1 9 9 5 ). O t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a d d re sse s v i o l e n c e i s s u e s b y
su o ce st in g ca u se s a r e r e l a t e d t o p h y s i o l o g i c a l a n d g e n e t i c
lin k a g e s ; p s y c h o l o g i c a l i mp a c t s ; s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ; a n d
b e h a v io ra l p a t t e r n s (B u rro we s e t a l . , 1 9 8 8 ; Wa l l a c h , 1 9 9 3 ;
S o ria n o e t a l . , 1 9 9 4 ; P ru t zma n , 1 9 9 4 ) .
At t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l , p l a n s a r e b e in g f o rmu l a t e d t o e xp e n d
a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t a x d o l l a r s o n co rrip re h e n sive s c h o o l r e f o r m
e f f o r t s t o imp ro v e t h e n a t i o n ' s d e l i v e r y s y s t e m f o r e d u c a t io n
8
and i n c r e a s e s t u d e n t p e rf o rma n ce (USEd , Co mp re h e n sive , 1 9 9 8 ) .
However, s c h o o l s a r e n o t l i k e l y t o r e a l i z e o p t i m a l s u c c e s s w i t h
e d u ca t io n a l r e f o r m s a n d s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g i n i t i a t i v e s u n t i l
e f f e c t i v e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e p re v e n t i o n a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s
a re d e ve lo p e d a n d imp le me n t e d (S h a n ke r, 1 9 9 5 ; S c h w a rt z , 1 9 9 6 ) .
Sta te me n t o f t h e P ro b le m
The e a r l y re s e a rc h p ro p o s a l i n c l u d e d a c o l l e c t i v e r e v i e w o f
e l e c t r o n i c i n f o r m a t i o n , r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e , p u b l i c o p i n i o n
p o l i s , a n d me d ia r e p o r t s a h l p r e s e n t i n g t h e n a t i o n a l c o n c e rn
t h a t d i s r u p t i v e y o u t h v i o l e n c e i n s c h o o l s n e g a t i v e l y i mp a c t s t h e
e d u c a t io n a l p ro c e s s a n d n o rma l d e ve lo p me n t among s t u d e n t s a s
w e l l a s t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f e d u c a t o rs a n d o t h e r s c h o o l p e rs o n n e l
( c o l e a , S e p t e mb e r 1 9 9 5 ). F i n d i n g s c i t e d t h ro u g h o u t t h e
re se a rch l i t e r a t u r e s u g a e s t a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e twe e n b e h a v i o r a n d
a ch ie ve me n t ( C r a i a , 1 9 9 2 ; K a d e l a n d Fo llma n , 1 9 9 3 ; A s c h e r, 1 9 9 4 ;
Haberman, 1 9 9 4 ; F u r l o n g a n d Mo rri s o n , 1 9 9 4 ; H a r r i s , 1 9 9 5 ;
G i l b e r t , 1 9 9 6 ) . W e kn o w t h a t s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s a s e r i o u s
p ro b le m t h a t h a s t h r u s t s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g p r i o r i t i e s i n t o t h e
background a n d s c h o o l s e c u r i t y co n ce rn s i n t o t h e f o r e f r o n t
(S ch wa rtz, 1 9 9 6 ; G i l b e r t , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e r e i s l i m i t e d re s e a rc h
a n a ly z in g t y p e s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n
re a d in g a n d ma t h e ma t ics b y s c h o o l t y p e ( p u b l i c , C a t h o l i c , n o n -
s e c t a ri a n p r i v a t e , a n d o t h e r p r i v a t e r e l i g i o u s s c h o o l s ) ; b y
l o c a t i o n (u rb a n , s u b u rb a n , a n d r u r a l c o mmu n it ie s ); a n d b y
background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s t u d e n t s .
An e a r l i e r s t u d y a n a ly z e d d a t a f r o m t h e 1 9 8 8 N a t i o n a l
E d u ca tio n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y (NEL S:8 8 ) t o i d e n t i f y d e p e n d e n t
9
v a r i a b l e s w i t h h i g h z e r o - o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e twe e n b e h a v i o rs
and s e l e c t e d in d e p e n d e n t s c h o o l v a r i a b l e s a s p r e d i c t o r s o f
st u d e n t s p r o b l e m b e h a v io rs (We ish e w a n d Peng, 1 9 9 3 ) . F o r t h i s
stu d y, d a t a f r o m NELS:88 we re a n a ly z e d t o me a su re a s p e c t s o f
sch o o l v i o l e n c e p l u s s t u d e n t b a ckg ro u n d v a r i a b l e s re g re s s e d o n
c o n s o lid a t e d re a d i n g a n d ma t h e ma t ics s c o re s f r o m c o g n i t i v e t e s t s
a d min is t e re d d u r i n g t h e NELS:88 s t u d y . A c c o r d i n g t o e d u c a t i o n a l
in f o rma t io n , a s t u d e n t ' s r e a d i n g a b i l i t y i s t h o u g h t t o b e
g r e a t l y i n fl u e n c e d b y f a c t o r s o u t s i d e t h e s c h o o l s e t t i n g
(Re g io n a l L a b o ra t o ry , 1 9 9 5 ) . M a t h e m a t i c s a ch ie ve me n t i s
co n sid e re d t o b e a n i n d i c a t o r o f wh a t i s l e a r n e d i n s c h o o l
(USEd, NCES, C o n d i t i o n , 1 9 9 7 ) .
Purpose o f t h e S t u d y
The o u ro o se o f t h i s s t u d y w a s . t o a n a ly z e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n r e a d i n a a n d
ma th e ma tics among e i g h t h g ra d e rs . S t u d e n t s wh o e x h i b i t
d i s r u o t i v e a n d v i o l e n t b e h a v i o r p o se a d ile mma t o t h e e d u c a t io n
community. D e s p i t e numerous e f f o r t s o v e r a n u mb e r o f y e a rs ,
sch o o ls h a ve n o t e f f e c t i v e l y imp a c t e d t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a n d l i f e
outcomes f o r t h e s e s t u d e n t s . T h e i mp a c t o f r e c e n t r e f o r m
e f f o r t s seems t o h a ve b e e n l i m i t e d a n d n o t s y s t e m i c , p e r v a s i v e
o r co mp re h e n sive enough t o r e s u l t i n w i d e - s c a l e s u c c e s s
n e ce ssa ry f o r l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s t o a c h i e v e
a c a d e mic a lly a n d b e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y c o m p e t i t i v e (Jo h n so n , 1 9 9 7 ) .
On t h e p l u s s i d e , a n u mb e r o f p r o m i s i n g v i o l e n c e i n t e r v e n t i o n
and p r e v e n t i o n e f f o r t s h a ve b e e n r e p o r t e d (USGAO, 1 9 9 5 ) . O n t h e
o t h e r h a n d , b e t t e r me a su re s a r e needed t o i d e n t i f y c a u s a l
10
r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d t o s u g g e s t a d d i t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s c h o o l
v io le n c e p r e v e n t i o n a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s (USGAO, 1 9 9 5 ) .
There i s a d e a r t h o f r e s e a r c h o n t h e o v e r a l l e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f
v io le n c e p r e v e n t i o n e f f o r t s a n d t h e c o n n e c t io n t o s t u d e n t
a ch ie ve me n t. T h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h we re t o p re s e n t a
d a t a -su p p o rt e d , s y s t e m a t i c a n d c o mp a ra t iv e schema t h a t sh e d s
l i g h t o n f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o t h e i mp a c t o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e o n
stu d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n re a d i n g a n d ma t h e ma t ics; t o a d va n ce
knowledge r e g a r d i n g h o w p o lic y ma k e rs a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s m i g h t
bes': c u r b t h e g ro w t h o f d i s r u p t i v e a n d v i o l e n t s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r
i n t h e s c h o o l s e t t i n g ; a n d t o c o n t r i b u t e u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n t o
the g e n e ra l b o d y o f e d u c a t io n re s e a rc h .
The f o c u s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n wa s t o e xa min e t h e e x t e n t
of s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i n t h e n a t i o n ' s
.
s c h o o l s . T h e
a p p r o a c h
w a s
t o
a n a lyze e x i s t i n g d a t a o n t h e b e h a v i o r a n d a ch ie ve me n t
p e rfo rma n ce p a t t e r n s o f e i g h t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s d u r i n g 1988 i n
re a d in g a n d ma t h e ma t ics i n t e rms o f t h r e e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e
measures: p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r; v i c t i m i z a t i o n ; a n d p e r c e p t i o n o f
v io le n c e .
S i g n i fi c a n c e o f t h e S t u d y
The s t u d y i s s i g n i fi c a n t b e ca u se : v i o l e n c e i s a n e s c a l a t i n g
p ro b le m i n A me ric a ; t h e r e i s a s c a r c i t y o f r e s e a r c h l i n k i n g
sch o o l v i o l e n c e i s s u e s t o s t u d e n t s a c a d e m i c a ch ie ve me n t ; a n d
most s c h o o l-b a s e d e f f o r t s o p e ra t e u n d e r t h e p re mis e t h a t
vio le h o e i s a l e a r n e d b e h a v i o r a n d t h e r e f o r e , t e n d t o f o c u s o n
d e vice s f o r i n c r e a s i n g s e c u r i t y r a t h e r t h a n o n a p p r o p r i a t e
su p p o rt f o r t h e e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s o f s t u d e n t s . F o r t h e m a j o r i t y
11
o f s t u d e n t s , t h e i m p o r t a n t i s s u e r a y b e l e s s o n e o f v i o l e n t
p e rso n a l a t t a c k a n d mo re o n e o f s t o l e n p r o p e r t y a n d t h r e a t s t h a t
c o l o r t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s a n d in d u c e a n x i e t y a n d f e a r w h i l e i n
sch o o l (Ha n ke , 1 9 9 6 ) . H o w e v e r , w i t n e s s i n g a c t s o f v i o l e n c e , i n
a d d i t i o n t o b e i n g p e r s o n a l l y v i c t i m i z e d b y v i o l e n c e , c a n a l s o
cause s t u d e n t s t o b e f e a r f u l a n d a n x io u s , a f f e c t a s t u d e n t ' s
w i l l i n g h e s s t o a t t e n d s c h o o l, a n d imp a c t o n a s t u d e n t ' s a b i l i t y
to l e a r n a n d b e s o c i a l i z e d a t s c h o o l ( F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ) .
Data f r o m NELS:88, t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e e x i s t i n g
co mo re h e n sive a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t u d e n t d a t a , w e r e u se d t o
a n a lyze a n d u n d e rs t a n d t h e c o n n e c t io n b e twe e n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e
and s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t . N E L S : 8 8 i s a s u r v e y o f s t u d e n t s
f o llo we d f r o m t h e e í g h t h g ra d e t o t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f c o l l e g e
(1988 t o 1 9 9 4 ), a u g me n te d b y p a re n t , s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r a n d
t e a ch e r s u r v e y s . T h e b a se y e a r s t u d e n t d a t a , g a t h e r e d d u r i n a
the 1 9 8 8 -8 9 s c h o o l y e a r , w e r e i n v e s t i g a t e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l l y f o r
t h i s s t u d y (USEd , NCES, G u id e , 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s
i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l e n a b le e x a min a t io n o f c o lma = th e me s a n d
d l f f e re n c e s among a h l t y p e s o f s c h o o l s . T h e i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l
ehable e d u c a t o rs t o i n t e r p r e t , a n t i c í p a t e , a n d d e v e lo p e f f e c t i v e
sch o o l n o l i c y a n d p ro g ra ms f o r o p t i m a l t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g
w h i l e f a c e d w i t h s o l v i n g s c h o o l v i o l e n c e p ro b le ms .
Research Q u e st io n s
In su mma ry, t h e f o l l o w i n g re s e a rc h q u e s t i o n s we re e xa mín e d :
1. W h a t i s t h e n a t u r e o f v i o l e n c e i n s c h o o l s e t t i n g s i n u rb a n ,
suburban, a n d r u r a l co mmu n it ie s?
12
a. W h a t a r e t h e mo st p r e v a l e n t t y p e s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i n •
f o u r t y p e s o f s c h o o l s : p u b l i c , C a t h o l i c , n o n - s e c t a r i a n
p r i v a t e , a n d o t h e r p r i v a t e r e l i g i o u s s c h o o ls ?
Stu d e n ts d e s c ri b e d t h e d e g re e o f v i o l e n c e p ro b le ms i n
t h e i r s c h o o l s a s s e r i o u s , mo d e ra t e , m i n o r , a n d n o t a
p ro b le m f o r t h r e e sch o o l. v i o l e n c e me a su re s: p e r s o n a l
b e h a vio r, v i c t i m i z a t i o n , a n d p e r c e p t i o n o f v i o l e n c e .
b. W h a t a r e t h e p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e among e i g h t h
g ra d e rs b y s t u d e n t b a ckg ro u n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : s e x ,
r a c e / e t h n i c i t y , s o c i o -e c o n o mi c s t a t u s a u a r t i l e , a n d
f a m i l y in co me ; b y s c h o o l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : s c h o o l t y p e ,
sch o o l p o v e r t y i n d i c a t o r (p e rc. e n t o f s t u d e n t s
p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a f r e e o r re d u ce d l u n c h p ro g ra m), a n d
v e rc e n t o f m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g a s c h o o l?
2.W h a t i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f s c h o o l
v io le n c e p ro b le ms t o s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n re a d i n g a n d
mazhemazics?
O rg a n iz a t io n o f t h e T h e s i s
As p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , t h i s re s e a rc h a n a ly z e d t h e
r e l a c i o n s h i p b e twe e n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n
re a d in g a n d ma t h e ma t ics among e i g h t h g ra d e rs i n 1 9 8 8 . C h a p t e r I
p ro v id e s b a ckg ro u n d i n f o r m a t i o n , e x p l o r e s s c h o o l v i o l e n c e
p ro b le ms a n d i s s u e s , s t a t e s t h e p u rp o se a n d s i g n i fi c a n c e o f t h e
stu d y, a n d p re s e n t s t h e re s e a rc h q u e s t io n s . C h a p t e r I I r e v i e w s
th e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e l i t e r a t u r e . C h a p t e r I I I p re s e n t s t h e
methods a n d p ro ce d u re s f o r t h e s t u d y . T h e r e s u l t s a n d
d i s c u s s i o n a r e p re s e n t e d i n Ch a p t e r I V . T h e su mma ry,
c o n c lu s io n s , i m p l i c a t i o n s , a n d re co mme n d a t io n s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n
Ch a n t e r y .
13
CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
14
The P re v a le n c e o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e
The p e r v a s i v e n a t u r e a n d p ro b le ms o f s o c i e t a l c r i m e a n d
v io le n c e a n d t h e p u b l i c ' s c o n c e rn a b o u t t h e r e s u l t i n g i n v a s i o n
on t h e s c h o o l l e a r n i n g e n v iro n me n t vie re i n t r o d u c e d a n d re v ie we d
i n Ch a p t e r I .
Concern a b o u t t h e p re v a le n c e o f c r i m e a n d v i c t i m i z a t i o n
leadj.no t o s c h o o l v i o l e n c e , h a s p e rme a t e d t h e e d u c a t io n s y s t e m
sin ce t h e 1 9 5 0 s (Asmu sse n , 1 9 9 2 ). T h e 1974 Co n g re ss re sp o n d e d
t o t h e p e r s i s t e n t a n d i n c r e a s i n g p ro b le m o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e b y
ra n d a t in g a n a t i o n a l s u r v e y o f t h e p re v a le n c e o f s c h o o l c r i m e ,
the f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t s p e r p e t r a t i o n , a n d t h e
e f e c c i v e n e s s o f e x i s t i n g me a su re s t o a m e l i o r a t e s t u d e n t
v i c t i m i z a t i o n . T h i s ma n d a te l e d t o t h e S a f e S ch o o ls S t u d y
(Na zio n a l i n s t i t u t e o f E d u c a t io n [ N ' E ] , 1 9 8 6 ) w h i c h showed
d i s t u r b i n c t r e n d s i n t h e n a t i o n ' s s c h o o l s ( F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ) .
The N I E r e p o r t re v e a l e d t h a t w h i l e t e e n a g e rs sp e n d u p t o
c n e -f o u rt h o f t h e i r wa k in g h o u rs a t s c h o o l , 4 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e
ro b b e rie s a n d 3 6 p e r c e n t o f p e rs o n a l a t t a c k s a g a i n s t t h e m
o ccu rre d a t s c h o o l (Ra p p , C a r r i n g t o n , a n d Nic h o ls o n , 1 9 8 6 ) . T h e
s i g n i fi c a n t e m o t i o n a l , e c o n o mic , a n d s o c i a l c o s t s o f s c h o o l
v io le n c e we re i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e s u rv e y . F o r e xa mp le , s t u d e n t s
in j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o ls we re v i c t i m i z e d b y o t h e r s t u d e n t s a t
h ig h e r r a t e s t h a n h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s , a n d a t h i r d o f j u n i o r
h ig h s t u d e n t s i n l a r g e c i t i e s s a i d t h e y a vo id e d p l a c e s a t s c h o o l
such a s t h e r e s t ro o m h e ca u se o f f e a r o f b e i n g v i c t i m i z e d b y a
35
p e e r. I n c r e a s i n g n u mb e rs o f s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d s t a y i n g home f r o m
sch o o l b e ca u se t h e y f e a r e d f o r t h e i r s a f e t y . M o r e t h a n 1 0 0 ,0 0 0
t e a ch e rs r e p o r t e d t h e y we re t h re a t e n e d w i t h p h y s i c a l h a rm, a n d
o ve r 5 , 0 0 0 t e a c h e r s r e p o r t e d b e in g p h y s i c a l l y a t t a c k e d e a ch
month. A t t a c k s o n t e a c h e rs we re much mo re l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n
i n j u r y f o r t e a c h e rs co mp a re d t o a s s a u l t s b e twe e n s t u d e n t s
(Mo le s, 1 9 8 6 ; Ha n ke , 1 9 9 6 ; F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ) ,
The r e p o r t o f t h e S a f e S c h o o ls S t u d y d o cu me n te d t h e
s i g n i fi c a n t e c o n o mic c o s t s o f s c h o o l c r i m e a n d v i o l e n c e ,
e st ima t e d t o b e $200 m i l l i o n a n n u a l l y . B u r g l a r i e s we re r e p o r t e d
t o o c c u r fi v e t i m e s mo re o f t e n i n s c h o o l s t h a n i n b u s in e s s e s .
The a ve ra g e c o s t o f e a c h t h e f t wa s r e p o r t e d t o b e a b o u t $ 1 5 0 .
I n c id e n t s o f v a n d a l i s m we re a l s o h i g h e r t h a n e xp e ct e d , o c c u r r i n g
an a v e ra g e o f o n e t i m e p e r mo n th i n a a u a r t e r o f t h e s c h o o l s
su rve ye d ( F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ) . F r o m 1950 t o 1 9 7 5 , m i s b e h a v i o r i n
th e s c h o o l s e t t i n g s h i f t e d f r o m a c t s o f v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t
p ro p e rt y t o v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t p e rs o n s , a n d fi g h t s s h i f t e d f r o m
words t o weapons, w i t h so me time s l e t h a l o u tco me s ( R u b e l , 1 9 7 7 ;
Fla n n e ry, 1 9 9 7 ) .
The r e s u l t s o f t h e S a f e S ch o o ls S t u d y c r e a t e d c o n t in u e d
i n t e r e s t i n t h e n a t u r e a n d e x t e n t o f s c h o o l c r i m e a n d v i o l e n c e ,
th e i m p a c t o n t h e s c h o o l l e a r n i n g e n v iro n me n t , a n d t h e e co n o mic
and s o c i a l c o s t s ( F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ) , T h e co n se q u e n ce o f v i o l e n c e
and v i c t i m i z a t i o n f o r s t u d e n t s wh o r e p o r t e d h i g h l e v e l s o f f e a r
and c o n c e rn a b o u t t h e i r s a f e t y a n d s e c u r i t y p ro mp t e d s e v e r a l
e f f o r t s t o co mb a t s c h o o l c r i m e . T h e s e c o n c e rn s l e d t o t h e
3
16
i n c l u s i o n o f q u e s t io n s a b o u t s c h o o l - r e l a t e d v i c t i m i z a t i o n i n t h e
annual N a t i o n a l Crime V i c t i m i z a t i o n S u rve y (NCV S ).
The fi r s t NCVS t h a t c o n t a in e d s c h o o l - r e l a t e d v i c t i m i z a t i o n
it e ms e xa min e d t h e p e r i o d o f t i m e f r o m 1974 t o 1 9 8 1 (To b y ,
Smith, a n d S mit h , 1 9 8 6 ; F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ). T h e d a t a showed t h a t
a lt h o u g h s c h o o l c r i m e a n d v i c t i m i z a t i o n we re r a p i d l y i n c re a s i n g ,
l e v e l s h a d re ma in e d f a i r l y c o n s t a n t d u r i n g t h e y e a r s e xa min e d .
The NCVS documented t h a t o v e r h a l f t h e c r i m i n a l i n c i d e n t s f o r
v i c t i m s r a n c i n g i n a g e f r o m 1 4 -1 7 o c c u rre d a t s c h o o l . A
s ic n : I fi c a n t n u mb e r o f y o u t h we re v i c t i m i z e d b y ro b b e ri e s ,
e xp e rie n ce d a g g ra va t e d a n d s i mp l e a s s a u l t s , a n d l a r c e n y a t
sch o o l (T o b y , e t a l . , 1 9 8 6 ). C o n t r a r y t o t h e NI E S a t e S ch o o ls
Survey, t h e NCVS f o u n d t h a t 4 0 -5 0 p e rc e n t o f v i c t i m i z a t i o n s
p e rp e t ra : e d i n s c h o o ls we re co mmit¿e d b y s t ra n g e r s ( F l a n n e r y ,
1997).
These fi n d i n g s l e d t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f a S ch o o l C ri me
Sunplement t o t h e NCVS. T h i s s u r v e y o f o v e r 1 0 , 0 0 0 y o u t h
ra n g in g i n a g e f r o m 1 2 -1 9 wh o a t t e n d e d s c h o o l d u r i n g t h e fi r s t
su x months o f t h e 1 9 8 8 -8 9 s c h o o l y e a r showed t h a t 9 p e rc e n t o f
stu d e n ts h a d been v i c t i m s o f c r i m e i n o r a ro u n d s c h o o l : 7
n e rce n t r e p o r t e d a t l e a s t o n e p r o p e r t y c r i m e a n d 2 p e rc e n t a
v i c l e n t c r i m e ( B a s t i a n a n d T a y l o r , 1 9 9 1 ). S t u d e n t s o v e r t h e a g e
o f 1 7 we re l e s s l i k e l y t o b e v i c t i m s o f c r i m e t h a n yo u n g e r
stu d e n ts, w i t h n i n t h g ra d e rs t h e mo st l i k e l y t o b e v i c t i m i z e d
and t w e l f t h g ra d e rs l e a s t l i k e l y t o b e v i c t i m i z e d compared t o
stu d e n ts i n o t h e r g ra d e s . T h e s u rv e y re v e a l e d t h a t 1 8 p e rc e n t
o f s t u d e n t s " so me t ime s" f e a r e d b e in g t h e v i c t i m o f a n a t t a c k ;
17
younger s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d mo re l i k e l y t o f e a r a n a t t a c k t h a n
o ld e r s t u d e n t s ; 1 6 p e rc e n t o f s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t a t e a c h e r
had been t h re a t e n e d o r a t t a c k e d a t t h e i r s c h o o l ; 1 5 p e rc e n t o f
respondents r e p o r t e d t h a t g a n g s e x i s t e d i n t h e i r s c h o o l, 6
p e rce n t r e p o r t e d t h e y a vo id e d l o c a t i o n s i n t h e i r s c h o o l b e ca u se
th e y f e a re d a t t a c k , a n d 2 p e r c e n t s a i d t h e y h a d t a k e n a weapon
to s c h o o l t o p r o t e c t t h e mse lve s ( B a s t i a n a n d T a y l o r , 1 9 9 1 ;
Fla n n e ry, 1 9 9 7 ). T h e r e wa s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c i n t h e r a t e o f
re p o rt e d c r i m e v i c t i m i z a t i o n a t s c h o o l f o r y o u t h r e s i d i n g i n
c e n t ra l c i t i e s ( 1 0 p e rc e n t ) t h a n i n su b u rb a n a re a s ( 9 p e rc e n t )
and r u r a l l o c a l e s ( 8 p e rc e n t ) ( B a s t i a n a n d T a y l o r , 1 9 9 1 ) . T h i s
su rve y wa s co n d u ct e d d u r i n g 1 9 8 8 -8 9 , t h e same s c h o o l y e a r t h e
Na t io n a l E d u c a t io n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y (NEL S:8 8 ) w a s co n d u ct e d
and y i e l d e d fi n d i n g s t h a t a r e co mp a ra b le t o r e s u l t s i n a mo re
re ce n t S t u d e n t V i c t i m i z a t i o n a t S ch o o l r e p o r t . T h i s r e p o r t
p re se n te d i n f o r m a t i o n o n p e rs o n a l s t u d e n t v i c t i m i z a t i o n f r o m a
n a t io n a l s u r v e y o f s i x t h t h ro u g h t w e l f t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s
conducted i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1993 (USEd , NCES, V i c t i m i z a t i o n ,
1995).
In t h e S t u d e n t V i c t i m i z a t i o n a t S ch o o l r e p o r t , t h e
d e fi n i t i o n o f v i c t i m i z a t i o n wa s expanded b e yo n d t h e d i r e c t
p e rso n a l e x p e rie n c e o f t h r e a t s o r h a rm t o i n c l u d e kn o wle d g e o r
wit n e ss o f c r i m e i n c i d e n t s o r b u l l y i n g a t s c h o o l a n d showed t h a t
an e s t ima t e d 2 . 7 m i l l i o n v i o l e n t c r i m e s t a k e p l a c e a n n u a l l y
e i t h e r a t s c h o o l o r n e a r s c h o o ls . A b o u t o n e i n f o u r p u b l i c
sch o o l t e a c h e rs r a t e d p h y s i c a l c o n fl i c t s a mo n g s t u d e n t s a s b e in g
a s e r i o u s o r mo d e ra t e ly s e ri o u s p ro b le m i n t h e i r s c h o o ls ,
18
in c lu d in g ro b b e ri e s , t h e f t s , a n d v a n d a lis m. G u n s a n d weapons i n
the s c h o o l s e t t i n g p ro v i d e a n o t h e r k e y a s p e c t o f t h e d e s c r i p t i v e
p r o fi l e o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s s u e s .
Du rin g 1 9 8 8 -8 9 , t h e N a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r S ch o o l S a f e t y
conducted a n o v e rv i e w o f s c h o o ls a n d r e p o r t e d t h a t 2 8 , 2 0 0
stu d e n ts a n d 5 , 2 0 0 t e a c h e rs we re p h y s i c a l l y a t t a c k e d i n s c h o o ls
each mo n th , a n d 1 9 p e rc e n t o f t h e s e v i c t i m s r e q u i r e d
h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n (Greenbaum a n d Tu rn e r, 1 9 8 9 ) . T h i s o v e rv i e w o f
sch o o ls wa s imp le me n t e d d u r i n g t h e same s c h o o l y e a r t h e NELS:88
stu d y wa s co n d u ct e d . M o r e r e c e n t l y , g r o w i n g n u mb e rs o f s t u d e n t s
and t e a c h e rs r e p o r t e d t h e y a r e s e r i o u s l y co n ce rn e d f o r t h e i r
s a e t y a t s c h o o l ( H r a n i t z a n d Eddowes, 1 9 9 0 ; O ' Co n n o r, 1 9 9 3 ;
Ascher, 1 9 9 4 ; L a rs o n , 1 9 9 4 ; J a c k s o n , 1 9 9 5 ; G i l b e r t , 1 9 9 6 ; K n o x,
1997).
The N a t i o n a l A d o le sce n t S t u d e n t H e a l t h S u rv e y (A me ric a n
School H e a l t h A s s o c i a t i o n [ASHA], 1 9 8 9 ) o f o v e r 1 1 , 0 0 0 e i g h t h
and t e n t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s d u r i n g 1 9 8 8 -8 9 sh o we d t h a t n e a r l y 4 0
o e rce n t o f s t u d e n t s h a d been i n a p h y s i c a l fi g h t a t s c h o o l ( o r
on t h e b u s t o o r f r o m s c h o o l) i n t h e p a s t y e a r , 3 4 p e rc e n t
re p o rt e d t h a t someone h a d t h re a t e n e d t o h u r t t h e m a t s c h o o l, a n d
13 p e rc e n t r e p o r t e d b e in g a t t a c k e d a t s c h o o l . T h i s s u rv e y ,
conducted t h e same y e a r a s NELS:88, sh o we d t h a t s t u d e n t s ' f e a r
o f v i c t i m i z a t i o n wa s s i g n i fi c a n t : 2 2 p e rc e n t o f s t u d e n t s
re p o rt e d c a r r y i n g a k n i f e o r some o t h e r weapon s u c h a s a g u n t o
school t h e p a s t y e a r . A n a l y s i s o f t h e 1993 N a t i o h a l Ho u se h o ld
Ed u ca tio n S u rv e y a r e co n g ru e n t w i t h t r e n d s o f t h e ASHA S u rve y,
showing t h a t h a l f o f s t u d e n t s i n g ra d e s 6 -1 2 w i t n e s s e d some t y p e
o f c r i m e o r v i c t i m i z a t i o n a t s c h o o l , a n d a b o u t 1 i n 8 r e p o r t e d
b e in g d i r e c t l y v i c t i m i z e d a t s c h o o l ( N o l i n , D a v i e s , a n d
Ch a n d le r, 1 9 9 6 ) . S t u d e n t s b r i n g i n g g u n s o r o t h e r weapons t o
sch o o l i s t h e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s s u e c u r r e n t l y r e c e i v i n g t h e
g re a t e s t p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n a n d co n ce rn ( S m i t h , 1 9 9 0 ; O ' Co n n o r,
1993; S t e p h e n s, G a n g s, 1 9 9 4 ; T a l l e y a n d Wa lz, 1 9 9 6 ; J u s t i c e ,
1996). We a p o n s i n s c h o o ls a r e a r e fl e c t i o n o f t h e i r e a s y a cce ss
in t h e co n ,,Ju n ity, p re s e n c e i n many homes, a n d t h e a p p a re n t
wid e sp re a d a t t i t u d e i n A me rica n s o c i e t y t h a t v i o l e n c e i s a n
e f f e c t i v e wa y t o s o l v e p ro b le ms ( B u t t e r fi e l d a n d T u rn e r, 1 9 8 9 ;
ro rl a n d , 1 9 9 2 7 K a c h u r, 1 9 9 4 ; Ha n n a a n d Ma d d a le n a , 1 9 9 5 ) .
V a rio u s me th o d s h a ve b e e n t r i e d t o p re v e n t l e t h a l weapons f r o m
comino i n t o s c h o o l s .
S t a t i o n a ry me t a l d e t e c t o r s a n d ra n d o m se a rch e s w i t h h a n d -
h e ld d e t e c t o r s a r e conadonplace i n some s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s .
L o ckin g a n d c h a i n i n g e n t ra n c e d o o rs , h i r i n g s e c u r i t y p a t r o l s ,
se a rch in g s t u d e n t b o o kb a g s a n d l o c k e r s a r e o t h e r me th o d s some
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s e mp lo y t o b a r weapons f r o m s c h o o ls (USEd , NCES,
Crime , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e r e i s n o s y s t e m a t i c e v id e n c e o n t h e b e n e fi t s
o f a n y o f t h e s e a p p ro a ch e s, a n d e a ch h a s c e r t a i n s h o rt c o min g s .
Me t a l d e t e c t o r s h a ve p ro v e n e s p e c i a l l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l . W h i l e
th e y a r e r e l a t i v e l y e a sy t o i n s t a l l , r e q u i r e l i t t l e t r a i n i n g o f
sch o o l p e rs o n n e l, a n d a re e f f e c t i v e i n d e t e c t i n g weapons, m e t a l
d e t e c t o rs a r e se e n b y some a s — a n i n v a s i o n o f p r i v a c y , a l o g j a m
to s c h o o l e n t r y , a n d c r e a t i n g a f o r t r e s s ma k in g s c h o o l s mo re
l i k e p r i s o n s (USEd , NCES, C r i m e , 1 9 9 7 ) . F u r t h e r , l o c k i n g d o o rs
can become a fi r e e x i t o b s t a c l e w h i l e s e a rc h e s a n d p a t r o l s a r e
19
20
e xp e n sive a n d t i m e co n su min g ( B u t t e r fi e l d a n d T u rn e r, 1 9 8 9 ;
Ce p e rle y a n d Simo n , 1 9 9 4 ; We ise n b u rg e r, e t a l . , 1 9 9 5 ; U S E d ,
NCES, C r i m e , 1 9 9 7 ) . O v e r a l l , s t r a t e g i e s t o ke e p weapons o u t o f
sch o o ls h a ve n o t b e e n t e s t e d o n a s y s t e ma t i c b a s i s . M o s t o f
these a p p ro a ch e s a t t e mp t t o c o n t r o l s t u d e n t a c t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n
the f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o d i s r u p t i v e b e h a v io r. W h i l e
c o n t r o l l i n g s t u d e n t a c t i o n s may b e i m p o r t a n t i n a t t e mp t i n g t o
s t a b i l i z e t h re a t e n i n g s i t u a t i o n s , s u c h s t r a t e g i e s a r e l e s s
e f f e c t i v e i n i mp a c t i n g t h e wa ys s c h o o l s engage s t u d e n t s mo re
f u : 1 y i n a ca d e mic p u r s u i t s . T h e r e n e e d s t o b e a c l o s e
co n n e ct io n b e twe e n t e a c h in g , l e a r n i n g , a n d s c h o o l s e c u r i t y
e f f o r t s . F i g h t s a n d o t h e r a s s a u l t s among s t u d e n t s a r e o t h e r
imp o rt a n t a s p e c t s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e .
The n a t u r e a n d i n t e n s i t y o f s c h o o l fi g h t s a n d a s s a u l t s a r e
becoming mo re v i o l e n t w i t h t h e u se o f weanons. S t u d e n t s ma y
b r i n g weapons t o s c h o o l f o r v a r i o u s re a s o n s : t o sh o w o f f , a s
p ro t e c t i o n , t o h o l d t h e m f o r o t h e rs , a n d f o r p e rs o n a l a g g re s s iv e
purposes t h a t so me time s i n v o l v e s g a n g s a n d i l l e g a l d ru g
a c t i v i t i e s (K n o x , 1 9 9 7 ). A l t h o u g h k n i v e s a r e t h e mo st common
weapon b ro u g h t t o s c h o o l, i n c r e a s i n g l y p o w e rf u l fi r e a r m s a r e
a ls o r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e t o s t u d e n t s ( O f fi c e o f J u v e n i l e J u s t i c e
and De lin q u e n c y P re v e n t io n , 1 9 8 9 ; P r o t h r o w - S t i t h a n d Weisman,
1991; S t e p h e n s, S t r a t e g i e s , 1 9 9 4 ; USEd, NCES, S t a t u s , 1 9 9 7 ).
Surveys c o n s i s t e n t l y sh o w t h a t t h e p r i m a r y re a so n s t u d e n t s c a r r y
a weapon t o s c h o o l i s f o r p r o t e c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n w i t h t h e i n t e n t
to p e r p e t r a t e h a rm o n someone e l s e (S h e l e y a n d Wri g h t , 1 9 9 3 ;
Fla n n e ry, 1 9 9 7 ).
„"3
21
The 1 9 9 4 -9 5 Y o u t h R i s k B e h a v io r S u rv e y b y t h e Ce n t e rs f o r
Disease C o n t r o l (CDC) a n d P re v e n t io n i s a l s o c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e
ASHA s u r v e y (1 9 9 5 , HHS, CDC). T h e CDC f o u n d t h a t a l mo s t 1 o f
e ve ry 2 0 h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s ( 4 . 4 p e rc e n t ) s a i d t h e y misse d a t
le a s t o n e s c h o o l d a y b e ca u se t h e y d i d n o t f e e l s a f e a t o r o n t h e
way t o o r f r o m s c h o o l. Y o u n g e r , r a t h e r t h a n o l d e r s t u d e n t s we re
more l i k e l y t o m i s s a d a y b e ca u se o f f e a r f o r t h e i r s a f e t y .
Almo st 2 3 p e rc e n t ( 1 8 p e rc e n t o f b o y s a n d 5 p e rc e n t o f g i r l s )
re p o rt e d c a r r y i n g a weapon t e s c h o o l a t l e a s t o n ce d u r i n g t h e 3 0
days p re c e d in g t h e s u rv e y , a n d 7 p e r c e n t s a i d t h e y h a d been
th re a te n e d o r i n j u r e d w i t h a weapon a t s c h o o l d u r i n g t h e p a s t
ye a r. S i x t e e n p e rc e n t s a i d t h e y h a d been i n a p h y s i c a l fi g h t i n
the p a s t y e a r, a n d a lmo s t o n e - t h i r d s a i d t h e y h a d p r o p e r t y su ch
as b o o ks, c l o t h i n g , o r a v e h i c l e d e l i b e r a t e l y damaged o r s t o l e n
d u rin o t h e p a s t y e a r (F l a n n e ry , 1 9 9 7 ).
The l i n k a g e s b e twe e n v i o l e n t a n d d i s r u p t i v e b e h a v i o r a n d
peor s o c i a l a d ju s t me n t h a ve b e e n w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d (P a t t e rs o n ,
1982; K a z d in , 1 9 8 7 ; P l o m i n a n d Rowe, 1 9 9 0 ; P o lo n d , 1 9 9 4 ;
Reasoner, 1 9 9 5 ; T a l l e y a n d Wa lz, 1 9 9 6 ) . H o w e v e r , l i m i t e d
in f o rma t io n wa s f o u n d o n c o n n e c t io n s b e twe e n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d
stu d e n t a ch ie ve me n t . U n t i l mo re e m p i r i c a l e v id e n c e i s known
about t h i s c r i t i c a l a re a , e d u c a t o rs a r e n o t l i k e l y t o a c h ie v e
the b ro a d g o a ls o f a ca d e mic e x c e l l e n c e w i t h o u t a d d re s s in g t h e
g ro win g l e v e l o f d i s r u p t i v e a n d v i o l e n t s t u d e n t b e h a v io r. A s
st a t e d p r e v i o u s l y , l e a r n i n g ca n n o t t a k e p l a c e i n a n a tmo sp h e re
of v i o l e n c e , f e a r , a n d i n t i m i d a t i o n ( C r a i g , 1 9 9 2 ; R i l e y , 1 9 9 3 ;
USEd, NCES, G o a l s , 1 9 9 3 ; Re g io n a l L a b o ra t o ry f o r E d u c a t io n a l
22
Improvement, 1 9 9 5 ; S h a n ke r, 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e n u mb e rs a n d i s s u e s a s
w e l l a s t h e l o s s o f human p o t e n t i a l a n d fi s c a l c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h t h e co n se q u e n ce s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a h l ma ke t h e c a s e
su p p o rt in g t h e n e e d f o r e f f e c t i v e s t r a t e g i e s t o a d d re s s s c h o o l
v io le n c e i s s u e s .
Re la t e d A re a s o f Re se a rch
Oth e r s u r v e y r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s n o t a
u n ia u e ly u rb a n p ro b le m. A N a t i o n a l League o f C i t i e s s t u d y
(1994) f o u n d t h a t 3 8 p e r c e n t o f 7 0 0 re s p o n d in g c i t i e s r e p o r t e d
o b se rva b le i n c re a s e s i n v i o l e n c e i n t h e i r s c h o o l s o v e r t h e
pre-Jious fi v e y e a r s . O n l y 1 1 p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d t h a t s c h o o l
v io le n c e wa s n o t a p ro b le m i n t h e i r c o mmu n it ie s ( F l a n n e r y ,
1997). N e a r l y t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e c i t i e s re s p o n d in g h a d f e w e r
than 57.),000 r e s i d e n t s a n d a l mo s t h a l f we re l o c a t e d i n su b u rb a n
a re a s. W h i l e t h e o v e r a l l l e v e l o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e wa s h i g h e s t
f o r u rb a n d i s t r i c t s , n e a r l y o n e - t h i r d o f re s p o n d e n t s i n a h l
typ e s o f j u r i s d i c t i o n s ( c e n t r a l c i t y , s u b u rb a n , n o n -
me t ro p o lit a n , o r r u r a l r e p o r t e d i n c re a s e s i n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e
(Fla n n e ry, 1 9 9 7 ) .
Re s u lt s f r o m a s u r v e y b y t h e N a t i o n a l S c h o o l B o a rd s
A s s o c ia t io n (1 9 9 3 ) sh o we d t h a t mo re t h a n 8 0 p e r c e n t o f s c h o o l
d i s t r i c t s r e p o r t e d t h a t s c h o o l v i o l e n c e h a d i n c re a s e d co mp a re d
to t h e p r e v i o u s fi v e y e a r s . T h e mo s t f r e q u e n t l y r e p o r t e d t y p e
o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e wa s a s s a u l t , o c c u r r i n g i n 7 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e
re sp o n d in g d i s t r i c t s . S c h o o l s a l s o r e p o r t e d a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e
number o f s t u d e n t s b r i n g i n g weapons t o s c h o o l s ( 6 1 p e r c e n t ) ,
i n c i d e n t s o f s t u d e n t a s s a u l t s o n t e a c h e rs ( 2 8 p e r c e n t ) ,
35
23
sh o o tin g s o r k n i fi n g s ( 1 3 p e r c e n t ) , d r i v e - b y s h o o t i n g s ( 9
p e rc e n t ), a n d o n -ca mp u s ra p e s ( 7 p e rc e n t ). P r o b l e m s we re n o t
l i m i t e d t o u rb a n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , b u t o c c u r r e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
fre q u e n cy d u r i n g t h e p r e v i o u s fi v e y e a r s i n su b u rb a n a n d r u r a l
sch o o ls a s w e l l (Ro ssma n a n d Mo rl e y , 1 9 9 6 ; F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ) .
These fi n d i n g s a r e s u p p o rt e d b y t h e s h o c k in g s c h o o l s h o o t i n g
e ve n ts b y ma le s t u d e n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 7 -9 8 s c h o o l y e a r i n
subUrban P e a r l , M i s s i s s i p p i , a n d r u r a l Paducah, K e n t u c k y , a n d
Jonesboro, A rk a n s a s . I t wa s p r e v i o u s l y t h o u g h t t h a t s u c h
v io le n c e a n d h a rm o n l y happened i n i n n e r - c i t y u rb a n c o mmu n it ie s .
Evidence o f t h e imp o rt a n c e o f d i s r u p t i v e a n d v i o l e n t
s u d e n : b e h a v i o r ca n b e g le a n e d f r o m re s e a rc h o n t h e n a t u r e o f
sch o o l v i o l e n c e , i n c l u d i n g t h e p r e v a l e n t t y p e s o f d i s r u p t i v e
b e h a vio r i n t h e s c h o o l s e t t i n g a n d 'the p a t t e r n s o f a n t i s o c i a l
sch o o l b e h a v i o r. H o w e v e r , e v i d e n c e o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e twe e n
sch o o l v i o l e n c e a n d s t u d e n t s a c a d e m i e a ch ie ve me n t i s n e e d e d .
The l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w y i e l d e d re s e a rc h fi n d i n g s t h a t r e l a t e t o
the q u e s t io n s f o r t h i s s t u d y a n d re v e a le d a d e s c r i p t i v e p r o fi l e
o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s s u e s s u c h a s s t u d e n t s ' p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r;
v i c t i m i z a t i o n , t h e d i r e c t p e rs o n a l e x r e r i e n c e o f t h r e a t s o r
harm; a n d s t u d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a s a p ro b le m.
A summary o f p r i m a r y fi n d i n g s r e g a r d i n g v i o l e n c e i n s c h o o ls
re ve a le d t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n : N a t i o n w i d e , 4 4 p e r c e n t o f
t e a ch e rs r e p o r t e d i n 1 9 9 1 t h a t s t u d e n t mi s b e h a v i o r i n t e r f e r e d
s u b s t a n t i a l l y w i t h t h e i r t e a c h i n g . S e v e n p e rc e n t o f t e a c h e rs
re p o rt e d b e in g p h y s i c a l l y a t t a c k e d ( M a n s fi e l d , e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 ) .
L i f e t i m e p re v a le n c e o f t e a c h e r v i e t i m i z a t i o n b y p h y s i c a l a t t a c k
36
24
i s mo re t h a n t h r e e t i m e s h i g h e r (1 0 p e rc e n t v e r s u s t h r e e p e rc e n t
i n s c h o o ls w i t h 4 1 p e rc e n t o r mo re o f s t u d e n t s r e c e i v i n g f r e e o r
reduced l u n c h t h a n i n s c h o o ls i n wh ic h 1 0 p e r c e n t o r l e s s o f
stu d e n ts r e c e i v e f r e e o r re d u ce d lu n c h . T e n p e rc e n t o f t e a c h e rs
re p o rt e d t h a t t h e y h a d been v e r b a l l y a b u se d b y a s t u d e n t i n a
one we e k p e r i o d (Ma n s fi e l d , e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 ). E l e v e n p e rc e n t o f
stu d e n ts a n d 1 2 p e rc e n t o f t e a c h e rs r e p o r t e d a p e t t y t h e f t o f
t h e i r p o sse ssio n s o v e r a o n e mo n th p e r i o d ( N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f
Ed u ca tio n , 1 9 8 6 ) . N i n e p e rc e n t o f y o u t h a g e s 1 2 t o 1 9 r e p o r t e d
b e in g t h e v i c t i m o f o n e o r mo re c ri me s i n o r a ro u n d s c h o o l. T w o
p e rce n t o f s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d
.
t h e y w e r e
t h e
v i c t i m
o f
v i o l e n c
e
E a s a n a n d T a y l o r , 1 9 9 1 ). P o s s e s s i o n o f weapons, fi g h t s a n d
c t h e r a s s a u l t s among s t u d e n t s a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f
sch o o l v i o l e n c e .
Fo llo win g i s a summary o f t h e p r i m a r y fi n d i n g s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h weanons, fi g h t i n g , a n d o t h e r a s s a u l t s a t s c h o o l : I n t h e
Na t io n a l C ri me V i c t i m i z a t i o n S u rve y mo re ma le s ( 3 p e rc e n t ) t h a n
females ( 1 p e rc e n t ) r e p o r t e d h a v in g t a k e n a weapon t o s c h o o l
(B a st ia n a n d T a y l o r , 1 9 9 1 ). A t l e a s t 7 1 p e rso n s we re k i l l e d
w l t h g u n s a t s c h o o ls d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1 9 8 6 -9 0 ( S m i t h , 1 9 9 0 ).
S i x t y - e i g h t p e rc e n t o f o f fi c i a l s f r o m u rb a n , s u b u rb a n , a n d r u r a l
p o l i c e d e p a rt me n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t a s m a l l n u mb e r o f s t u d e n t s
c a r r y weapons s u c h a s handguns o r k n i v e s t o s c h o o l ( H a r r i s ,
1995). T w e n t y - s e v e n p e rc e n t o f s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t mo st
v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s t a k e p l a c e o n t h e s c h o o l g ro u n d s ; 1 5 p e rc e n t
re p o rt e d i n c i d e n t s o c c u r i n t h e s c h o o l n e ig h b o rh o o d ; a n d e i g h t
p e rce n t s a i d mo st a c t s o f v i o l e n c e o c c u r i n s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s
25
( H a r r i s , 1 9 9 5 ) . M o s t t e a c h e rs a n d s t u d e n t s b e l i e v e t h a t when
v io le n c e t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e s c h o o l b u i l d i n g i t g e n e r a l l y o c c u rs
i n p u b l i c a r e a s — h a l l w a y s a n d s t a i r c a s e s we re mo s t f r e q u e n t l y
me n tio n e d b y ( 6 4 p e r c e n t o f t e a c h e rs a n d 5 5 p e r c e n t o f
s t u d e n t s ). H o w e v e r , 2 7 p e rc e n t o f s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t a
s i g n i fi c a n t p o r t i o n o f i n c i d e n t s o c c u r i n mo re h id d e n a re a s s u c h
as b o y ' s a n d g í r l ' s r e s t ro o ms a n d l o c k e r ro o ms, w h e r e t e a c h e rs
a re l e s s l i k e l y t o s e e i n c i d e n t s fi r s t h a n d . O n l y t w o p e rc e n t o f
t e a ch e rs me n t io n e d l o c k e r ro o ms. S t u d e n t s mo re t h a n t e a c h e rs
b e l i e v e t h a t i n c i d e n t s a r e mo re l i k e l y t o t a k e p l a c e i n
cla ssro o ms ( 2 4 p e r c e n t o f s t u d e n t s v e r s u s 1 2 p e r c e n t o f t e a c h e rs
(H a rri s , 1 9 9 5 ) .
The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f u rb a n , s u b u rb a n , a n d r u r a l p u b l i c
sch o o l t e a c h e r s ( 9 8 p e rc e n t ) h a v e n e v e r c a r r i e d a weapon t o
sch o o l. T h o s e t e a c h e rs who h a ve t a k e n some f o r m o f p r e c a u t i o n
most f r e q u e n t l y c a r r y mace ( 4 4 p e rc e n t ) f o r s e l f d e f e n se
(H a rri s , 1 9 9 5 ). E l e v e n p e rc e n t o f p u b l i c s c h o o l t e a c h e rs h a ve
been v i c e i m s o f a c t s o f v i o l e n c e t h a t o c c u r r e d i n o r a ro u n d
sch o o ls. M o s t o f t h e i n c i d e n t s i n v o l v e d s t u d e n t s ( 9 5 p e r c e n t ) .
S ixt e e n p e rc e n t o f t e a c h e rs i n s c h o o l s w i t h a l l o r many m i n o r i t y
st u d e n t s h a ve b e e n v i c t i m s o f c r i m e s i n o r a ro u n d t h e i r s c h o o l
(H a rri s , 1 9 9 5 ). S t u d e n t s , m o re f r e q u e n t l y a r e v i c t i m s o f s c h o o l
v i o l e n c e ( 2 3 p e r c e n t ) , a n d among s t u d e n t s w i t h g e n e r a l l y p o o r
grades, ( m o s t l y C ' s , D ' s a n d F ' s ) , t h e i n c i d e n c e i s h i g h e r ( 3 9
p e rce n t ). T h i s h o l d s t r u e f o r s t u d e n t s i n a l l r e g i o n s o f t h e
n a t io n , g r a d e l e v e l s , a n d u rb a n , s u b u rb a n , a n d r u r a l s c h o o l
l o c a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , b o y s a r e t w i c e a s l i k e l y a s g i r l s t o b e
37
38
26
v i c t i m s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e ( 3 0 p e rc e n t co mp a re d w i t h 1 6 p e rc e n t )
(H a rri s , 1 9 9 5 ) . U s e o f a l c o h o l a n d d ru g s b y s t u d e n t s i s a n o t h e r
d ime n sio n o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e .
Ah l s t u d e n t s a r e p o t e n t i a l l y a t r i s k f o r a l c o h o l a n d d ru g
use g i v e n t h e wid e s p re a d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f a l c o h o l , l e g a l a n d
i l l e g a l d ru g s . S e v e n t y p e rc e n t o f p u b l i c s c h o o l s t u d e n t s
and 5 2 p e r c e n t o f p r i v a t e s c h o o l s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t d ru g s
a re a v a i l a b l e a t t h e i r s c h o o l ( B a s t i a n a n d T a y l o r , 1 9 9 1 ) .
Ne a rlv 1 3 p e r c e n t o f e i g h t h -g ra d e rs , 2 3 p e r c e n t o f t e n t h -
g ra d e rs, a n d 3 0 p e rc e n t o f t w e l f t h - g r a d e r s h a d fi v e o r mo re
d r i n k s i n a r o w i n a t wo -we e k p e r i o d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 0 -9 1 s c h o o l
ye a r (J o h n s o n e t a l . , 1 9 9 2 ). R e s e a r c h fi n d i n g s d r a w h e a v i l y o n
the w o r k o f Ha wkin s a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s (1 9 9 2 ) w h i c h c a t e g o ri z e s
p s v c h o lo p ic a l, f a m i l y , a n d s c h o o l f
.
a c t o r s i n
r e l a t i o n s h i p
t o
a d o le sce n t u s e o f a l c o h o l a n d d ru g S . I n su mma ry:
I n d i v i d u a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d i n t e r t e r s o n a l f a c t o rs —
These i n c l u d e n e e d in g t h e a p p ro v a l o f o t h e r s ; l e t t i n g
o t h e rs make o n e ' s d e c i s i o n s ; b e i n g u n a s s e r t i v e ; h a v i n g
lo w s e l f - c o n fi d e n c e ; s h o w i n g e a r l y a g g re s s iv e o r
a n t i s o c i a l b e h a v i o r; l o w conmdtment t o s c h o o l ; a n d p o o r
sch o o l p e rf o rma n ce . O n e o f t h e s t r o n g e s t p r e d i c t o r s o f
d ru g u se b y t e e n s i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h d ru g -u s i n g p e e rs ,
as w e l l a s t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o w a rd d ru g s . B e g i n n i n g i n
th e l a t e e le me n t a ry g ra d e s, a c a d e mic f a i l u r e i n c re a s e s
th e r i s k o f b o t h d ru g u se a n d d e lin q u e n c y . C o n v e r s e l y ,
some o f t h e p r o t e c t i v e f a c t o r s t h a t a p p e a r t o b o l s t e r a
c h i l d ' s r e s i s t a n c e t o d ru g u s e a r e s e l f - c o n fi d e n c e ,
1
s t ro n g s o c i a l co mp e t e n cie s, p e e r s wh o v a l u e
a ch ie ve me n t, r e s p o n s i b l e b e h a v i o r, a n d c l e a r a d u l t
s u p e rv is io n (A s c h e r, 1 9 9 4 ) .
27
2. F a m i l v f a c t o rs — To le ra n c e o f a l c o h o l a n d d ru g a b u se b y
p a re n t s a n d o l d e r s i b l i n g s c a n b e compounded b y a
f a m i l y h i s t o r y o f a l c o h o l i s m , d r u g u s e , o r me n t a l
i l l n e s s , a n d p o o r f a m i l y management a n d p a re n t i n g
s k i l l s . I t i s c l e a r , h o we v e r, t h a t p a re n t s wh o a r e
c o n s id e ra t e a n d s u p p o rt i v e , y e t fi r m i n t h e i r b e l i e f s ,
seem t o p r o t e c t t h e i r a d o le s c e n t s f r o m d ru g u s e
(Baumrind, 1 9 9 1 ; Ha b e rma n , 1 9 9 4 ) .
3. S c h o o l f a c t o rs — S ch o o ls i n fl u e n c e y o u t h i n v a r i o u s wa ys
such a s s h a p in g t h e i r d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s , w i t h whom t h e y
i n t e r a c t , a n d t h e i r s e l f c o n c e p t s . W i t h t r a n s i t i o n t e
mid d le , j u n i o r a n d s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l , y o u t h e n t e r
p r o g r e s s i v e l y l e s s p r o t e c t e d s c h o o l e n v iro n me n t s
(O f fi c e o f T e c h n i c a l A s s i s t a n c e , 1 9 9 1 ; Ha n n a a n d
Maddalena, 1 9 9 5 ) . S c h o o l s c a n co mp e n sa te f o r t h i s
i n s t a b i l i t y b y g u i d i n g a n d s u p p o rt i n g s t u d e n t s d a i l y
s o c i a l , r e c r e a t i o n a l , a n d e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s ;
imp ro v in g t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t b y r e c o g n i z i n g a v a r i e t y
o f s t u d e n t a cco mp lish me n t s; a n d b y f a c i l i t a t i n g a
v a r i e t y o f s t u d e n t g ro u p in g s a n d i n t e r a c t i o n s (B e n a rd ,
1992; H a r r i s , 1 9 9 5 ). S t u d e n t s wh o l i k e s c h o o l a n d h a ve
a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t e a c h e rs a r e mo re l i k e l y t o
a cce p t a n d a d o p t n o n -u se p e e r n o rms t h a n t h o s e wh o d o
3)
4O
28
n o t . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e n u mb e r o f d r u g u s i n g f r i e n d s h a s
th e mo st d i r e c t i n fl u e n c e o n s t u d e n t s d r u g u se (R e í d ,
1989; Mo y e rs , 1 9 9 5 ). C o r r e c t i n g f o r e rro n e o u s
p e rc e p t io n s o f t h e p re v a le n c e a n d a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f d r u g
use among p e e rs i s c r i t i c a l (Ha n se n a n d Graham, 1 9 9 1 ;
Poland, 1 9 9 4 ) .
Benard (1 9 9 2 ) a n d A sh e r (1 9 9 4 ) i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e c h a l l e n g e
f o r t h e 1 9 9 0 s i s t o d e v e lo p a n d imp le me n t s t r a t e g i e s t h a t h e l p
vo u th su cce e d i n s t a y i n g d r u g - f r e e i n s p i t e o f a d v e rs e
c o n d it io n s i n t h e i r f a m i l i e s , s c h o o l s , a n d co min u n it ie s.
S u rra ry
The e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w p ro v i d e d a w e a l t h o f s c h o o l
v io le n c e i n f o r m a t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s in a d e q u a t e e m p i r i c a l
data t h a t r e l a t e s t h e r o s t p r e v a l e n t t e s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e
rro b le ms a n d p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e t o s t u d e n t p e rf o rma n ce
issu e s. M a n y A me rica n s b e l i e v e t h a t u rb a n s c h o o l s a r e f a i l i n g
to e d u ca t e s t u d e n t s t h e y s e r v e (E l a m e t a l . , 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 5 , 1 9 9 6 ,
and 1 9 9
-
/ ) .
T h e
i r
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p t i
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,
f
e
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o b s e rv a t io n s , i s t h a t u rb a n s t u d e n t s a c h ie v e l e s s i n s c h o o l,
a t t a i n l e s s e d u c a t io n , a n d e n c o u n t e r l e s s s u c c e s s i n t h e l a b o r
wa rke t i n l a t e r l i f e (Jo h n so n a n d Imme rwa h r, 1 9 9 4 ; S c h wa rt z ,
1996; USEd, NCES, C h a l l e n g e , 1 9 9 6 ; K n o x, 1 9 9 7 ) . H o w e v e r , r e c e n t
su rve y r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e t h r e a t e n s su b u rb a n a n d
r u r a l s c h o o l s i n s i m i l a r wa ys a s w e l l ( H a r r i s , 1 9 9 5 ; F l a n n e r y ,
1997).
29
A lth o u g h much mo re re s e a rc h i s n e e d e d i n t h e a re a o f s c h o o l
v io le n c e , t h e a cco mp lish me n t s o f t h e p a s t d e ca d e a r e re c o g n iz e d
and a p p re c ia t e d . T h e re s e a rc h e v id e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t s c h o o l s
co u ld d o mb re t o re d u c e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e b y c r e a t i n g n u r t u r i n g
l e a rn i n g e n v iro n me n t s (A s c h e r, 1 9 9 4 ) . I t i s i m p e r a t i v e t h a t
e d u ca t o rs u n d e rs t a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d
st u d e n t s a c a d e m i e a ch ie ve me n t e s p e c i a l l y i n s c h o o l s wh e re
v i o l e n c e p ro b le ms a r e mo s t p ro f o u n d ( C r a i g , 1 9 9 2 ) .
Th is s t u d y i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e n a t u r e o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e
e x i s t i n g b a se y e a r s t u d e n t d a t a f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l
E d u ca tio n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y o f 1 9 8 8 , (NE L S : 8 8 ), t o a n a ly z e t h e
p re va le n ce a n d p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e among e i g h t h -g ra d e
st u d e n t s (US E d , NCES, G u id e , 1 9 9 4 ). T h e r e s u l t s w i l l b e g le a n e d
te sh e d some l i g h t o n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s s u e s i n t h e n a t i o n ' s
sch o cis a n d t h e c o n n e c t io n t o s t u d e n t s ' e d u c a t i o n a l o u t co me s.
41
CHAPTER I I I
METHODS A ND PROCEDURES
42
30
The l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w d is c u s s e d i n Ch a p t e r I I p re s e n t e d
r e l a t e d a re a s o f r e s e a r c h t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e p ro b le ms a n d
c r i t i c a l i s s u e s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e . T h e r e s u l t i n g g a p s i n
e m o i r i c a l d a t a l i n k i n g s c h o o l v i o l e n c e t o s t u d e n t s a c a d e m i c
p e rfo rma n ce l e d t o t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
Data f o r t h i s s t u d y we re p ro v i d e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l E d u c a t io n
L o n g it u d in a l S t u d y o f 1 9 8 8 (NE L S : 8 8 ), a m a j o r d a t a b a se
a d min is t e re d b y t h e N a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r E d u c a t io n S t a t i s t i c s
(= E S ), U . S . De p a rt me n t o f E d u c a t io n (USEd, NCES, P ro g ra ms ,
1995; USEd, NCES, Re s e a rc h , 1 9 9 6 ) . A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f
1
,
Z
E
L
S
:
8
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i
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E
NSIS:ES E i c h t h Gra d e Q u e s t io n n a ire i s i n A p p e n d ix C. N E L S : 8 8
was co n d u ct e d o n a n a t i o n a l sa mp le o f s c h o o l s (n = 1 , 0 5 1 ) t h a t h a d
e ja h t h g ra d e rs (n = 2 4 , 5 9 9 ) d u r i n g t h e 1 9 8 8 -8 9 s c h o o l y e a r . D a t a
about t h e s c h o o l a n d s t u d e n t s we re c o l l e c t e d f r o m s c h o o l
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , p a r e n t s , t e a c h e r s , a n d s t u d e n t s . T h e o v e r a l l
response r a t e wa s o v e r 90%. S i n c e 1988, t h e r e h a ve b e e n t h r e e
f o l l o w -u p s t u d i e s t h a t g a t h e re d d a t a i n 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 2 , a n d 1 9 9 4 .
The n e x t f o l l o w - u p w i l l b e co n d u ct e d d u r i n g t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0 .
Subsamples o f b a se y e a r 1988 e i g h t h g ra d e rs ( f r e s h e n e d s t u d e n t s )
have b e e n a d d e d t o t h e sa mp le d u r i n g f o l l o w - u p s t u d i e s .
However, t h i s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n u se d s t u d e n t d a t a
fi l e s f r o m t h e b a se y e a r c o h o r t w h i c h i n c l u d e t h e f u l l o r i g i n a l
e ig h t h g ra d e sa mp le , i n t h e o r i g i n a l s c h o o l s s t u d i e d . A h l
methods a n d p ro c e d u re s we re we ig h t e d b y t h e b a se y e a r s u r v e y
31
we ig h t (BYQWT). T w o i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f NELS:88 d a t a make i t
d i f f e r e n t f r o m s i mp l e ra n d o m sa mp le d e s ig n : t h e u n e q u a l
p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f s e l e c t i o n , f o r e xa mp le , m i n o r i t i e s h a ve b e e n
oversampled, g i v i n g m i n o r i t i e s a h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y o f s e l e c t i o n
than n o n m i n o r i t i e s ; a n d t h e c l u s t e r e d n a t u re o f t h e d e s ig n s , f o r
example, s c h o o l s we re sa mp le d ( c l u s t e r s ) a n d t h e n s t u d e n t s ,
ra t h e r t h a n s i m p l y t a k i n g a sa mp le o f s t u d e n t s d i r e c t l y (USEd,
NCES, S e min a r, 1 9 9 6 ) .
In t h i s s t u d y , a n a l y t i c p ro ce d u re s u se d t h e S t a t i s t i c a l
Package f o r t h e S o c i a l S cie n ce s, (S P S S ), a fl e x i b l e c o mp u t e r
so f t wa re s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s a n d d a t a management s y s t e m (USEd,
NCES, SPSS, 1 9 9 6 ). S P S S t o o k d a t a f r o m NELS:88 p u b l i c fi l e s a n d
generated d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s a n d co mp le x s t a t i s t i c a l
re a re s s io n a n a ly s e s t o i n v e s t i g a t e 'th e re s e a rc h q u e s t io n s
examined i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . D e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s wa s u se d
to d e s c ri b e s t u d e n t s b a c k g r o u n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . R e g r e s s i o n
a n a ly s is wa s u se d t o me a su re t h e e f f e c t s o f s e l e c t e d s c h o o l
v io le n c e f a c t o r s o n s t u d e n t s ' a ca d e mic p e rf o rma n ce i n re a d i n g
and ma t h e ma t ics w h i l e c o n s i d e ri n g i m p o rt a n t b a ckg ro u n d a n d
sch o o l f a c t o r s .
D e fi n i t i o n o f Te rms
The f o l l o w i n g d e fi n i t i o n s p r o v i d e c l a r i t y f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g
NELS:88 d a t a i n t h i s s t u d y .
NELS:88--The N a t i o n a l E d u c a t io n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y o f 1 9 8 8 , t h e
e x i s t i n g d a t a b a se u t i l i z e d i n t h i s s t u d y f o r c r o s s -
s e c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f e i g h t h g ra d e rs o n l y , d u r i n g
the 1988 b a se y e a r (USEd, NCES, G u id e , 1 9 9 4 ) .
43
32
Re le va n t NELS:88 t e r m s :
A t - r i s k o f S c h o o l F a i l u r e - - A n e i g h t h g ra d e s t u d e n t i d e n t i fi e d a s
" a t r i s k " o f d ro p p in g o u t o f s c h o o l b a se d o n b a ckg ro u n d
and f a m i l y c irc u ms t a n c e s e x i s t i n g w h i l e i n e i g h t h g ra d e .
Fa ct o rs c o n s t i t u t i n g r i s k : wh e t h e r t h e s t u d e n t l i v e d i n a
s i n g l e -p a re n t f a m i l y ; wa s f r o m a f a m i l y w i t h a n a n n u a l
income o f l e s s t h a n $ 1 5 ,0 0 0 ; h a d a n o l d e r s i b l i n g who h a d
dropped o u t o f s c h o o l ; h a d p a re n t s wh o d i d n o t fi n i s h h i g h
sch o o l; h a d l i m i t e d p r o fi c i e n c y i n E n g l i s h ; a n d / o r wa s a t
home w i t h o u t a d u l t s u p e r v i s i o n mo re t h a n t h r e e h o u rs a d a y.
O v e ra ll, 5 5 p e rc e n t o f NELS:88 p a r t i c i p a n t s sh o we d n o a t -
r i s k f a c t o r s , 2 5 p e rc e n t h a d o n e , a n d a l mo s t o n e - fi f t h , ( 1 9
p e rce n t ) h a d t wo o r mo re (USEd, NCES, S e min a r, 1 9 9 6 ).
Base Y e a r S u rv e y --Co h o rt o f 2 5 ,0 0 0 (3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 i n u n i v e rs e )
e ig h t h g ra d e rs s u rv e y e d n a t io n wid e d u r i n g s p r i n g 1988 i n
1,000 (4 0 , 0 0 0 i n u n iv e rs e ) s c h o o l s (8 0 0 p u b l i c a n d 200
r r i v a t e ) .
B ia s (d u e t o n o n re s p o n s e )--Dif f e re n c e t h a t o c c u rs when
re sp o n d e n ts d i f f e r a s a g ro u p f r o m n o n re sp o n d e n ts o n a
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b e in g s t u d i e d . F o r NELS:88, t h e o v e r a l l
u n i t re sp o n se i s h i g h (9 3 . 4 p e rc e n t f o r s t u d e n t s a n d 9 8 . 9
p e rce n t f o r s c h o o ls ) w h i c h le s s e n s t h e p ro b le m o f
nonresponse b i a s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , NEL S:8 8 a p p l i e s
re we ig h t in g a d ju s t me n t t o re d u ce n o n re sp o n se b i a s wh ic h
se rve s t o a l l e v i a t e t h e b i a s p ro b le m (USEd, NCES, S t u d e n t ,
1990; USEd, NCES, S c h o o l, 1 9 9 0 ).
44
33
Cro s s -S e c t io n a l A n a ly s is --Re p re s e n t s e v e n t s a t a s i n g l e p o i n t i n
t ime ( e i g h t h g ra d e rs i n 1 9 8 8 ).
E l e c t r o n i c Code Bo o k (ECIE1)--A syst e m L i l e o f s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l e s
g e n e ra te d t h ro u g h a s o f t w a re p a cka g e u s i n g t h e NELS:88
P u b lic Use CID-ROM t o p e rf o rm q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a ly s e s .
F a c t o r--A v a r i a b l e h yp o t h e sí ze d t o a f f e c t o r ca u se a n o t h e r
v a r i a b l e o r v a r i a b l e s ; a n in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e .
I n cid e n ce T h e n u mb e r o f a c t s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e p e r s t u d e n t o r
sch o o l d u r i n g a s p e c i fi c p e r i o d o f t i m e .
I n c í d e n t --A s p e c i fi c s c h o o l v í o l e n c e a c t i n v o l v i n g o n e o r mo re
v i c t i m s a n d o n e o r mo re o f f e n d e rs .
P re va le n ce --Th e p e rc e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n d i r e c t l y p a r t í c i p a t í n g
in some sO h o o l v i o l e n c e a c t a g a i n s t s c h o o l r e g u l a t i o n s
w i t h i n a g i v e n p e r i o d o f t i m e .
Ra c e / E t h n ic it y --A me ric a n I n d i a n o r A la s k a N a t i v e ; A s i a n
P a c i fi c I s l a n d e r ; B l a c k , n o n -H i s p a n i c ; H i s p a n i c ; a n d
Wh ite , n o n -H i s p a n i c .
School V i o l e n c e P e rce p tio n --FP E RCV IO: F a c t o r s c a l e f o r
st u d e n t s p e r c e p t i o n o f v i o l e n t a c t s i n s c h o o l s o r o n
sch o o l campuses a s s e r i o u s , mo d e ra t e , m i n o r , o r n o
p ro b le m; r e p r e s e n t s e i g h t o r i g i n a l v a r i a b l e s .
School V í o le n c e P e rs o n a l B e h a vio r--FS E L FV IO: F a c t o r s c a l e f o r
st u d e n t s' r e p o r t o f p e rs o n a l d i s r u p t i v e v i o l e n t a c t i o n s
co mmitte d i n s c h o o ls o r o n s c h o n l ca mp u se s; r e p r e s e n t s
t h re e o r i g i n a l v a r i a b l e s .
School V i o l e n c e V ic t imiz a t io n --FV CTMV I O : F a c t o r s c a l e f o r
st u d e n t s' r e p o r t o f h a v in g e x p e rie n c e d d í r e c t p e rs o n a l
45
34
t h re a t s o r h a rm a t s c h o o l; r e p r e s e n t s t h r e e o r i g i n a l
v a r i a b l e s .
Student A ch ie ve me n t --S t u d e n t s r e a d i n g a n d ma t h e ma t ics s c o re s o n
c o g n i t i v e t e s t s co n d u ct e d b y NELS:88.
U r b a n i c i t y - - C l a s s i fi c a t i o n f o r t h e l o c a t i o n o f s c h o o l s w i t h
e ig h t h g ra d e c la s s ro o ms c r e a e d f r o m Q u a l i t y E d u ca t io n Da t a
f ro m t h e F e d e ra l I n f o r m a t i o n P ro c e s s in a S t a n d a rd s u se d b y
th e U. S . B u re a u o f t h e Ce n su s: Urb a n — c e n t r a l c i t y ;
Suburban — a re a s u rro u n d in g a c e n t r a l c i t y w i t h i n a c o u n t y
c o n s t i t u t l n g t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n S t a t i s t i c a l A re a (MS A );
Ru ra l — o u t s i d e t h e MSA.
We a p o n s--De vice s u se d w i t h t h e i n t e n t o f i n fl i c t i n g h a r m .
We ig h t—Th e b a se y e a r me a su re (BYQWT) f o r t h e s t u d e n t sa mp le
a p p lie d t o a n a ly s e s t o p ro d u ce n a t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n
e s t ima t e s a n d re d u ce b i a s . T h e g e n e ra l p u lp o s e o f
we ig h t in g s u rv e y d a t a i s t o compensate f o r u n e q u a l
p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f s e l e c t i o n a n d t o a d j u s t f o r t h e e f f e c t s o f
nonresponse. F o r e xa mp le , 2 4 , 5 9 9 (ro u n d e d t o 2 5 , 0 0 0 ) b a s e
ye a r s t u d e n t s re p re s e n t 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 e i g h t h g ra d e rs e n r o l l e d
i n 5 , 0 0 0 s c h o o l s n a t io n wid e i n 1 9 8 8 .
Research Q u e st io n s a n d Hyp o th e se s
The f o l l o w i n g re s e a rc h q u e s t io n s we re e xa min e d :
1. W h a t i s t h e n a t u re o f v i o l e n c e i n s c h o o l s e t t i n g s i n u rb a n ,
suburban, a n d r u r a l co mmu n it ie s?
a. W h a t a r e t h e mo st p r e v a l e n t t y p e s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i n
46
Methods o f A n a l y s i s
47
35
f o u r t y p e s o f s c h o o l s : p u b l i c , C a t h o l i c , n o n - s e c t a r i a n
p r i v a t e , a n d o t h e r p r i v a t e r e l i g i o u s s c h o o ls ?
Stu d e n ts d e s c ri b e d t h e d e g re e o f v i o l e n c e p ro b le ms i n
t h e i r s c h o o ls a s s e r i o u s , mo d e ra t e , m i n o r , a n d n o t a
p ro b le m f o r t h r e e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e me a su re s: p e rs o n a l
. b e h a vio r, v i c t i m i z a t i o n , . a n d p e rc e p t i o n o f v i o l e n c e .
b. W h a t a r e t h e p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l V i o l e n c e among e i g h t h
g ra d e rs b y s t u d e n t b a ckg ro u n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : s e x ,
r a c e / e t h n i c i t y , s o c io -e c o n o mic q u a r t i l e , a n d f a m i l y
income; b y s c h o o l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : s c h o o l t y p e , s c h o o l
p o v e rt y i n d i c a t o r ( p e r c e n t o f s t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n
a f r e e o r re d u ce d l u n c h p ro g ra m), a n d p e rc e n t o f
m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g a s c h o o l?
2. W h a t i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f s c h o o l
v io le n c e p ro b le ms t o s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n re a d in g a n d
mathemazics?
N u l l Hy p o t h e s is I . T h e r e w i l l b e n o s i g n i fi c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n
st u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t re g a rd i n g t h e mo st
p re v a le n t t y p e s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e .
N u l l Hy Do t h e s is I I . T h e r e w i l l b e n o s i g n i fi c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n
stu d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n p u b l i c , O a t h o l i c ,
n o n -s e c t a ria n p r i v a t e , a n d o t h e r p r i v a t e
r e l i g i o u s s c h o o ls wh e re s c h o o l v i o l e n c e
o ccu rs.
Samole
NELS:88 i n i t i a t e d a t wo -s t a g e s t r a t i fi e d p r o b a b i l i t y
sa mp lin g d e s ig n t o s e l e c t a n a t i o n a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sa mp le o f
sch o o ls (n = 1 , 0 5 1 ) t h a t h a d e i g h t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s (n = 2 4 , 5 9 9 )
d u rin g t h e 1 9 8 8 -8 9 s c h o o l y e a r . O n a ve ra g e , e a c h s c h o o l wa s
re p re se n t e d b y 2 5 co -L
-
e s t u d e n t s
r a n d o m l
y
s e l e c
t e d
f r
o m
e i g
h t h
grade s c h o o l r o s t e r s ; t w o t e a c h e rs f o r e a ch s t u d e n t ; a n d o n e
p a re n t p e r e i g h t h g ra d e r. H i s p a n i c a n d A s i a n s t u d e n t s we re
o ve rsa mp le d t o p e r m i t a n a l y s i s o f t h e p e rf o rma n ce o f la n g u a g e
m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s
languaae m i n o r i t y
about t h e NELS:88
T a
.
b l
e
1
V a ri a b l e
Male
Female
Re f u sa l
Mis s in g
T o t a l
r e s u l t i n g i n
st u d e n t s p e r
a u g me n ta tio n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 -3
sch o o l. Te c h n ic a l i n f o /
36
ma t io n
d a ta b a se c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e NELS:88 U s e r ' s
Manuals (USEd, 1 9 9 0 , NCES S c h o o l; USEd, 1 9 9 0 , NCES S t u d e n t ).
Ta b le 1 p r e s e n t s sa mp le d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s e n s t u d e n t s '
background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : s e x , r a c e / e t h n i c i t y , s c h o o l t y p e ,
c i t y t y p e , f a m i l y in co me , s t u d e n t s ' s o c i o -e c o n o mi c s t a t u s
a u a r t i l e , p e r c e n t o f s t u d e n t s r e c e i v i n g f r e e o r re d u c e d lu n c h ,
and D e rc e n t o f m i n o r i t y i n s t u d e n t s s c h o o l .
E ic h t h Gra d e S t u d e n t s b v S e le c t e d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : 1 9 8 8
Number P e r c e n t
14,923
14,892
9
257
30,081
48
Sex
49.6
49.5
.0
.9
100.0
Note. ( n = 2 4 , 5 9 9 S t u d e n t s ), R e p re s e n t i n g (N=3 0 , 0 8 1 S t u d e n t s )
(t a b l e c o n t in u e s )
Ta b le 1 (c o n t i n u e d )
V a ria b le Number P e r c e n t
R a c e / e t h n i c i t y
A sia n P a c i fi c i s . 1 , 0 4 2 3 . 5
Hisp a n ic 3 , 0 8 9 . 1 0 . 3
B la ck n o n -h is p a n ic 3 , 9 3 2 1 3 . 1
Wh ite n o n -h is p a n ic 2 0 , 3 8 1 6 7 . 7
American I n d i a n 1 , 2 6 2 4 . 2
Mu lt i-re s p o n s e 5 9 . 2
Re fu sa l 6 4 . 2
M' s s ' n a 2 5 2 . 8
To t a l 3 0 , 0 8 1 1 0 0 . 0
School t y p e
P u b lic 2 6 , 4 5 8 8 8 . 0
C a t h o l i c 2 , 2 8 3 7 . 6
P
,
-
i
v
a
t
e
O
t
h
e
r
R
e
l
i
a
i
o
u
s
8
7
5
P riv a t e No n -Re lig io u s 4 6 5 1 . 5
T o t a l 3 0 , 0 8 1 1 0 0 . 0
C i t y t y p e
Urban 7 , 5 6 0 2 5 . 1
Suburban 1 3 , 1 1 7 4 3 . 6
Ru ra l 9 , 4 0 4 3 1 . 3
To t a l 3 0 , 0 8 1 1 0 0 . 0
Note. ( n = 2 4 , 5 9 9 S t u d e n t s ), Re p re s e n t in g (N=3 0 , 0 8 1 S t u d e n t s)
49
37
(t a b l e c o n t in u e s )
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
School Violence and student
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Separation of Lanthanides/ Lanthanides and Actinides
 

School Violence and student

  • 1. 1 ABSTRACT DOCUMENT RESUME ED 4 3 0 0 6 4 U D 0 3 2 9 0 6 AUTHOR C o l e m a n , B e v e r l y E u g e n e TI TL E S c h o o l V i o l e n c e a n d S t u d e n t A c h ie v e m e n t i n R e a d i n g a n d Ma t h e ma t ic s a mo n g E i g h t h G r . a d e r s . PUB DATE 1 9 9 8 - 0 4 - 0 0 NOTE 1 4 8 p , ; P h . D . D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s a t Urb a n a -Ch a mp a ig n . PUB TYPE D i s s e r t a t i o n s / T h e s e s - D o c t o r a l D i s s e r t a t i o n s ( 0 4 1 ) - - T e s t s / Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ( 1 6 0 ) EDRS P RI CE M F 0 1 / P 0 0 6 P l u s P o s t a g e . DESCRIPTORS A c a d e m i c A c h ie v e m e n t ; B e h a v i o r P a t t e r n s ; * G r a d e 8 ; * J u n i o r Hig h S c h o o l S t u d e n t s ; J u n i o r H i g h S c h o o l s ; * M a t h e m a t i c s A c h ie v e me n t ; Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ; * R e a d i n g A c h i e v e m e n t ; * S c h o o l S a f e t y ; S t u d e n t A t t i t u d e s ; V i c t i m s o f C r i m e ; * V i o l e n c e I DENTI FI ERS N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y 1 9 8 8 Th i s s t u d y a n a l y z e d b a s e - y e a r s t u d e n t d a t a fi l e s f r o m t h e 1988 N a t i o n a l E d u c a t i o n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y (NE L S : 8 8 ) c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l l y t o i d e n t i f y r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d s t u d e n t a c h i e v e m e n t i n r e a d i n g a n d m a t h e m a t i c s . T h e a n a l y s i s i d e n t i fi e d s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o t h r e e me a s u re s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e : ( 1 ) p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r , s u c h a s b e i n g s e n t t o t h e o f fi c e f o r m i s b e h a v i n g , p a r e n t s b e i n g w a r n e d a b o u t b e h a v i o r , o r fi g h t i n g w i t h o t h e r s t u d e n t s ; ( 2 ) v i c t i m i c a t i o n , w h e t h e r h a v i n g s o me t h in g s t o l e n , r e c e i v i n g a d r u g o f f e r , r e c e i v i n g t h r e a t s o r h a r m ; a n d ( 3 ) p e r c e p t i o n o f v i o l e n c e i n d i c a t e d b y s t u d e n t r e s p o n s e s t o h o w t h e y p e r c e i v e d v i o l e n c e p r o b l e m s i n t h e i r s c h o o l . B a c k g r o u n d v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e a n a ly s e s w e r e s e x , r a c e / e t h n i c i t y , s o c i o e c o n o m i c s t a t u s q u a r t i l e , s c h o o l t y p e ( p u b l i c , C a t h o l i c , o t h e r r e l i g i o u s p r i v a t e , n o n r e l i g i o u s p r i v a t e ) , a n d s c h o o l c ommunit y l o c a t i o n ( u r b a n , s u b u r b a n , a n d r u r a l ) . A s s o c i a t i o n s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e me a s u re s p l u s s t u d e n t b a c k g r o u n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o n s t u d e n t a c h ie v e me n t s h o w t h a t w h e n t h e i n c i d e n c e o f n e g a t i v e p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r in c r e a s e s , t h e r e i s a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t o n a c h i e v e m e n t . S t u d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g v i c t i m i z a t i o n a n d s t u d e n t s p e r c e p t i o n s o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e i r s c h o o l s s h o w l o w e r l e v e l s o f e f f e c t o n a c h i e v e m e n t . I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s c h o o l p r a c t i c e s a n d s u g g e s t io n s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h a r e d i s c u s s e d . T h r e e a p p e n d i x e s c o n t a i n s ummaries o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e r e p o r t s , a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e NE L S : 8 8 , a n d t h e NELS:88 e i g h t h g r a d e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . ( C o n t a i n s 1 4 t a b l e s a n d 1 3 8 r e f e r e n c e s . ) (SLD) * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * R e p r o d u c t i o n s s u p p l i e d b y EDRS a r e t h e b e s t t h a t c a n b e made f r o m t h e o r i g i n a l d o c u m e n t . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
  • 2. SCHOOL VI OLENCE AND STUDENT ACHI EVEMENT I N READI NG AND MATHEMATICS AMONG EI GHTH GRADERS BY BEVERLY EUGENE COLEMAN E S . , S o u t h e r n I l l i n o i s U n i v e r s i t y a t C a r b o n d a l e , 1 9 6 1 Un. ' _v ers it y o t I l l i n o i s a t Ur b a n a - Ch a mn a i g n , 1 9 6 5 THESI S S u b m i t t e d i n p a r t i a l f u l fi l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s t o r t h e d e g r e e o f D o c t o r o f P h i l o s o p h y i n E d u c a t i o n i n t h e G r a d u a t e Co 1 1 e g e o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s a t Urbana-Champaign, 1 9 9 8 Co¿ c - P 0 A ) Urbana, I l l i n o i s UESTCOPY AVAILABLE U S DEE'ARTME NI OF EDUCATIO N tiliCAlIDNAL RESO URCE S INFORMATION 0 .c emuFfi Emr, b r o n r p r , , t t lu , C , , O d 1 , 0 r , I P w p e , N o O • 1 11,1'• • V • R n n t , nl o p r p o i , sialo d n Ilirs <Int n n i .1P. i y 1 1 . 1 , r . o , n t litI I I p . , • , . b o o l l O p t p l i t y E D 4 3 0 0 6 4
  • 3. UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN HEREPS RE CO MME ND T H A T THE THESI S BY •; ;si 1, i., THE GRADUATE COLLEGE BEVERLY EUGENE COLEMAN APRIL 1 9 9 8 (date) SCHOOL VIOLENCE AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT I N READING AND !'1AIHEMATICS AMONG EIGHTH GRADERS P A R - H A L F U L F I L L . M . E N T O F T H E R E ( 2 1 ' I R E M E N T S F O R o • o t , Final Examinationf DOCTOR O F PH1LOSOPHY - Htquired kr docu•r•!- degree but not for master's. lÁ•UdjÁ, hairpern Director of Thesi Researci. ead ot Lppartment BEsr COPYAVAILABLE
  • 4. SCHOOL VIOLENCE AND STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT I N READING AND MATHEMATICS AMONG EIGHTH GRADERS B e v e rly Eugene Coleman, P h . D . Co lle g e o f E d u c a t io n U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s a t Urb a n a -Ch a mp a ig n , 1 9 9 8 F re d e ric k A . Ro d g e rs, A d v i s e r Base y e a r s t u d e n t d a t a fi l e s f r o m t h e 1988 N a t i o n a l E d u ca tio n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y (NEL S:8 8 ) w e r e a n a ly z e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l l y t o i d e n t i f y r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e twe e n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e and s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n re a d i n g a n d ma t h e ma t ics. T h e a n a ly s is i d e n t i fi e d s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o t h r e e measures o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e : p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r - - s e n t t o o f fi c e f o r misb e h a vin g , p a r e n t s wa rn e d a b o u t b e h a v io r, fi g h t i n g w i t h o t h e r s z u d e n t s ; v i c t i m i z a t i o n — h a d so me t h in g s t o l e n , r e c e i v e d druz, o f f e r , r e c e i v e d t h r e a t s o r h a rm; a n d p e rc e p t i o n o f v i c l e n c e — (s t u d e n t s re sp o n d e d t o h o w t h e y b e rc e iv e d v i o l e n c e p ro b le ms i n t h e i r s c h o o l a s s e r i o u s , mo d e ra t e , m i n o r , o r n o rrc ' t le mj s u c h a s p h v s i c a l c o n fl i c t s a mo n g s t u d e n t s , ro b b e ry t h e f t , v a n d a l i s m o f s c h o o l p r o p e r t y , u s e o f a l c o h o l a n d d ru cs, p o s s e s s i o n o f weapons, p h y s i c a l a n d v e r b a l a b u se o f le a ch e rs. B a c k g r o u n d v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s : s e x , r a c e . e t h n i c i t y , s o c io -e c o n o mic s t a t u s q u a r t i l e , s c h o o l t y p e (p u b lic , C a t h o l i c , o t h e r r e l i g i o u s p r i v a t e , n o n - r e l i g i o u s p r i v a t e ) , a n d s c h o o l co mmu n it y l o c a t i o n (u rb a n , su b u rb a n , r u r a l ) . A s s o c i a t i o n s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e me a su re s p l u s s t u d e n t background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o n s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t showed t h a t '.:}en t h e i n c i d e n c e o f n e g a t iv e p e rs o n a l b e h a v i o r in c re a s e d , t h e re wa s a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t o n a ch ie ve me n t . S t u d e n t s e x p e rie n c in g v i c t i m i z a t i o n a n d s t u d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n o f v i o l e n c e
  • 5. i n t h e i r s c h o o ls showed l o w e r l e v e l s o f e f f e c t o n a ch ie ve me n t . I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s c h o o l p r a c t i c e s a n d s u g g e s t io n s f o r f u t u r e re se a rch a r e d is c u s s e d .
  • 6. ©Co p yrig h t b y B e v e r l y Eudene Coleman, 1 9 9 8 (3
  • 7. 1 i i i ABSTRACT Th is s t u d y a n a ly z e d b a se y e a r s t u d e n t d a t a fi l e s f r o m t h e 1988 N a t i o n a l E d u c a t io n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y (NE L S :8 8 ) c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l l y t o i d e n t i f y r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e twe e n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e and s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n re a d i n g a n d ma t h e ma t ics. T h e a n a l y s i s i d e n t i fi e d s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o t h r e e measures o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e : p e r s o n a l b e n a v i o r - - s e n t t o o f fi c e f o r misb e h a vin g , p a r e n t s wa rn e d a b o u t b e h a v i o r, fi g h t i n g w i t h o t h e r s t u d e n t s ; v i c t i m i z a t i o n — h a d so me t h in g s t o l e n , r e c e i v e d drug o f f e r , r e c e i v e d t h r e a t s o r h a rm; a n d p e rc e p t í o n o f v í o l e n c e - - ( s t u d e n t s re sp o n d e d t o h o w t h e y p e rc e i v e d v í o l e n c e o ro b le ms i n t h e í r s c h o o l a s s e r í o u s , mo d e ra t e , m í n o r , o r n o such a s p h y s i c a l c o n fl i c t s a mo n g s t u d e n t s , r o b b e r y i t h e f t , v a n d a l i s m o f s c h o o l ip ro p e rt y , u s e o f a l c o h o l a n d d ru o s, D o s s e s s i o n o f weapons, p h y s i C a l a n d v e r b a l a b u se o f t e a ch e rs. B a c k g r o u n d v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e a n a l y s í s : s e x , ra ze e : h n i c i t y , s o c i o -e c o n o mi c s t a t u s q u a r t i l e , s c h o o l t y p e (p u b lic , C a t h o l í c , o t h e r r e l i g i o u s p r í v a t e , n o n - r e l i g i o u s p r í v a t e ) , a n d s c h o o l co mmu n it y l o c a t i o n (u rb a n , s u b u rb a n , r u r a l ) . A s s o c i a t i o n s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e me a su re s p l u s s t u d e n t background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o n s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t sh o we d t h a t when t h e i n c i d e n c e o f n e g a t i v e p e rs o n a l b e h a v i o r in c re a s e d , t h e re wa s a n e g a t í v e e f f e c t o n a ch ie ve me n t . S t u d e n t s e xp e rí e n cin g v i c t i m i z a t i o n a n d s t u d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n o f v i o l e n c e in t h e i r s c h o o l s sh o we d l o w e r l e v e l s o f e f f e c t o n a ch ie ve me n t . I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s c h o o l p r a c t í c e s a n d s u g g e s t io n s f o r f u t u r e re se a rch a r e d is c u s s e d .
  • 8. i v DEDI CAT ION My wo rk i s d e d ic a t e d t o t h e l o v i n g memory o f Mamma A d d ie , my mo t h e r, A d d i e M o r r i s Coleman Go ss, wh o se s p i r i t u a l g u id a n ce , encouracement_ a n d i n s p i r a t i o n a r e w i t h me f o r e v e r .
  • 9. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS There a r e s e v e r a l p e o p le wh o we re o f g r e a t a s s i s t a n c e d u r i n g the p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s t h e s i s . I a m e x t r e m e l y g r a t e f u l t o my Ma jo r P r o f e s s o r , D r . F r e d e r i c k A . Ro d g e rs . H i s t h o u g h t f u l g u id a n ce a n d a s s i s t a n c e wa s i n y a l u a b l e i n t h e u n d e r t a k i n g a n d co mp le t io n o f t h i s s t u d y . I wo u ld a l s o l i k e t o t h a n k t h e members o f my Co mmit t e e , D r s . A d e l e P r o c t o r , T e d Ma n o la ke s, Th o ma s McGre a l, a n d W i l l i a m T r e n t . I a l s o wa n t t o t h a n k M r s . J o a n Tru mb le , D r s . O l i v e r Mo le s , a n d P a t r i c i a Da b b s f o r b a ckg ro u n d m a t e r i a l s ; D r s . S a m Peng, T a i Ph a n , a n d K a r l Boughan f o r g u id a n ce w i t h d a t a a n a l y s i s a n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ; M r s . B e t s y I n fl e s f o r l o g i s t i c a l a s s i s t a n c e ; a n d Mrs . E v e l y n G ra d y f o r h e r a s s i s t a n c e w i t h t e c h n i c a l e d i t i n g a n d fi n a l p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s d o cu me n t. Most o f a h , I wa n t t o t h a n k my f a m i l y . M y e d u c a t i o n a n d t h i s st u d y wo u ld n o t h a v e b e e n p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t t h e i r p a t i e n c e , encouraaement, s u p p o r t , a n d l o v e . T h is t h e s i s i s i n t e n d e d t o p ro mo t e t h e e xch a n g e o f i d e a s among r e s e a r c h e r s , p o l i c y m a k e r s , a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s . T h e v i e w s e xp re sse d i n i t a r e p a r t o f o n g o in g r e s e a r c h a n d a n a l y s i s a n d d o not n e c e s s a r i l y r e fl e c t t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s Department o f E d u c a t i o n . 9
  • 10. v i TABLE O F CONTENTS L I S T OF TABLES v i i i CHAPTER I NTRODUCTI ON 1 B a c k g r o u n d 1 D e s c r i p t i o n o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e 7 S t a t e me n t o f t h e P r o b l e m 8 P u r p o s e o f t h e S t u d y 9 S i g n i fi c a n c e o f t h e S t u d y 1 0 Re s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s 1 1 O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e T h e s i s 1 2 REVIEW O F THE LI TERATURE 1 4 The P r e v a l e n c e o f S c h o o l V i o l e n t e 1 4 R e l a t e d A r e a s o f Re s e a r c E 2 2 Summary 2 8 I I I ME THO DS AND PROCEDURES 3 0 D e fi n i t i o n o f Te r ms 3 1 Re s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s a n d Hy p o t h e s e s 3 4 Me t h o d s o f A n a l y s i s 3 5 L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S t u d y 4 6 I V R E S U L T S AND DI SCUSSI ON 4 8 Re s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s 4 8 I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e F i n d i n g s 5 9 y S U M M A R Y , CONCLUSI ONS, I MP L I CA TI O NS , RE CO MME NDA TI O NS 6 6 Summary a n d C o n c l u s i o n s 6 6 I m p l i c a t i o n s 6 8
  • 11. v i i CHAPTER V s u m n k R y , CONCLUSI ONS, I MP L I CA TI O NS , RECOMMENDATI ONS ( c o n t i n u e d ) Re c o mme n d a t i o n s 7 0 D i r e c t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r R e s e a r c h 7 3 REFERENCES 7 6 APPENDI X SUMMARIES O F I MPORTANT SCHOOL VI OLENCE REPORTS 9 6 DESCRI PTI ON OF THE NATI ONAL EDUCATI ON LONGI TUDI NAL STUDY O F 1 9 8 8 ( NE L S : 8 8 ) 1 0 1 NELS: 88 E I G HTH GRADE QUESTI ONNAI RE 1 0 4 1 3 3
  • 12. 1O LIST OF TABLES mable P a g e 1 E i g h t h Gra d e S t u d e n t s b y S e le c t e d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : 1988 3 6 2 I n d e p e n d e n t V a r i a b l e I t e ra s 4 3 3 S c h o o l V i o l e n c e F a c t o r S c a le s 4 4 4 P r e v a l e n c e o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e P ro b le ms - S t u d e n t s ' P e rce p t io n 4 9 A s s o c ia t io n Be twe e n L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s - S t u d e n t P h y s i c a l C o n fl i c t s 5 2 6 A s s o c i a t i o n Between L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s R o b b e r y / T h e f t a t School 5 3 A s s o c ia t io n Between L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s - V a n d a lis m o f S c h o o l P ro p e rt y 5 4 E A s s o c i a t i o n Be twe e n L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s - V e r b a l Ab u se o f Te a c h e - rs 5 5 9 A s s o c i a t i o n Be twe e n L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s - S t u d e n t P o s s e s s io n o f eapons 5 6 A s s o c ia t io n Between L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e B e h a vio rs a n d S c h c , o 1 T y p e s - P h y s i c a l A b u s e o f Teachers 5 7 11 A s s o c i a t i o n Between L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s - S t u d e n t Use o f A lc o h o l 5 8 A s s o c ia t io n Be twe e n L e v e l s o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e B e h a vio rs a n d S ch o o l Typ e s - S t u d e n t Use o f I l l e g a l Substances 5 3 13 V a r i a b l e Co d in g , S t a n d a rd i z e d Re g re s s io : C o e f fi c i e n t s and t S co re s f o r In d e p e n d e n t V a r i a b l e s 5 9 14 T o t a l V a ri a n c e b y R S q u a re S co re s a n d S t a n d a rd iz e d Re g re ssio n C o e f fi c i e n t s 6 3 v i i i
  • 13. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1 Background Over t h e p a s t d e ca d e , v i o l e n c e i n A me ric a h a s s t e a d i l y in cre a se d , s p r e a d i n g a n d p e n e t r a t i n g n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y wh ic h h a s a ra d u a l l y d e cre a se d c i t i z e n s ' c o n fi d e n c e i n t h e a b i l i t y t o p ro t e ce t h e i r f a m i l i e s a n d c o mmu n it ie s . F o r t h e fi r s t t i m e sin ce t h e 1 9 7 0 s, t h e i n c i d e n c e o f v i o l e n t a c t s a g a i n s t s t r a n g e r s o ccu rs mo re f r e g u e n t l y t h a n v i o l e n c e b e twe e n i n d i v i d u a l s wh o know e a ch o t h e r (Hu g h e s a n d Ha sb ro u k, 1 9 9 6 ) . A m e r i c a , t h e p r e - e min e n t m i l i t a r y p o we r, i s a t - r i s k b e ca u se o f t h e o n s la u g h t o f v i o l e n : i n c i d e n t s i n v a d i n g e v e r y p h a se o f d a i l y l i f e i n u rb a n , suburban, a n d r u r a l l o c a l e s ( C e p e r l e y a n d S imo n , 1 9 9 4 ; B a l l a r d 1996; Ho f f ma n , 1 9 9 6 ). V i o l e n c e a n d t ra u ma i n u rb a n n e ich b o rh o o d c o mmu n it ie s c r e a t e d e s t r u c t i o n a t u n s a f e l e v e l s th a z i m b a c t t h e s c h o o l l e a r n i n g e n v iro n me n t i n u rb a n s c h o o l s . Hia h l e v e s o f u rb a n unemployment a n d p o v e r t y h a ve b e e n c i z e d a s causes (K o b e r, 1 9 9 4 ; USEd, NCES, Ch a lle n g e , 1 9 9 6 ) . S i n c e t h e la ce 1 9 8 0 s , t r e n d s s h o w t h a t u r b a n p a trauma a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y b e in g r e fl e c t e d i n su b u rb a n a n d r u r a l co mmu n itie s a s w e l l ; h o we v e r, l e s s i s known a b o u t ca u se s (K a d e l and F o llma n , 1 9 9 3 ; Ha b e rma n , 1 9 9 4 ; L a rs o n , 1 9 9 4 ; S h a n ke r, 1 9 9 5 ; B a l l a r d a n d McCoy, 1 9 9 6 ) . I n o r d e r t o kn o w mo re a b o u t s c h o o l v io le n c e , m o r e e n lig h t e n me n t a b o u t v i o l e n c e i n g e n e ra l i s re q u ire d . I n c r e a s i n g l y , s c h o o l s o u t s i d e u rb a n a re a s a r e n o l o n g e r t h e sa fe h a ve n s t h e y o n ce we re . S c h o o l s t h ro u g h o u t A me ric a a r e
  • 14. a t - r i s k o f n o l o n g e r b e i n g p l a c e s wh e re s t u d e n t s a r e f r e e t o d e ve lo p a n d l e a r n t h e s k i l l s r e q u i r e d t o become s u c c e s s f u l , p ro d u c t i v e , a n d c o n t r i b u t i n a c i t i z e n s ( W a l k e r a n d Gre sh a m, 1997). A 1 9 9 3 N a t i o n a l S c h o o l B o a rd s A s s o c i a t i o n (NSBA) s t u d y re p o rt e d t h a t o f 7 2 0 s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , 8 2 p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d a n in c re a s e i n v i o l e n c e o v e r t h e p a s t fi v e y e a r s , a c r o s s a h l g e o g ra p h ic a r e a s ( N a t i o n a l S c h o o l B o a rd s A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 9 9 3 ) . D a i l y , n e w s me d ia r e p o r t s s u p p o r t t h e s e t r e n d s . F o r e xa mp le , two w i d e l y r e p o r t e d h i g h s c h o o l s h o o t i n g i n c i d e n t s , e a c h b y a st u d e n t gunman, o c c u r r e d d u r i n g f a l l o f t h e 1 9 9 7 -9 8 s c h o o l y e a r . I n e a r l y O c t o b e r 1 9 9 7 , a ma l e s t u d e n t a t P e a r l H i g h S c h o o l, lo c a t e d i n a s u b u rb a n c o mmu n it y o u t s i d e J a c k s o n , M i s s i s s i p p i , was c h a rg e d w i t h t h e s h o o t i n g d e a t h s o f t w o s t u d e n t s a n d w i t h wounding s e v e r a l mo re s t u d e n t s . F i v e o t h e r P e a r l H i g h ma le st u d e n t s a n d o n e m a l e g ra d u a t e o f t h e s c h o o l w e r e s u b s e q u e n t l y ch a rg e d w i t h c o n s p i r a c y i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e s h o o t i n g s . I n e a r l y De ce mb e r 1 9 9 7 , a ma l e s t u d e n t a t He a t h H i g h S c h o o l, lo c a t e d i n r u r a l We s t P a d u ca h , K e n t u c k y , w a s c h a rg e d w i t h fi r i n g a s t c l e n s e mi a u t o ma t i c p i s t o l i n t o a c i r c l e o f p r a y i n g s t u d e n t s . T h is i n c i d e n t wa s t h e fi r s t s h o o t i n g e v e r t o o c c u r i n t h e 7 , 0 0 0 - st u d e n t McCra cke n Co u n t y s c h o o l d i s t r i c t (J a c o b s o n a n d Wh i t e , 1997). I n l a t e F e b r u a r y 1 9 9 8 , t w o ma le m i d d l e s c h o o l s t u d e n t s i n a Ma ry l a n d s u b u rb we re a r r e s t e d a t t e r t r a n s p o r t i n g a h o me - made bomb o n a s c h o o l b u s a n d p l a n t i n g t h e bomb i n a s c h o o l l o c k e r . T h e p r i n c i p a l d i s c o v e r e d t h e bomb a n d e v a c u a t e d t h e sch o o l b u i l d i n g b e f o r e t h e bomb e x p lo d e d . T h e s t u d e n t s a l l e g e d l y u s e d t h e s c h o o l l o c k e r a s a t e mp o ra ry p a s s - o f f p o i n t 1 4
  • 15. 3 f o r t h e bomb. M o s t r e c e n t l y , d u r i n g l a t e Ma rch 1 9 9 8 , i n r u r a l Jonesboro, A rk a n s a s , t w o h e a v i l y a rme d 1 1 a n d 1 3 y e a r o l d b o ys we a rin g ca mo u fla g e c l o t h i n g a n d h i d i n g among t r e e s fi r e d o n a group o f t h e i r We st sid e Mi d d l e S ch o o l c la s s ma t e s a n d t e a c h e rs a s th e y s c u r r i e d o u t s i d e d u r i n g a f a l s e fi r e a l a r m . T h e ambush, j u s t o u t s i d e t h i s t o wn o f 5 0 , 0 0 0 , l e f t f o u r f e ma le s t u d e n t s a n d a t e a c h e r d e a d a n d 1 1 o t h e r s wounded (S c h wa rt z , 1 9 9 8 ). Y o u t h v io le n c e i n s c h o o l s e t t i n g s a p p e a rs t o b e random, sp o n t a n e o u s, and u n p re d i c t a b l e . S e l f - i n fl i c t e d y o u t h v i o l e n c e i s c i t e d among co n ce rn s o f A me rica n I n d i a n y o u t h who se e t h e i r v i o l e n t w o r l d c l a i mi n g y o u t h t h ro u g h d ru g -in d u c e d d e a t h s, g a n g v i o l e n c e , a n d teen s u i c i d e s (Cro w, 1 9 9 7 ). T h e s e i n c i d e n t s a n d co n ce rn s p re se n t e xa mp le s o f t h e e vid e n ce t h a t i n c r e a s i n g v i o l e n c e o c c u rrin g i n co mmu n it ie s h a s n o t e s . c a p e d t h e s c h o o l s . In t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s, s c h o o l s f a i l i n g i n t h e i r m i s s i o n t o se rve t h e n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t wa s t h e e d u c a t io n a l c o n c e rn cre se n t e d i n A Na t io n a t R i s k re le a s e d i n A p r i l 1 9 8 3 (USEd , R i s k Re p o rt, 1 9 8 3 ) . T h i s la n d ma rk r e p o r t d i d n o t a d d re s s wh a t h a s sin ce become a c e n t r a l f o c u s w h i c h w i l l d e fi n e o u r c o u n t r y ' s l u t u r e — v i o l e n c e i n t h e s c h o o l t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g e n viro n me n t and t h e r e s u l t i n g i mp a c t o n s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t . F e w p e o p le would c h a lle n g e t h e fi n d i n g s o f r e c e n t s c h o o l v i o l e n c e r e p o r t s wh ich d e c l a r e t h a t A me ri c a ' s s c h o o ls a n d c la s s ro o ms h a ve changed d r a m a t i c a l l y d u r i n g t h e p a s t d e ca d e b e ca u se o f v i o l e n c e i n t h e sch o o l s e t t i n g . V i o l e n c e i s a s e r i o u s p ro b le m a n d t h e h e ig h te n e d a wa re n e ss o f t h e p u b l i c ' s co n ce rn a b o u t v i o l e n c e i n sch o o ls h a s b e e n r e fl e c t e d i n s e v e r a l i m p o r t a n t r e p o r t s c i t i n g
  • 16. 4 sch o o l t r a g e d i e s r e s u l t i n g f r o m i n c i d e n t s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e (Na t io n a l S c h o o l S a f e t y Ce n t e r, 1 9 9 3 ; A p p le b o me , 1 9 9 4 ; Jo h n so n and Imme rwa h r, 1 9 9 4 ; H a r r i s , 1 9 9 5 ; USEd, NCES, V i c t i m i z a t i o n , 1995; USHHS, CDC, 1 9 9 5 ; USEd, P r e s s , 1 9 9 6 ; E l a m e t a l . , 1 9 9 4 , 1995, 1 9 9 6 , a n d 1 9 9 7 ; USEd, NCES, C r i m e , 1 9 9 7 ; USED, NCES, V io le n ce , 1 9 9 8 ) . S u m m a r i e s o f r e c e n t i m p o r t a n t s c h o o l v i o l e n c e re p o rt s a r e p re s e n t e d i n A p p e n d ix A . The ma g n it u d e o f c r i m e , v i o l e n e e , v i c t i m i z a t i o n , a n d a sso cia t e d d i s r u p t i o n i n A me ri c a ' s s c h o o l s s e v e r e l y i m p a i r s t h e e d u ca t io n a l p ro c e s s a n d t h e n o rma l p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e ve lo p me n t o f many s t u d e n t s . B e c a u s e t h e t ra u ma i n t h e u rb a n co mmu n it y a t la rg e i s e ve n mo re p re v a l e n t , a ca sca d e o f h i g h l y d i s r u p t i v e f a c t o rs n e g a t i v e l y i mp a c t s s t u d e n t s ' a ca d e mie a ch ie ve me n t (USEd, Ne two rk, 1 9 9 3 ). T h e a rg u me n t h a s b e e n made t h a t f o r c h i l d r e n , i n n e r - c i t y e x p e rie n c e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e s c h o o l l e a r n i n g e n viro n me n t, c a n b e co mp a re d t o l i f e i n c o mmu n it ie s a t w a r (G a rb a rin o e t a l . , 1 9 9 2 ; L e w i s a n d Fo x, 1 9 9 3 ; USEd, NCES, S a e t y , 1 9 9 6 ). I n some su b u rb a n a n d r u r a l c o mmu n it ie s , e xp e rie n ce s a r e r a p i d l y b e co min g e q u a l l y d a n g e ro u s (S h a n k e r, 1995; B a l l a r d a n d McCoy, 1 9 9 6 ). O n e o f t h e mo s t c r i t i c a l p ro b le ms c o n f r o n t i n g e d u c a t o rs t o d a y i s t h e a b i l i t y t o imme d ia t e ly a n d d r a m a t i c a l l y imp ro v e t h e a ca d e mie p e rf o rma n ce l e v e l s o f s t u d e n t s e s p e c i a l l y i n e n v iro n me n t s wh e re s c h o o l v io le n c e i s p r e v a l e n t . D a t a o n v i o l e n c e i s r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e f ro m t h e c o n s t a n t fl o w o f v i o l e n c e i n f o r m a t i o n w i d e l y d isse min a t e d t h ro u g h me d ia r e p o r t s , p u b l i c s u rv e y s , e l e c t r o n i c i n f o rma t i o n a n d t h e re s e a rc h l i t e r a t u r e (A s c h e r, 1 9 9 4 ; USEd,
  • 17. 5 NCES, C r i m e , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e c h a lle n g e f o r p o l i c y ma k e rs a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s i s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f r e p o r t e d t re n d s t o s c h o o l p o l i c y d e c i s i o n s a n d d e ve lo p e f f e c t i v e p r a c t i c e s t o c u r b s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d i n c re a s e s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g (Youth V io le n c e P o lic y ma k e rs G u id e , 1 9 9 6 ) . School d i s t r i c t s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a r e re s p o n d in g t o sch o o l c r i m e a n d v i o l e n c e b y e mp lo yin g me a su re s s u c h AS i n s t a l l i n o me t a l d e t e c t o r s , h i r i n g a n d a rmin g s e c u r i t y g u a rd s, lo c k in a a n d c h a i n i n g s c h o o l d o o rs , ma n d a t in g s c h o o l u n i f o rms , and c o n d u c t in g ra n d o m se a rch e s o f s t u d e n t b o o kb a g s a n d l o c k e r s (Fla n n e ry, 1 9 9 7 ). S o m e s c h o o ls h a ve b e e n a l t e r e d t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y re s e mb le d e t a in me n t f a c i l i t i e s w h i c h d e t r a c t s f r o m t h e n o s i t i v e l e a r n i n g e n viro n me n t . S e v e r a l r e c e n t r e p o r t s h a ve suocested t h a t e a s y a v a i l a b i l i t y o f g u n s a n d weapons t o y o u t h gangs h a s made a p ro f o u n d imp a c t o n o u r s o c i e t y o v e r t h e l a s t decade c r e a t i n g a p e rc e p t i o n t h a t v i o l e n c e i s a common o ccu rre n ce i n o u r d a i l y l i v e s ( C e p e r e l y a n d Simo n , 1 9 9 4 ; L a rs o n , 1994; We ise n b u rg e r, e t a l . , 1 9 9 5 ; S c h wa rt z , 1 9 9 6 ; USEd, NCES, Crime , 1 9 9 7 ). T h e t o n e o f some r e p o r t s su g g e st s t h a t a l a r g e n o rz io n o f t h e n a t i o n h a s become d e s e n s i t i z e d t o t h e e x t e n s i v e and d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s o f v i o l e n c e (N o rl a n d , 1 9 9 2 ; N o rt h w e s t Re g io n a l L a b o ra t o ry , 1 9 9 4 ; S t e p h e n s, 1 9 9 4 ; Ma ze n a n d He sta n d , 1996; E d e lma n , 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 5 , a n d 1 9 9 6 ). S c h o o l s a f e t y h a s become a p r i o r i t y f o r p a re n t s , s t u d e n t s , t e a c h e r s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , p o l i t i c i a n s , a n d p o lic y ma k e rs . O n e o f t h e N a t i o n a l E d u c a t io n Goals f o r t h e y e a r 2000 i s t o c r e a t e s c h o o l e n v iro n me n t s t h a t a re f r e e o f v i o l e n c e a n d d ru g s (USEd, 1 9 9 3 , NCES G o a l s ).
  • 18. 6 The w i d e a t t e n t i o n t o y o u t h a n d s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s s u e s f r o m a v a r i e t y o f s o u rc e s i n d i c a t e s t h e n e e d f o r e f f e c t i v e co o rd in a t e d re sp o n se s b y l o c a l , s t a t e , a n d f e d e r a l a g e n cie s (Na t io n a l S c h o o l B o a rd s A s s o c i a t i o n , 1 9 9 3 ; Mo y e rs , 1 9 9 5 ; Edelman, 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 5 , a n d 1 9 9 6 ). I n d i v i d u a l s , g ro u p s , a n d community o rg a n i z a t i o n s a r e b e g in n in g t o w o rk i n p a r t n e r s h i p w i t h s c h o o ls t o d e ve lo p a n u mb e r o f d i v e r s e a p p ro a ch e s, mo d e l p ro g ra ms, s t r a t e g i e s , a n d i n i t i a t i v e s d e sig n e d t o s t o p y o u t h v io le n c e (USEd a n d DHHS, T o g e t h e r, 1 9 9 3 ; J u s t i c e , 1 9 9 4 ; N a t i o n a l Conference P a p e rs, 1 9 9 4 ; USGAO, 1 9 9 5 ; L e i s t y n a a n d S h e rb lo m, Co o rd in a te d co mmitme n ts t o p re v e n t t h e o c c u rre n c e o f v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s a n d t o p r o v i d e i n t e r v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s , a s w e l l a s t o s a l v e consequences o f v i o l e n t a c t s , p r e s e n t a syn ch ro n ize d e f f o r t l e a d i n g t o maximum su cce ss a n d l o n g - t e r m e f f e c t iv e n e s s i n co mb a t in g v i o l e n c e t h ro u g h o u t co mmu n it ie s (McCorbs, 1 9 9 4 ; S t e p h e n s, 1 9 9 4 ; USEd, M e r c e r , 1 9 9 5 ). A c c o r d i n g te v i o l e n c e - p r e v e n t i o n e x p e rt s , n o s i m p l e s o l u t i o n e x i s t s a n d ending t h e y o u t h v i o l e n c e e p id e mic w i l l n o t b e e a s y (K a d e l a n d Fo llma n , 1 9 9 3 ). L e a r n i n g ca n n o t t a k e p l a c e i n a n a tmo sp h e re o f f e a r a n d i n t i m i d a t i o n ( C r a i g , 1 9 9 2 ; USEd, NCES, G o a l s , 1 9 9 3 ; R i l e y , 1 9 9 3 ; R e g i o n a l L a b o ra t o ry f o r E d u c a t io n a l Imp ro ve me n t, 1995; S h a n ke r, 1 9 9 5 ). A p r i m a r y g o a l o f t o d a y ' s s c h o o ls mu st b e to d e v e lo p s t r a t e g i e s a n d p ro v i d e re s o u rc e s t h a t w i l l re d u c e t h e number a n d i n t e n s i t y o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i n c i d e n t s (K n o x, 1 9 9 7 ).
  • 19. 1 3 7 D e s c ri p t i o n o f S ch o o l V i o l e n c e D a i l y , t h e n a t i o n ' s s c h o o l s a r e b e co min g mo re u n s t a b le based o n i n c r e a s i n g n u mb e rs o f s t u d e n t s e x h i b i t i n g d i s r u p t i v e b e h a vio r l e a d i n g t o v i o l e n t a c t s i n t h e s c h o o l s e t t i n g . D i s r u p t i v e o r e x t e r n a l i z i n g b e h a v io r i s d e s c ri b e d a s demeanor t h a t i s a n t i s o c i a l , d e fi a n t , c h a l l e n g i n g , n e g a t i v e l y a g g re s s iv e , n o n co mp lyin g , a c t i n g - o u t , e t c . T h e i mp a c t o f v i o l e n t a c t s i n sch o o ls e xt e n d s b e yo n d t h e t y p i c a l mi n o r, s o o n f o r g o t t e n , i n c i d e n t s e xp e ct e d o f mo s t s t u d e n t s d u r i n g t h e i r n o rma l c o u rs e of d e ve lo o me n t . S u c h d i s r u p t i v e s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r c o n t in u e s t o be o n e o f t h e mo st p ro f o u n d i s s u e s c o n f r o n t i n g s c h o o ls ( B u l l o c k e: a l . , 1 9 8 3 ; E va n s a n d Eva n s, 1 9 8 5 ; H r a n i t z a n d Eddowes, 1 9 9 0 ; Kadel a n d Fo ilma n , 1 9 9 3 ). A m u l t i t u d e o f i n f o r m a t i o n i s ' a v a ila b le o n t h e s u b j e c t o f v io le n c e a n d i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o e v e r y a s p e c t o f human e x is t e n c e . S o m e o f t h e d a t a i s f o c u s e d o n t h e e mo t io n a l consequences o f v i o l e n c e su ch a s v i c t i m s d e v e lo p in g f e e l i n g s o f so rro w, g r i e f , b e re a ve me n t , s h o c k , d e n i a l , p r o t e s t , a n g e r, d e p re ssio n , d e s p a i r , re v e n g e , r e j e c t i o n , a n d f e a r (O a t e s , 1 9 8 8 ; Reasoner, 1 9 9 5 ). O t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a d d re sse s v i o l e n c e i s s u e s b y su o ce st in g ca u se s a r e r e l a t e d t o p h y s i o l o g i c a l a n d g e n e t i c lin k a g e s ; p s y c h o l o g i c a l i mp a c t s ; s o c i o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ; a n d b e h a v io ra l p a t t e r n s (B u rro we s e t a l . , 1 9 8 8 ; Wa l l a c h , 1 9 9 3 ; S o ria n o e t a l . , 1 9 9 4 ; P ru t zma n , 1 9 9 4 ) . At t h e n a t i o n a l l e v e l , p l a n s a r e b e in g f o rmu l a t e d t o e xp e n d a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f t a x d o l l a r s o n co rrip re h e n sive s c h o o l r e f o r m e f f o r t s t o imp ro v e t h e n a t i o n ' s d e l i v e r y s y s t e m f o r e d u c a t io n
  • 20. 8 and i n c r e a s e s t u d e n t p e rf o rma n ce (USEd , Co mp re h e n sive , 1 9 9 8 ) . However, s c h o o l s a r e n o t l i k e l y t o r e a l i z e o p t i m a l s u c c e s s w i t h e d u ca t io n a l r e f o r m s a n d s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g i n i t i a t i v e s u n t i l e f f e c t i v e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e p re v e n t i o n a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s a re d e ve lo p e d a n d imp le me n t e d (S h a n ke r, 1 9 9 5 ; S c h w a rt z , 1 9 9 6 ) . Sta te me n t o f t h e P ro b le m The e a r l y re s e a rc h p ro p o s a l i n c l u d e d a c o l l e c t i v e r e v i e w o f e l e c t r o n i c i n f o r m a t i o n , r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e , p u b l i c o p i n i o n p o l i s , a n d me d ia r e p o r t s a h l p r e s e n t i n g t h e n a t i o n a l c o n c e rn t h a t d i s r u p t i v e y o u t h v i o l e n c e i n s c h o o l s n e g a t i v e l y i mp a c t s t h e e d u c a t io n a l p ro c e s s a n d n o rma l d e ve lo p me n t among s t u d e n t s a s w e l l a s t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f e d u c a t o rs a n d o t h e r s c h o o l p e rs o n n e l ( c o l e a , S e p t e mb e r 1 9 9 5 ). F i n d i n g s c i t e d t h ro u g h o u t t h e re se a rch l i t e r a t u r e s u g a e s t a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e twe e n b e h a v i o r a n d a ch ie ve me n t ( C r a i a , 1 9 9 2 ; K a d e l a n d Fo llma n , 1 9 9 3 ; A s c h e r, 1 9 9 4 ; Haberman, 1 9 9 4 ; F u r l o n g a n d Mo rri s o n , 1 9 9 4 ; H a r r i s , 1 9 9 5 ; G i l b e r t , 1 9 9 6 ) . W e kn o w t h a t s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s a s e r i o u s p ro b le m t h a t h a s t h r u s t s t u d e n t l e a r n i n g p r i o r i t i e s i n t o t h e background a n d s c h o o l s e c u r i t y co n ce rn s i n t o t h e f o r e f r o n t (S ch wa rtz, 1 9 9 6 ; G i l b e r t , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e r e i s l i m i t e d re s e a rc h a n a ly z in g t y p e s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n re a d in g a n d ma t h e ma t ics b y s c h o o l t y p e ( p u b l i c , C a t h o l i c , n o n - s e c t a ri a n p r i v a t e , a n d o t h e r p r i v a t e r e l i g i o u s s c h o o l s ) ; b y l o c a t i o n (u rb a n , s u b u rb a n , a n d r u r a l c o mmu n it ie s ); a n d b y background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s t u d e n t s . An e a r l i e r s t u d y a n a ly z e d d a t a f r o m t h e 1 9 8 8 N a t i o n a l E d u ca tio n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y (NEL S:8 8 ) t o i d e n t i f y d e p e n d e n t
  • 21. 9 v a r i a b l e s w i t h h i g h z e r o - o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n s b e twe e n b e h a v i o rs and s e l e c t e d in d e p e n d e n t s c h o o l v a r i a b l e s a s p r e d i c t o r s o f st u d e n t s p r o b l e m b e h a v io rs (We ish e w a n d Peng, 1 9 9 3 ) . F o r t h i s stu d y, d a t a f r o m NELS:88 we re a n a ly z e d t o me a su re a s p e c t s o f sch o o l v i o l e n c e p l u s s t u d e n t b a ckg ro u n d v a r i a b l e s re g re s s e d o n c o n s o lid a t e d re a d i n g a n d ma t h e ma t ics s c o re s f r o m c o g n i t i v e t e s t s a d min is t e re d d u r i n g t h e NELS:88 s t u d y . A c c o r d i n g t o e d u c a t i o n a l in f o rma t io n , a s t u d e n t ' s r e a d i n g a b i l i t y i s t h o u g h t t o b e g r e a t l y i n fl u e n c e d b y f a c t o r s o u t s i d e t h e s c h o o l s e t t i n g (Re g io n a l L a b o ra t o ry , 1 9 9 5 ) . M a t h e m a t i c s a ch ie ve me n t i s co n sid e re d t o b e a n i n d i c a t o r o f wh a t i s l e a r n e d i n s c h o o l (USEd, NCES, C o n d i t i o n , 1 9 9 7 ) . Purpose o f t h e S t u d y The o u ro o se o f t h i s s t u d y w a s . t o a n a ly z e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n r e a d i n a a n d ma th e ma tics among e i g h t h g ra d e rs . S t u d e n t s wh o e x h i b i t d i s r u o t i v e a n d v i o l e n t b e h a v i o r p o se a d ile mma t o t h e e d u c a t io n community. D e s p i t e numerous e f f o r t s o v e r a n u mb e r o f y e a rs , sch o o ls h a ve n o t e f f e c t i v e l y imp a c t e d t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a n d l i f e outcomes f o r t h e s e s t u d e n t s . T h e i mp a c t o f r e c e n t r e f o r m e f f o r t s seems t o h a ve b e e n l i m i t e d a n d n o t s y s t e m i c , p e r v a s i v e o r co mp re h e n sive enough t o r e s u l t i n w i d e - s c a l e s u c c e s s n e ce ssa ry f o r l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n s o f s t u d e n t s t o a c h i e v e a c a d e mic a lly a n d b e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y c o m p e t i t i v e (Jo h n so n , 1 9 9 7 ) . On t h e p l u s s i d e , a n u mb e r o f p r o m i s i n g v i o l e n c e i n t e r v e n t i o n and p r e v e n t i o n e f f o r t s h a ve b e e n r e p o r t e d (USGAO, 1 9 9 5 ) . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , b e t t e r me a su re s a r e needed t o i d e n t i f y c a u s a l
  • 22. 10 r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d t o s u g g e s t a d d i t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r s c h o o l v io le n c e p r e v e n t i o n a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s (USGAO, 1 9 9 5 ) . There i s a d e a r t h o f r e s e a r c h o n t h e o v e r a l l e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f v io le n c e p r e v e n t i o n e f f o r t s a n d t h e c o n n e c t io n t o s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t. T h e o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h we re t o p re s e n t a d a t a -su p p o rt e d , s y s t e m a t i c a n d c o mp a ra t iv e schema t h a t sh e d s l i g h t o n f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o t h e i mp a c t o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e o n stu d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n re a d i n g a n d ma t h e ma t ics; t o a d va n ce knowledge r e g a r d i n g h o w p o lic y ma k e rs a n d p r a c t i t i o n e r s m i g h t bes': c u r b t h e g ro w t h o f d i s r u p t i v e a n d v i o l e n t s t u d e n t b e h a v i o r i n t h e s c h o o l s e t t i n g ; a n d t o c o n t r i b u t e u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n t o the g e n e ra l b o d y o f e d u c a t io n re s e a rc h . The f o c u s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n wa s t o e xa min e t h e e x t e n t of s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i n t h e n a t i o n ' s . s c h o o l s . T h e a p p r o a c h w a s t o a n a lyze e x i s t i n g d a t a o n t h e b e h a v i o r a n d a ch ie ve me n t p e rfo rma n ce p a t t e r n s o f e i g h t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s d u r i n g 1988 i n re a d in g a n d ma t h e ma t ics i n t e rms o f t h r e e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e measures: p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r; v i c t i m i z a t i o n ; a n d p e r c e p t i o n o f v io le n c e . S i g n i fi c a n c e o f t h e S t u d y The s t u d y i s s i g n i fi c a n t b e ca u se : v i o l e n c e i s a n e s c a l a t i n g p ro b le m i n A me ric a ; t h e r e i s a s c a r c i t y o f r e s e a r c h l i n k i n g sch o o l v i o l e n c e i s s u e s t o s t u d e n t s a c a d e m i c a ch ie ve me n t ; a n d most s c h o o l-b a s e d e f f o r t s o p e ra t e u n d e r t h e p re mis e t h a t vio le h o e i s a l e a r n e d b e h a v i o r a n d t h e r e f o r e , t e n d t o f o c u s o n d e vice s f o r i n c r e a s i n g s e c u r i t y r a t h e r t h a n o n a p p r o p r i a t e su p p o rt f o r t h e e d u c a t i o n a l n e e d s o f s t u d e n t s . F o r t h e m a j o r i t y
  • 23. 11 o f s t u d e n t s , t h e i m p o r t a n t i s s u e r a y b e l e s s o n e o f v i o l e n t p e rso n a l a t t a c k a n d mo re o n e o f s t o l e n p r o p e r t y a n d t h r e a t s t h a t c o l o r t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s a n d in d u c e a n x i e t y a n d f e a r w h i l e i n sch o o l (Ha n ke , 1 9 9 6 ) . H o w e v e r , w i t n e s s i n g a c t s o f v i o l e n c e , i n a d d i t i o n t o b e i n g p e r s o n a l l y v i c t i m i z e d b y v i o l e n c e , c a n a l s o cause s t u d e n t s t o b e f e a r f u l a n d a n x io u s , a f f e c t a s t u d e n t ' s w i l l i n g h e s s t o a t t e n d s c h o o l, a n d imp a c t o n a s t u d e n t ' s a b i l i t y to l e a r n a n d b e s o c i a l i z e d a t s c h o o l ( F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ) . Data f r o m NELS:88, t h e b e s t a v a i l a b l e e x i s t i n g co mo re h e n sive a n d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t u d e n t d a t a , w e r e u se d t o a n a lyze a n d u n d e rs t a n d t h e c o n n e c t io n b e twe e n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e and s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t . N E L S : 8 8 i s a s u r v e y o f s t u d e n t s f o llo we d f r o m t h e e í g h t h g ra d e t o t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f c o l l e g e (1988 t o 1 9 9 4 ), a u g me n te d b y p a re n t , s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r a n d t e a ch e r s u r v e y s . T h e b a se y e a r s t u d e n t d a t a , g a t h e r e d d u r i n a the 1 9 8 8 -8 9 s c h o o l y e a r , w e r e i n v e s t i g a t e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l l y f o r t h i s s t u d y (USEd , NCES, G u id e , 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i l l e n a b le e x a min a t io n o f c o lma = th e me s a n d d l f f e re n c e s among a h l t y p e s o f s c h o o l s . T h e i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l ehable e d u c a t o rs t o i n t e r p r e t , a n t i c í p a t e , a n d d e v e lo p e f f e c t i v e sch o o l n o l i c y a n d p ro g ra ms f o r o p t i m a l t e a c h i n g a n d l e a r n i n g w h i l e f a c e d w i t h s o l v i n g s c h o o l v i o l e n c e p ro b le ms . Research Q u e st io n s In su mma ry, t h e f o l l o w i n g re s e a rc h q u e s t i o n s we re e xa mín e d : 1. W h a t i s t h e n a t u r e o f v i o l e n c e i n s c h o o l s e t t i n g s i n u rb a n , suburban, a n d r u r a l co mmu n it ie s?
  • 24. 12 a. W h a t a r e t h e mo st p r e v a l e n t t y p e s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i n • f o u r t y p e s o f s c h o o l s : p u b l i c , C a t h o l i c , n o n - s e c t a r i a n p r i v a t e , a n d o t h e r p r i v a t e r e l i g i o u s s c h o o ls ? Stu d e n ts d e s c ri b e d t h e d e g re e o f v i o l e n c e p ro b le ms i n t h e i r s c h o o l s a s s e r i o u s , mo d e ra t e , m i n o r , a n d n o t a p ro b le m f o r t h r e e sch o o l. v i o l e n c e me a su re s: p e r s o n a l b e h a vio r, v i c t i m i z a t i o n , a n d p e r c e p t i o n o f v i o l e n c e . b. W h a t a r e t h e p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e among e i g h t h g ra d e rs b y s t u d e n t b a ckg ro u n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : s e x , r a c e / e t h n i c i t y , s o c i o -e c o n o mi c s t a t u s a u a r t i l e , a n d f a m i l y in co me ; b y s c h o o l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : s c h o o l t y p e , sch o o l p o v e r t y i n d i c a t o r (p e rc. e n t o f s t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a f r e e o r re d u ce d l u n c h p ro g ra m), a n d v e rc e n t o f m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g a s c h o o l? 2.W h a t i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f s c h o o l v io le n c e p ro b le ms t o s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n re a d i n g a n d mazhemazics? O rg a n iz a t io n o f t h e T h e s i s As p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , t h i s re s e a rc h a n a ly z e d t h e r e l a c i o n s h i p b e twe e n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n re a d in g a n d ma t h e ma t ics among e i g h t h g ra d e rs i n 1 9 8 8 . C h a p t e r I p ro v id e s b a ckg ro u n d i n f o r m a t i o n , e x p l o r e s s c h o o l v i o l e n c e p ro b le ms a n d i s s u e s , s t a t e s t h e p u rp o se a n d s i g n i fi c a n c e o f t h e stu d y, a n d p re s e n t s t h e re s e a rc h q u e s t io n s . C h a p t e r I I r e v i e w s th e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e l i t e r a t u r e . C h a p t e r I I I p re s e n t s t h e methods a n d p ro ce d u re s f o r t h e s t u d y . T h e r e s u l t s a n d d i s c u s s i o n a r e p re s e n t e d i n Ch a p t e r I V . T h e su mma ry,
  • 25. c o n c lu s io n s , i m p l i c a t i o n s , a n d re co mme n d a t io n s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n Ch a n t e r y . 13
  • 26. CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 14 The P re v a le n c e o f S c h o o l V i o l e n c e The p e r v a s i v e n a t u r e a n d p ro b le ms o f s o c i e t a l c r i m e a n d v io le n c e a n d t h e p u b l i c ' s c o n c e rn a b o u t t h e r e s u l t i n g i n v a s i o n on t h e s c h o o l l e a r n i n g e n v iro n me n t vie re i n t r o d u c e d a n d re v ie we d i n Ch a p t e r I . Concern a b o u t t h e p re v a le n c e o f c r i m e a n d v i c t i m i z a t i o n leadj.no t o s c h o o l v i o l e n c e , h a s p e rme a t e d t h e e d u c a t io n s y s t e m sin ce t h e 1 9 5 0 s (Asmu sse n , 1 9 9 2 ). T h e 1974 Co n g re ss re sp o n d e d t o t h e p e r s i s t e n t a n d i n c r e a s i n g p ro b le m o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e b y ra n d a t in g a n a t i o n a l s u r v e y o f t h e p re v a le n c e o f s c h o o l c r i m e , the f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t s p e r p e t r a t i o n , a n d t h e e f e c c i v e n e s s o f e x i s t i n g me a su re s t o a m e l i o r a t e s t u d e n t v i c t i m i z a t i o n . T h i s ma n d a te l e d t o t h e S a f e S ch o o ls S t u d y (Na zio n a l i n s t i t u t e o f E d u c a t io n [ N ' E ] , 1 9 8 6 ) w h i c h showed d i s t u r b i n c t r e n d s i n t h e n a t i o n ' s s c h o o l s ( F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ) . The N I E r e p o r t re v e a l e d t h a t w h i l e t e e n a g e rs sp e n d u p t o c n e -f o u rt h o f t h e i r wa k in g h o u rs a t s c h o o l , 4 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e ro b b e rie s a n d 3 6 p e r c e n t o f p e rs o n a l a t t a c k s a g a i n s t t h e m o ccu rre d a t s c h o o l (Ra p p , C a r r i n g t o n , a n d Nic h o ls o n , 1 9 8 6 ) . T h e s i g n i fi c a n t e m o t i o n a l , e c o n o mic , a n d s o c i a l c o s t s o f s c h o o l v io le n c e we re i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e s u rv e y . F o r e xa mp le , s t u d e n t s in j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o ls we re v i c t i m i z e d b y o t h e r s t u d e n t s a t h ig h e r r a t e s t h a n h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s , a n d a t h i r d o f j u n i o r h ig h s t u d e n t s i n l a r g e c i t i e s s a i d t h e y a vo id e d p l a c e s a t s c h o o l such a s t h e r e s t ro o m h e ca u se o f f e a r o f b e i n g v i c t i m i z e d b y a
  • 27. 35 p e e r. I n c r e a s i n g n u mb e rs o f s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d s t a y i n g home f r o m sch o o l b e ca u se t h e y f e a r e d f o r t h e i r s a f e t y . M o r e t h a n 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 t e a ch e rs r e p o r t e d t h e y we re t h re a t e n e d w i t h p h y s i c a l h a rm, a n d o ve r 5 , 0 0 0 t e a c h e r s r e p o r t e d b e in g p h y s i c a l l y a t t a c k e d e a ch month. A t t a c k s o n t e a c h e rs we re much mo re l i k e l y t o r e s u l t i n i n j u r y f o r t e a c h e rs co mp a re d t o a s s a u l t s b e twe e n s t u d e n t s (Mo le s, 1 9 8 6 ; Ha n ke , 1 9 9 6 ; F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ) , The r e p o r t o f t h e S a f e S c h o o ls S t u d y d o cu me n te d t h e s i g n i fi c a n t e c o n o mic c o s t s o f s c h o o l c r i m e a n d v i o l e n c e , e st ima t e d t o b e $200 m i l l i o n a n n u a l l y . B u r g l a r i e s we re r e p o r t e d t o o c c u r fi v e t i m e s mo re o f t e n i n s c h o o l s t h a n i n b u s in e s s e s . The a ve ra g e c o s t o f e a c h t h e f t wa s r e p o r t e d t o b e a b o u t $ 1 5 0 . I n c id e n t s o f v a n d a l i s m we re a l s o h i g h e r t h a n e xp e ct e d , o c c u r r i n g an a v e ra g e o f o n e t i m e p e r mo n th i n a a u a r t e r o f t h e s c h o o l s su rve ye d ( F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ) . F r o m 1950 t o 1 9 7 5 , m i s b e h a v i o r i n th e s c h o o l s e t t i n g s h i f t e d f r o m a c t s o f v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t p ro p e rt y t o v i o l e n c e a g a i n s t p e rs o n s , a n d fi g h t s s h i f t e d f r o m words t o weapons, w i t h so me time s l e t h a l o u tco me s ( R u b e l , 1 9 7 7 ; Fla n n e ry, 1 9 9 7 ) . The r e s u l t s o f t h e S a f e S ch o o ls S t u d y c r e a t e d c o n t in u e d i n t e r e s t i n t h e n a t u r e a n d e x t e n t o f s c h o o l c r i m e a n d v i o l e n c e , th e i m p a c t o n t h e s c h o o l l e a r n i n g e n v iro n me n t , a n d t h e e co n o mic and s o c i a l c o s t s ( F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ) , T h e co n se q u e n ce o f v i o l e n c e and v i c t i m i z a t i o n f o r s t u d e n t s wh o r e p o r t e d h i g h l e v e l s o f f e a r and c o n c e rn a b o u t t h e i r s a f e t y a n d s e c u r i t y p ro mp t e d s e v e r a l e f f o r t s t o co mb a t s c h o o l c r i m e . T h e s e c o n c e rn s l e d t o t h e
  • 28. 3 16 i n c l u s i o n o f q u e s t io n s a b o u t s c h o o l - r e l a t e d v i c t i m i z a t i o n i n t h e annual N a t i o n a l Crime V i c t i m i z a t i o n S u rve y (NCV S ). The fi r s t NCVS t h a t c o n t a in e d s c h o o l - r e l a t e d v i c t i m i z a t i o n it e ms e xa min e d t h e p e r i o d o f t i m e f r o m 1974 t o 1 9 8 1 (To b y , Smith, a n d S mit h , 1 9 8 6 ; F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ). T h e d a t a showed t h a t a lt h o u g h s c h o o l c r i m e a n d v i c t i m i z a t i o n we re r a p i d l y i n c re a s i n g , l e v e l s h a d re ma in e d f a i r l y c o n s t a n t d u r i n g t h e y e a r s e xa min e d . The NCVS documented t h a t o v e r h a l f t h e c r i m i n a l i n c i d e n t s f o r v i c t i m s r a n c i n g i n a g e f r o m 1 4 -1 7 o c c u rre d a t s c h o o l . A s ic n : I fi c a n t n u mb e r o f y o u t h we re v i c t i m i z e d b y ro b b e ri e s , e xp e rie n ce d a g g ra va t e d a n d s i mp l e a s s a u l t s , a n d l a r c e n y a t sch o o l (T o b y , e t a l . , 1 9 8 6 ). C o n t r a r y t o t h e NI E S a t e S ch o o ls Survey, t h e NCVS f o u n d t h a t 4 0 -5 0 p e rc e n t o f v i c t i m i z a t i o n s p e rp e t ra : e d i n s c h o o ls we re co mmit¿e d b y s t ra n g e r s ( F l a n n e r y , 1997). These fi n d i n g s l e d t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f a S ch o o l C ri me Sunplement t o t h e NCVS. T h i s s u r v e y o f o v e r 1 0 , 0 0 0 y o u t h ra n g in g i n a g e f r o m 1 2 -1 9 wh o a t t e n d e d s c h o o l d u r i n g t h e fi r s t su x months o f t h e 1 9 8 8 -8 9 s c h o o l y e a r showed t h a t 9 p e rc e n t o f stu d e n ts h a d been v i c t i m s o f c r i m e i n o r a ro u n d s c h o o l : 7 n e rce n t r e p o r t e d a t l e a s t o n e p r o p e r t y c r i m e a n d 2 p e rc e n t a v i c l e n t c r i m e ( B a s t i a n a n d T a y l o r , 1 9 9 1 ). S t u d e n t s o v e r t h e a g e o f 1 7 we re l e s s l i k e l y t o b e v i c t i m s o f c r i m e t h a n yo u n g e r stu d e n ts, w i t h n i n t h g ra d e rs t h e mo st l i k e l y t o b e v i c t i m i z e d and t w e l f t h g ra d e rs l e a s t l i k e l y t o b e v i c t i m i z e d compared t o stu d e n ts i n o t h e r g ra d e s . T h e s u rv e y re v e a l e d t h a t 1 8 p e rc e n t o f s t u d e n t s " so me t ime s" f e a r e d b e in g t h e v i c t i m o f a n a t t a c k ;
  • 29. 17 younger s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d mo re l i k e l y t o f e a r a n a t t a c k t h a n o ld e r s t u d e n t s ; 1 6 p e rc e n t o f s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t a t e a c h e r had been t h re a t e n e d o r a t t a c k e d a t t h e i r s c h o o l ; 1 5 p e rc e n t o f respondents r e p o r t e d t h a t g a n g s e x i s t e d i n t h e i r s c h o o l, 6 p e rce n t r e p o r t e d t h e y a vo id e d l o c a t i o n s i n t h e i r s c h o o l b e ca u se th e y f e a re d a t t a c k , a n d 2 p e r c e n t s a i d t h e y h a d t a k e n a weapon to s c h o o l t o p r o t e c t t h e mse lve s ( B a s t i a n a n d T a y l o r , 1 9 9 1 ; Fla n n e ry, 1 9 9 7 ). T h e r e wa s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c i n t h e r a t e o f re p o rt e d c r i m e v i c t i m i z a t i o n a t s c h o o l f o r y o u t h r e s i d i n g i n c e n t ra l c i t i e s ( 1 0 p e rc e n t ) t h a n i n su b u rb a n a re a s ( 9 p e rc e n t ) and r u r a l l o c a l e s ( 8 p e rc e n t ) ( B a s t i a n a n d T a y l o r , 1 9 9 1 ) . T h i s su rve y wa s co n d u ct e d d u r i n g 1 9 8 8 -8 9 , t h e same s c h o o l y e a r t h e Na t io n a l E d u c a t io n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y (NEL S:8 8 ) w a s co n d u ct e d and y i e l d e d fi n d i n g s t h a t a r e co mp a ra b le t o r e s u l t s i n a mo re re ce n t S t u d e n t V i c t i m i z a t i o n a t S ch o o l r e p o r t . T h i s r e p o r t p re se n te d i n f o r m a t i o n o n p e rs o n a l s t u d e n t v i c t i m i z a t i o n f r o m a n a t io n a l s u r v e y o f s i x t h t h ro u g h t w e l f t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s conducted i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1993 (USEd , NCES, V i c t i m i z a t i o n , 1995). In t h e S t u d e n t V i c t i m i z a t i o n a t S ch o o l r e p o r t , t h e d e fi n i t i o n o f v i c t i m i z a t i o n wa s expanded b e yo n d t h e d i r e c t p e rso n a l e x p e rie n c e o f t h r e a t s o r h a rm t o i n c l u d e kn o wle d g e o r wit n e ss o f c r i m e i n c i d e n t s o r b u l l y i n g a t s c h o o l a n d showed t h a t an e s t ima t e d 2 . 7 m i l l i o n v i o l e n t c r i m e s t a k e p l a c e a n n u a l l y e i t h e r a t s c h o o l o r n e a r s c h o o ls . A b o u t o n e i n f o u r p u b l i c sch o o l t e a c h e rs r a t e d p h y s i c a l c o n fl i c t s a mo n g s t u d e n t s a s b e in g a s e r i o u s o r mo d e ra t e ly s e ri o u s p ro b le m i n t h e i r s c h o o ls ,
  • 30. 18 in c lu d in g ro b b e ri e s , t h e f t s , a n d v a n d a lis m. G u n s a n d weapons i n the s c h o o l s e t t i n g p ro v i d e a n o t h e r k e y a s p e c t o f t h e d e s c r i p t i v e p r o fi l e o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s s u e s . Du rin g 1 9 8 8 -8 9 , t h e N a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r S ch o o l S a f e t y conducted a n o v e rv i e w o f s c h o o ls a n d r e p o r t e d t h a t 2 8 , 2 0 0 stu d e n ts a n d 5 , 2 0 0 t e a c h e rs we re p h y s i c a l l y a t t a c k e d i n s c h o o ls each mo n th , a n d 1 9 p e rc e n t o f t h e s e v i c t i m s r e q u i r e d h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n (Greenbaum a n d Tu rn e r, 1 9 8 9 ) . T h i s o v e rv i e w o f sch o o ls wa s imp le me n t e d d u r i n g t h e same s c h o o l y e a r t h e NELS:88 stu d y wa s co n d u ct e d . M o r e r e c e n t l y , g r o w i n g n u mb e rs o f s t u d e n t s and t e a c h e rs r e p o r t e d t h e y a r e s e r i o u s l y co n ce rn e d f o r t h e i r s a e t y a t s c h o o l ( H r a n i t z a n d Eddowes, 1 9 9 0 ; O ' Co n n o r, 1 9 9 3 ; Ascher, 1 9 9 4 ; L a rs o n , 1 9 9 4 ; J a c k s o n , 1 9 9 5 ; G i l b e r t , 1 9 9 6 ; K n o x, 1997). The N a t i o n a l A d o le sce n t S t u d e n t H e a l t h S u rv e y (A me ric a n School H e a l t h A s s o c i a t i o n [ASHA], 1 9 8 9 ) o f o v e r 1 1 , 0 0 0 e i g h t h and t e n t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s d u r i n g 1 9 8 8 -8 9 sh o we d t h a t n e a r l y 4 0 o e rce n t o f s t u d e n t s h a d been i n a p h y s i c a l fi g h t a t s c h o o l ( o r on t h e b u s t o o r f r o m s c h o o l) i n t h e p a s t y e a r , 3 4 p e rc e n t re p o rt e d t h a t someone h a d t h re a t e n e d t o h u r t t h e m a t s c h o o l, a n d 13 p e rc e n t r e p o r t e d b e in g a t t a c k e d a t s c h o o l . T h i s s u rv e y , conducted t h e same y e a r a s NELS:88, sh o we d t h a t s t u d e n t s ' f e a r o f v i c t i m i z a t i o n wa s s i g n i fi c a n t : 2 2 p e rc e n t o f s t u d e n t s re p o rt e d c a r r y i n g a k n i f e o r some o t h e r weapon s u c h a s a g u n t o school t h e p a s t y e a r . A n a l y s i s o f t h e 1993 N a t i o h a l Ho u se h o ld Ed u ca tio n S u rv e y a r e co n g ru e n t w i t h t r e n d s o f t h e ASHA S u rve y, showing t h a t h a l f o f s t u d e n t s i n g ra d e s 6 -1 2 w i t n e s s e d some t y p e
  • 31. o f c r i m e o r v i c t i m i z a t i o n a t s c h o o l , a n d a b o u t 1 i n 8 r e p o r t e d b e in g d i r e c t l y v i c t i m i z e d a t s c h o o l ( N o l i n , D a v i e s , a n d Ch a n d le r, 1 9 9 6 ) . S t u d e n t s b r i n g i n g g u n s o r o t h e r weapons t o sch o o l i s t h e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s s u e c u r r e n t l y r e c e i v i n g t h e g re a t e s t p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n a n d co n ce rn ( S m i t h , 1 9 9 0 ; O ' Co n n o r, 1993; S t e p h e n s, G a n g s, 1 9 9 4 ; T a l l e y a n d Wa lz, 1 9 9 6 ; J u s t i c e , 1996). We a p o n s i n s c h o o ls a r e a r e fl e c t i o n o f t h e i r e a s y a cce ss in t h e co n ,,Ju n ity, p re s e n c e i n many homes, a n d t h e a p p a re n t wid e sp re a d a t t i t u d e i n A me rica n s o c i e t y t h a t v i o l e n c e i s a n e f f e c t i v e wa y t o s o l v e p ro b le ms ( B u t t e r fi e l d a n d T u rn e r, 1 9 8 9 ; ro rl a n d , 1 9 9 2 7 K a c h u r, 1 9 9 4 ; Ha n n a a n d Ma d d a le n a , 1 9 9 5 ) . V a rio u s me th o d s h a ve b e e n t r i e d t o p re v e n t l e t h a l weapons f r o m comino i n t o s c h o o l s . S t a t i o n a ry me t a l d e t e c t o r s a n d ra n d o m se a rch e s w i t h h a n d - h e ld d e t e c t o r s a r e conadonplace i n some s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s . L o ckin g a n d c h a i n i n g e n t ra n c e d o o rs , h i r i n g s e c u r i t y p a t r o l s , se a rch in g s t u d e n t b o o kb a g s a n d l o c k e r s a r e o t h e r me th o d s some a d m i n i s t r a t o r s e mp lo y t o b a r weapons f r o m s c h o o ls (USEd , NCES, Crime , 1 9 9 7 ) . T h e r e i s n o s y s t e m a t i c e v id e n c e o n t h e b e n e fi t s o f a n y o f t h e s e a p p ro a ch e s, a n d e a ch h a s c e r t a i n s h o rt c o min g s . Me t a l d e t e c t o r s h a ve p ro v e n e s p e c i a l l y c o n t r o v e r s i a l . W h i l e th e y a r e r e l a t i v e l y e a sy t o i n s t a l l , r e q u i r e l i t t l e t r a i n i n g o f sch o o l p e rs o n n e l, a n d a re e f f e c t i v e i n d e t e c t i n g weapons, m e t a l d e t e c t o rs a r e se e n b y some a s — a n i n v a s i o n o f p r i v a c y , a l o g j a m to s c h o o l e n t r y , a n d c r e a t i n g a f o r t r e s s ma k in g s c h o o l s mo re l i k e p r i s o n s (USEd , NCES, C r i m e , 1 9 9 7 ) . F u r t h e r , l o c k i n g d o o rs can become a fi r e e x i t o b s t a c l e w h i l e s e a rc h e s a n d p a t r o l s a r e 19
  • 32. 20 e xp e n sive a n d t i m e co n su min g ( B u t t e r fi e l d a n d T u rn e r, 1 9 8 9 ; Ce p e rle y a n d Simo n , 1 9 9 4 ; We ise n b u rg e r, e t a l . , 1 9 9 5 ; U S E d , NCES, C r i m e , 1 9 9 7 ) . O v e r a l l , s t r a t e g i e s t o ke e p weapons o u t o f sch o o ls h a ve n o t b e e n t e s t e d o n a s y s t e ma t i c b a s i s . M o s t o f these a p p ro a ch e s a t t e mp t t o c o n t r o l s t u d e n t a c t i o n s r a t h e r t h a n the f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t i n g t o d i s r u p t i v e b e h a v io r. W h i l e c o n t r o l l i n g s t u d e n t a c t i o n s may b e i m p o r t a n t i n a t t e mp t i n g t o s t a b i l i z e t h re a t e n i n g s i t u a t i o n s , s u c h s t r a t e g i e s a r e l e s s e f f e c t i v e i n i mp a c t i n g t h e wa ys s c h o o l s engage s t u d e n t s mo re f u : 1 y i n a ca d e mic p u r s u i t s . T h e r e n e e d s t o b e a c l o s e co n n e ct io n b e twe e n t e a c h in g , l e a r n i n g , a n d s c h o o l s e c u r i t y e f f o r t s . F i g h t s a n d o t h e r a s s a u l t s among s t u d e n t s a r e o t h e r imp o rt a n t a s p e c t s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e . The n a t u r e a n d i n t e n s i t y o f s c h o o l fi g h t s a n d a s s a u l t s a r e becoming mo re v i o l e n t w i t h t h e u se o f weanons. S t u d e n t s ma y b r i n g weapons t o s c h o o l f o r v a r i o u s re a s o n s : t o sh o w o f f , a s p ro t e c t i o n , t o h o l d t h e m f o r o t h e rs , a n d f o r p e rs o n a l a g g re s s iv e purposes t h a t so me time s i n v o l v e s g a n g s a n d i l l e g a l d ru g a c t i v i t i e s (K n o x , 1 9 9 7 ). A l t h o u g h k n i v e s a r e t h e mo st common weapon b ro u g h t t o s c h o o l, i n c r e a s i n g l y p o w e rf u l fi r e a r m s a r e a ls o r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e t o s t u d e n t s ( O f fi c e o f J u v e n i l e J u s t i c e and De lin q u e n c y P re v e n t io n , 1 9 8 9 ; P r o t h r o w - S t i t h a n d Weisman, 1991; S t e p h e n s, S t r a t e g i e s , 1 9 9 4 ; USEd, NCES, S t a t u s , 1 9 9 7 ). Surveys c o n s i s t e n t l y sh o w t h a t t h e p r i m a r y re a so n s t u d e n t s c a r r y a weapon t o s c h o o l i s f o r p r o t e c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n w i t h t h e i n t e n t to p e r p e t r a t e h a rm o n someone e l s e (S h e l e y a n d Wri g h t , 1 9 9 3 ; Fla n n e ry, 1 9 9 7 ).
  • 33. „"3 21 The 1 9 9 4 -9 5 Y o u t h R i s k B e h a v io r S u rv e y b y t h e Ce n t e rs f o r Disease C o n t r o l (CDC) a n d P re v e n t io n i s a l s o c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e ASHA s u r v e y (1 9 9 5 , HHS, CDC). T h e CDC f o u n d t h a t a l mo s t 1 o f e ve ry 2 0 h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s ( 4 . 4 p e rc e n t ) s a i d t h e y misse d a t le a s t o n e s c h o o l d a y b e ca u se t h e y d i d n o t f e e l s a f e a t o r o n t h e way t o o r f r o m s c h o o l. Y o u n g e r , r a t h e r t h a n o l d e r s t u d e n t s we re more l i k e l y t o m i s s a d a y b e ca u se o f f e a r f o r t h e i r s a f e t y . Almo st 2 3 p e rc e n t ( 1 8 p e rc e n t o f b o y s a n d 5 p e rc e n t o f g i r l s ) re p o rt e d c a r r y i n g a weapon t e s c h o o l a t l e a s t o n ce d u r i n g t h e 3 0 days p re c e d in g t h e s u rv e y , a n d 7 p e r c e n t s a i d t h e y h a d been th re a te n e d o r i n j u r e d w i t h a weapon a t s c h o o l d u r i n g t h e p a s t ye a r. S i x t e e n p e rc e n t s a i d t h e y h a d been i n a p h y s i c a l fi g h t i n the p a s t y e a r, a n d a lmo s t o n e - t h i r d s a i d t h e y h a d p r o p e r t y su ch as b o o ks, c l o t h i n g , o r a v e h i c l e d e l i b e r a t e l y damaged o r s t o l e n d u rin o t h e p a s t y e a r (F l a n n e ry , 1 9 9 7 ). The l i n k a g e s b e twe e n v i o l e n t a n d d i s r u p t i v e b e h a v i o r a n d peor s o c i a l a d ju s t me n t h a ve b e e n w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d (P a t t e rs o n , 1982; K a z d in , 1 9 8 7 ; P l o m i n a n d Rowe, 1 9 9 0 ; P o lo n d , 1 9 9 4 ; Reasoner, 1 9 9 5 ; T a l l e y a n d Wa lz, 1 9 9 6 ) . H o w e v e r , l i m i t e d in f o rma t io n wa s f o u n d o n c o n n e c t io n s b e twe e n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d stu d e n t a ch ie ve me n t . U n t i l mo re e m p i r i c a l e v id e n c e i s known about t h i s c r i t i c a l a re a , e d u c a t o rs a r e n o t l i k e l y t o a c h ie v e the b ro a d g o a ls o f a ca d e mic e x c e l l e n c e w i t h o u t a d d re s s in g t h e g ro win g l e v e l o f d i s r u p t i v e a n d v i o l e n t s t u d e n t b e h a v io r. A s st a t e d p r e v i o u s l y , l e a r n i n g ca n n o t t a k e p l a c e i n a n a tmo sp h e re of v i o l e n c e , f e a r , a n d i n t i m i d a t i o n ( C r a i g , 1 9 9 2 ; R i l e y , 1 9 9 3 ; USEd, NCES, G o a l s , 1 9 9 3 ; Re g io n a l L a b o ra t o ry f o r E d u c a t io n a l
  • 34. 22 Improvement, 1 9 9 5 ; S h a n ke r, 1 9 9 5 ) . T h e n u mb e rs a n d i s s u e s a s w e l l a s t h e l o s s o f human p o t e n t i a l a n d fi s c a l c o s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e co n se q u e n ce s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a h l ma ke t h e c a s e su p p o rt in g t h e n e e d f o r e f f e c t i v e s t r a t e g i e s t o a d d re s s s c h o o l v io le n c e i s s u e s . Re la t e d A re a s o f Re se a rch Oth e r s u r v e y r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s n o t a u n ia u e ly u rb a n p ro b le m. A N a t i o n a l League o f C i t i e s s t u d y (1994) f o u n d t h a t 3 8 p e r c e n t o f 7 0 0 re s p o n d in g c i t i e s r e p o r t e d o b se rva b le i n c re a s e s i n v i o l e n c e i n t h e i r s c h o o l s o v e r t h e pre-Jious fi v e y e a r s . O n l y 1 1 p e r c e n t r e p o r t e d t h a t s c h o o l v io le n c e wa s n o t a p ro b le m i n t h e i r c o mmu n it ie s ( F l a n n e r y , 1997). N e a r l y t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e c i t i e s re s p o n d in g h a d f e w e r than 57.),000 r e s i d e n t s a n d a l mo s t h a l f we re l o c a t e d i n su b u rb a n a re a s. W h i l e t h e o v e r a l l l e v e l o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e wa s h i g h e s t f o r u rb a n d i s t r i c t s , n e a r l y o n e - t h i r d o f re s p o n d e n t s i n a h l typ e s o f j u r i s d i c t i o n s ( c e n t r a l c i t y , s u b u rb a n , n o n - me t ro p o lit a n , o r r u r a l r e p o r t e d i n c re a s e s i n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e (Fla n n e ry, 1 9 9 7 ) . Re s u lt s f r o m a s u r v e y b y t h e N a t i o n a l S c h o o l B o a rd s A s s o c ia t io n (1 9 9 3 ) sh o we d t h a t mo re t h a n 8 0 p e r c e n t o f s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s r e p o r t e d t h a t s c h o o l v i o l e n c e h a d i n c re a s e d co mp a re d to t h e p r e v i o u s fi v e y e a r s . T h e mo s t f r e q u e n t l y r e p o r t e d t y p e o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e wa s a s s a u l t , o c c u r r i n g i n 7 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e re sp o n d in g d i s t r i c t s . S c h o o l s a l s o r e p o r t e d a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e number o f s t u d e n t s b r i n g i n g weapons t o s c h o o l s ( 6 1 p e r c e n t ) , i n c i d e n t s o f s t u d e n t a s s a u l t s o n t e a c h e rs ( 2 8 p e r c e n t ) ,
  • 35. 35 23 sh o o tin g s o r k n i fi n g s ( 1 3 p e r c e n t ) , d r i v e - b y s h o o t i n g s ( 9 p e rc e n t ), a n d o n -ca mp u s ra p e s ( 7 p e rc e n t ). P r o b l e m s we re n o t l i m i t e d t o u rb a n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s , b u t o c c u r r e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g fre q u e n cy d u r i n g t h e p r e v i o u s fi v e y e a r s i n su b u rb a n a n d r u r a l sch o o ls a s w e l l (Ro ssma n a n d Mo rl e y , 1 9 9 6 ; F l a n n e r y , 1 9 9 7 ) . These fi n d i n g s a r e s u p p o rt e d b y t h e s h o c k in g s c h o o l s h o o t i n g e ve n ts b y ma le s t u d e n t s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 7 -9 8 s c h o o l y e a r i n subUrban P e a r l , M i s s i s s i p p i , a n d r u r a l Paducah, K e n t u c k y , a n d Jonesboro, A rk a n s a s . I t wa s p r e v i o u s l y t h o u g h t t h a t s u c h v io le n c e a n d h a rm o n l y happened i n i n n e r - c i t y u rb a n c o mmu n it ie s . Evidence o f t h e imp o rt a n c e o f d i s r u p t i v e a n d v i o l e n t s u d e n : b e h a v i o r ca n b e g le a n e d f r o m re s e a rc h o n t h e n a t u r e o f sch o o l v i o l e n c e , i n c l u d i n g t h e p r e v a l e n t t y p e s o f d i s r u p t i v e b e h a vio r i n t h e s c h o o l s e t t i n g a n d 'the p a t t e r n s o f a n t i s o c i a l sch o o l b e h a v i o r. H o w e v e r , e v i d e n c e o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e twe e n sch o o l v i o l e n c e a n d s t u d e n t s a c a d e m i e a ch ie ve me n t i s n e e d e d . The l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w y i e l d e d re s e a rc h fi n d i n g s t h a t r e l a t e t o the q u e s t io n s f o r t h i s s t u d y a n d re v e a le d a d e s c r i p t i v e p r o fi l e o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s s u e s s u c h a s s t u d e n t s ' p e r s o n a l b e h a v i o r; v i c t i m i z a t i o n , t h e d i r e c t p e rs o n a l e x r e r i e n c e o f t h r e a t s o r harm; a n d s t u d e n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a s a p ro b le m. A summary o f p r i m a r y fi n d i n g s r e g a r d i n g v i o l e n c e i n s c h o o ls re ve a le d t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n : N a t i o n w i d e , 4 4 p e r c e n t o f t e a ch e rs r e p o r t e d i n 1 9 9 1 t h a t s t u d e n t mi s b e h a v i o r i n t e r f e r e d s u b s t a n t i a l l y w i t h t h e i r t e a c h i n g . S e v e n p e rc e n t o f t e a c h e rs re p o rt e d b e in g p h y s i c a l l y a t t a c k e d ( M a n s fi e l d , e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 ) . L i f e t i m e p re v a le n c e o f t e a c h e r v i e t i m i z a t i o n b y p h y s i c a l a t t a c k
  • 36. 36 24 i s mo re t h a n t h r e e t i m e s h i g h e r (1 0 p e rc e n t v e r s u s t h r e e p e rc e n t i n s c h o o ls w i t h 4 1 p e rc e n t o r mo re o f s t u d e n t s r e c e i v i n g f r e e o r reduced l u n c h t h a n i n s c h o o ls i n wh ic h 1 0 p e r c e n t o r l e s s o f stu d e n ts r e c e i v e f r e e o r re d u ce d lu n c h . T e n p e rc e n t o f t e a c h e rs re p o rt e d t h a t t h e y h a d been v e r b a l l y a b u se d b y a s t u d e n t i n a one we e k p e r i o d (Ma n s fi e l d , e t a l . , 1 9 9 1 ). E l e v e n p e rc e n t o f stu d e n ts a n d 1 2 p e rc e n t o f t e a c h e rs r e p o r t e d a p e t t y t h e f t o f t h e i r p o sse ssio n s o v e r a o n e mo n th p e r i o d ( N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f Ed u ca tio n , 1 9 8 6 ) . N i n e p e rc e n t o f y o u t h a g e s 1 2 t o 1 9 r e p o r t e d b e in g t h e v i c t i m o f o n e o r mo re c ri me s i n o r a ro u n d s c h o o l. T w o p e rce n t o f s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d . t h e y w e r e t h e v i c t i m o f v i o l e n c e E a s a n a n d T a y l o r , 1 9 9 1 ). P o s s e s s i o n o f weapons, fi g h t s a n d c t h e r a s s a u l t s among s t u d e n t s a r e o t h e r i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f sch o o l v i o l e n c e . Fo llo win g i s a summary o f t h e p r i m a r y fi n d i n g s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h weanons, fi g h t i n g , a n d o t h e r a s s a u l t s a t s c h o o l : I n t h e Na t io n a l C ri me V i c t i m i z a t i o n S u rve y mo re ma le s ( 3 p e rc e n t ) t h a n females ( 1 p e rc e n t ) r e p o r t e d h a v in g t a k e n a weapon t o s c h o o l (B a st ia n a n d T a y l o r , 1 9 9 1 ). A t l e a s t 7 1 p e rso n s we re k i l l e d w l t h g u n s a t s c h o o ls d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1 9 8 6 -9 0 ( S m i t h , 1 9 9 0 ). S i x t y - e i g h t p e rc e n t o f o f fi c i a l s f r o m u rb a n , s u b u rb a n , a n d r u r a l p o l i c e d e p a rt me n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t a s m a l l n u mb e r o f s t u d e n t s c a r r y weapons s u c h a s handguns o r k n i v e s t o s c h o o l ( H a r r i s , 1995). T w e n t y - s e v e n p e rc e n t o f s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t mo st v i o l e n t i n c i d e n t s t a k e p l a c e o n t h e s c h o o l g ro u n d s ; 1 5 p e rc e n t re p o rt e d i n c i d e n t s o c c u r i n t h e s c h o o l n e ig h b o rh o o d ; a n d e i g h t p e rce n t s a i d mo st a c t s o f v i o l e n c e o c c u r i n s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s
  • 37. 25 ( H a r r i s , 1 9 9 5 ) . M o s t t e a c h e rs a n d s t u d e n t s b e l i e v e t h a t when v io le n c e t a k e s p l a c e i n t h e s c h o o l b u i l d i n g i t g e n e r a l l y o c c u rs i n p u b l i c a r e a s — h a l l w a y s a n d s t a i r c a s e s we re mo s t f r e q u e n t l y me n tio n e d b y ( 6 4 p e r c e n t o f t e a c h e rs a n d 5 5 p e r c e n t o f s t u d e n t s ). H o w e v e r , 2 7 p e rc e n t o f s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t a s i g n i fi c a n t p o r t i o n o f i n c i d e n t s o c c u r i n mo re h id d e n a re a s s u c h as b o y ' s a n d g í r l ' s r e s t ro o ms a n d l o c k e r ro o ms, w h e r e t e a c h e rs a re l e s s l i k e l y t o s e e i n c i d e n t s fi r s t h a n d . O n l y t w o p e rc e n t o f t e a ch e rs me n t io n e d l o c k e r ro o ms. S t u d e n t s mo re t h a n t e a c h e rs b e l i e v e t h a t i n c i d e n t s a r e mo re l i k e l y t o t a k e p l a c e i n cla ssro o ms ( 2 4 p e r c e n t o f s t u d e n t s v e r s u s 1 2 p e r c e n t o f t e a c h e rs (H a rri s , 1 9 9 5 ) . The v a s t m a j o r i t y o f u rb a n , s u b u rb a n , a n d r u r a l p u b l i c sch o o l t e a c h e r s ( 9 8 p e rc e n t ) h a v e n e v e r c a r r i e d a weapon t o sch o o l. T h o s e t e a c h e rs who h a ve t a k e n some f o r m o f p r e c a u t i o n most f r e q u e n t l y c a r r y mace ( 4 4 p e rc e n t ) f o r s e l f d e f e n se (H a rri s , 1 9 9 5 ). E l e v e n p e rc e n t o f p u b l i c s c h o o l t e a c h e rs h a ve been v i c e i m s o f a c t s o f v i o l e n c e t h a t o c c u r r e d i n o r a ro u n d sch o o ls. M o s t o f t h e i n c i d e n t s i n v o l v e d s t u d e n t s ( 9 5 p e r c e n t ) . S ixt e e n p e rc e n t o f t e a c h e rs i n s c h o o l s w i t h a l l o r many m i n o r i t y st u d e n t s h a ve b e e n v i c t i m s o f c r i m e s i n o r a ro u n d t h e i r s c h o o l (H a rri s , 1 9 9 5 ). S t u d e n t s , m o re f r e q u e n t l y a r e v i c t i m s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e ( 2 3 p e r c e n t ) , a n d among s t u d e n t s w i t h g e n e r a l l y p o o r grades, ( m o s t l y C ' s , D ' s a n d F ' s ) , t h e i n c i d e n c e i s h i g h e r ( 3 9 p e rce n t ). T h i s h o l d s t r u e f o r s t u d e n t s i n a l l r e g i o n s o f t h e n a t io n , g r a d e l e v e l s , a n d u rb a n , s u b u rb a n , a n d r u r a l s c h o o l l o c a t i o n s . H o w e v e r , b o y s a r e t w i c e a s l i k e l y a s g i r l s t o b e 37
  • 38. 38 26 v i c t i m s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e ( 3 0 p e rc e n t co mp a re d w i t h 1 6 p e rc e n t ) (H a rri s , 1 9 9 5 ) . U s e o f a l c o h o l a n d d ru g s b y s t u d e n t s i s a n o t h e r d ime n sio n o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e . Ah l s t u d e n t s a r e p o t e n t i a l l y a t r i s k f o r a l c o h o l a n d d ru g use g i v e n t h e wid e s p re a d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f a l c o h o l , l e g a l a n d i l l e g a l d ru g s . S e v e n t y p e rc e n t o f p u b l i c s c h o o l s t u d e n t s and 5 2 p e r c e n t o f p r i v a t e s c h o o l s t u d e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t d ru g s a re a v a i l a b l e a t t h e i r s c h o o l ( B a s t i a n a n d T a y l o r , 1 9 9 1 ) . Ne a rlv 1 3 p e r c e n t o f e i g h t h -g ra d e rs , 2 3 p e r c e n t o f t e n t h - g ra d e rs, a n d 3 0 p e rc e n t o f t w e l f t h - g r a d e r s h a d fi v e o r mo re d r i n k s i n a r o w i n a t wo -we e k p e r i o d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 0 -9 1 s c h o o l ye a r (J o h n s o n e t a l . , 1 9 9 2 ). R e s e a r c h fi n d i n g s d r a w h e a v i l y o n the w o r k o f Ha wkin s a n d h i s c o l l e a g u e s (1 9 9 2 ) w h i c h c a t e g o ri z e s p s v c h o lo p ic a l, f a m i l y , a n d s c h o o l f . a c t o r s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p t o a d o le sce n t u s e o f a l c o h o l a n d d ru g S . I n su mma ry: I n d i v i d u a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l a n d i n t e r t e r s o n a l f a c t o rs — These i n c l u d e n e e d in g t h e a p p ro v a l o f o t h e r s ; l e t t i n g o t h e rs make o n e ' s d e c i s i o n s ; b e i n g u n a s s e r t i v e ; h a v i n g lo w s e l f - c o n fi d e n c e ; s h o w i n g e a r l y a g g re s s iv e o r a n t i s o c i a l b e h a v i o r; l o w conmdtment t o s c h o o l ; a n d p o o r sch o o l p e rf o rma n ce . O n e o f t h e s t r o n g e s t p r e d i c t o r s o f d ru g u se b y t e e n s i s a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h d ru g -u s i n g p e e rs , as w e l l a s t h e i r a t t i t u d e t o w a rd d ru g s . B e g i n n i n g i n th e l a t e e le me n t a ry g ra d e s, a c a d e mic f a i l u r e i n c re a s e s th e r i s k o f b o t h d ru g u se a n d d e lin q u e n c y . C o n v e r s e l y , some o f t h e p r o t e c t i v e f a c t o r s t h a t a p p e a r t o b o l s t e r a c h i l d ' s r e s i s t a n c e t o d ru g u s e a r e s e l f - c o n fi d e n c e , 1
  • 39. s t ro n g s o c i a l co mp e t e n cie s, p e e r s wh o v a l u e a ch ie ve me n t, r e s p o n s i b l e b e h a v i o r, a n d c l e a r a d u l t s u p e rv is io n (A s c h e r, 1 9 9 4 ) . 27 2. F a m i l v f a c t o rs — To le ra n c e o f a l c o h o l a n d d ru g a b u se b y p a re n t s a n d o l d e r s i b l i n g s c a n b e compounded b y a f a m i l y h i s t o r y o f a l c o h o l i s m , d r u g u s e , o r me n t a l i l l n e s s , a n d p o o r f a m i l y management a n d p a re n t i n g s k i l l s . I t i s c l e a r , h o we v e r, t h a t p a re n t s wh o a r e c o n s id e ra t e a n d s u p p o rt i v e , y e t fi r m i n t h e i r b e l i e f s , seem t o p r o t e c t t h e i r a d o le s c e n t s f r o m d ru g u s e (Baumrind, 1 9 9 1 ; Ha b e rma n , 1 9 9 4 ) . 3. S c h o o l f a c t o rs — S ch o o ls i n fl u e n c e y o u t h i n v a r i o u s wa ys such a s s h a p in g t h e i r d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s , w i t h whom t h e y i n t e r a c t , a n d t h e i r s e l f c o n c e p t s . W i t h t r a n s i t i o n t e mid d le , j u n i o r a n d s e n i o r h i g h s c h o o l , y o u t h e n t e r p r o g r e s s i v e l y l e s s p r o t e c t e d s c h o o l e n v iro n me n t s (O f fi c e o f T e c h n i c a l A s s i s t a n c e , 1 9 9 1 ; Ha n n a a n d Maddalena, 1 9 9 5 ) . S c h o o l s c a n co mp e n sa te f o r t h i s i n s t a b i l i t y b y g u i d i n g a n d s u p p o rt i n g s t u d e n t s d a i l y s o c i a l , r e c r e a t i o n a l , a n d e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s ; imp ro v in g t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t b y r e c o g n i z i n g a v a r i e t y o f s t u d e n t a cco mp lish me n t s; a n d b y f a c i l i t a t i n g a v a r i e t y o f s t u d e n t g ro u p in g s a n d i n t e r a c t i o n s (B e n a rd , 1992; H a r r i s , 1 9 9 5 ). S t u d e n t s wh o l i k e s c h o o l a n d h a ve a c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t e a c h e rs a r e mo re l i k e l y t o a cce p t a n d a d o p t n o n -u se p e e r n o rms t h a n t h o s e wh o d o 3)
  • 40. 4O 28 n o t . C o n v e r s e l y , t h e n u mb e r o f d r u g u s i n g f r i e n d s h a s th e mo st d i r e c t i n fl u e n c e o n s t u d e n t s d r u g u se (R e í d , 1989; Mo y e rs , 1 9 9 5 ). C o r r e c t i n g f o r e rro n e o u s p e rc e p t io n s o f t h e p re v a le n c e a n d a c c e p t a b i l i t y o f d r u g use among p e e rs i s c r i t i c a l (Ha n se n a n d Graham, 1 9 9 1 ; Poland, 1 9 9 4 ) . Benard (1 9 9 2 ) a n d A sh e r (1 9 9 4 ) i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e c h a l l e n g e f o r t h e 1 9 9 0 s i s t o d e v e lo p a n d imp le me n t s t r a t e g i e s t h a t h e l p vo u th su cce e d i n s t a y i n g d r u g - f r e e i n s p i t e o f a d v e rs e c o n d it io n s i n t h e i r f a m i l i e s , s c h o o l s , a n d co min u n it ie s. S u rra ry The e x t e n s i v e l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w p ro v i d e d a w e a l t h o f s c h o o l v io le n c e i n f o r m a t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s in a d e q u a t e e m p i r i c a l data t h a t r e l a t e s t h e r o s t p r e v a l e n t t e s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e rro b le ms a n d p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e t o s t u d e n t p e rf o rma n ce issu e s. M a n y A me rica n s b e l i e v e t h a t u rb a n s c h o o l s a r e f a i l i n g to e d u ca t e s t u d e n t s t h e y s e r v e (E l a m e t a l . , 1 9 9 4 , 1 9 9 5 , 1 9 9 6 , and 1 9 9 - / ) . T h e i r p e r c e p t i o n , f e d b y a v a r i e c y o b s e rv a t io n s , i s t h a t u rb a n s t u d e n t s a c h ie v e l e s s i n s c h o o l, a t t a i n l e s s e d u c a t io n , a n d e n c o u n t e r l e s s s u c c e s s i n t h e l a b o r wa rke t i n l a t e r l i f e (Jo h n so n a n d Imme rwa h r, 1 9 9 4 ; S c h wa rt z , 1996; USEd, NCES, C h a l l e n g e , 1 9 9 6 ; K n o x, 1 9 9 7 ) . H o w e v e r , r e c e n t su rve y r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e t h r e a t e n s su b u rb a n a n d r u r a l s c h o o l s i n s i m i l a r wa ys a s w e l l ( H a r r i s , 1 9 9 5 ; F l a n n e r y , 1997).
  • 41. 29 A lth o u g h much mo re re s e a rc h i s n e e d e d i n t h e a re a o f s c h o o l v io le n c e , t h e a cco mp lish me n t s o f t h e p a s t d e ca d e a r e re c o g n iz e d and a p p re c ia t e d . T h e re s e a rc h e v id e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t s c h o o l s co u ld d o mb re t o re d u c e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e b y c r e a t i n g n u r t u r i n g l e a rn i n g e n v iro n me n t s (A s c h e r, 1 9 9 4 ) . I t i s i m p e r a t i v e t h a t e d u ca t o rs u n d e rs t a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e a n d st u d e n t s a c a d e m i e a ch ie ve me n t e s p e c i a l l y i n s c h o o l s wh e re v i o l e n c e p ro b le ms a r e mo s t p ro f o u n d ( C r a i g , 1 9 9 2 ) . Th is s t u d y i n v e s t i g a t e s t h e n a t u r e o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e e x i s t i n g b a se y e a r s t u d e n t d a t a f r o m t h e N a t i o n a l E d u ca tio n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y o f 1 9 8 8 , (NE L S : 8 8 ), t o a n a ly z e t h e p re va le n ce a n d p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e among e i g h t h -g ra d e st u d e n t s (US E d , NCES, G u id e , 1 9 9 4 ). T h e r e s u l t s w i l l b e g le a n e d te sh e d some l i g h t o n s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i s s u e s i n t h e n a t i o n ' s sch o cis a n d t h e c o n n e c t io n t o s t u d e n t s ' e d u c a t i o n a l o u t co me s. 41
  • 42. CHAPTER I I I METHODS A ND PROCEDURES 42 30 The l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w d is c u s s e d i n Ch a p t e r I I p re s e n t e d r e l a t e d a re a s o f r e s e a r c h t o i l l u m i n a t e t h e p ro b le ms a n d c r i t i c a l i s s u e s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e . T h e r e s u l t i n g g a p s i n e m o i r i c a l d a t a l i n k i n g s c h o o l v i o l e n c e t o s t u d e n t s a c a d e m i c p e rfo rma n ce l e d t o t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Data f o r t h i s s t u d y we re p ro v i d e d b y t h e N a t i o n a l E d u c a t io n L o n g it u d in a l S t u d y o f 1 9 8 8 (NE L S : 8 8 ), a m a j o r d a t a b a se a d min is t e re d b y t h e N a t i o n a l C e n t e r f o r E d u c a t io n S t a t i s t i c s (= E S ), U . S . De p a rt me n t o f E d u c a t io n (USEd, NCES, P ro g ra ms , 1995; USEd, NCES, Re s e a rc h , 1 9 9 6 ) . A d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f 1 , Z E L S : 8 £ i s p r e s e n t e d i n A p p e n d i x E NSIS:ES E i c h t h Gra d e Q u e s t io n n a ire i s i n A p p e n d ix C. N E L S : 8 8 was co n d u ct e d o n a n a t i o n a l sa mp le o f s c h o o l s (n = 1 , 0 5 1 ) t h a t h a d e ja h t h g ra d e rs (n = 2 4 , 5 9 9 ) d u r i n g t h e 1 9 8 8 -8 9 s c h o o l y e a r . D a t a about t h e s c h o o l a n d s t u d e n t s we re c o l l e c t e d f r o m s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , p a r e n t s , t e a c h e r s , a n d s t u d e n t s . T h e o v e r a l l response r a t e wa s o v e r 90%. S i n c e 1988, t h e r e h a ve b e e n t h r e e f o l l o w -u p s t u d i e s t h a t g a t h e re d d a t a i n 1 9 9 0 , 1 9 9 2 , a n d 1 9 9 4 . The n e x t f o l l o w - u p w i l l b e co n d u ct e d d u r i n g t h e y e a r 2 0 0 0 . Subsamples o f b a se y e a r 1988 e i g h t h g ra d e rs ( f r e s h e n e d s t u d e n t s ) have b e e n a d d e d t o t h e sa mp le d u r i n g f o l l o w - u p s t u d i e s . However, t h i s c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n u se d s t u d e n t d a t a fi l e s f r o m t h e b a se y e a r c o h o r t w h i c h i n c l u d e t h e f u l l o r i g i n a l e ig h t h g ra d e sa mp le , i n t h e o r i g i n a l s c h o o l s s t u d i e d . A h l methods a n d p ro c e d u re s we re we ig h t e d b y t h e b a se y e a r s u r v e y
  • 43. 31 we ig h t (BYQWT). T w o i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f NELS:88 d a t a make i t d i f f e r e n t f r o m s i mp l e ra n d o m sa mp le d e s ig n : t h e u n e q u a l p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f s e l e c t i o n , f o r e xa mp le , m i n o r i t i e s h a ve b e e n oversampled, g i v i n g m i n o r i t i e s a h i g h e r p r o b a b i l i t y o f s e l e c t i o n than n o n m i n o r i t i e s ; a n d t h e c l u s t e r e d n a t u re o f t h e d e s ig n s , f o r example, s c h o o l s we re sa mp le d ( c l u s t e r s ) a n d t h e n s t u d e n t s , ra t h e r t h a n s i m p l y t a k i n g a sa mp le o f s t u d e n t s d i r e c t l y (USEd, NCES, S e min a r, 1 9 9 6 ) . In t h i s s t u d y , a n a l y t i c p ro ce d u re s u se d t h e S t a t i s t i c a l Package f o r t h e S o c i a l S cie n ce s, (S P S S ), a fl e x i b l e c o mp u t e r so f t wa re s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s a n d d a t a management s y s t e m (USEd, NCES, SPSS, 1 9 9 6 ). S P S S t o o k d a t a f r o m NELS:88 p u b l i c fi l e s a n d generated d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s a n d co mp le x s t a t i s t i c a l re a re s s io n a n a ly s e s t o i n v e s t i g a t e 'th e re s e a rc h q u e s t io n s examined i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . D e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s wa s u se d to d e s c ri b e s t u d e n t s b a c k g r o u n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . R e g r e s s i o n a n a ly s is wa s u se d t o me a su re t h e e f f e c t s o f s e l e c t e d s c h o o l v io le n c e f a c t o r s o n s t u d e n t s ' a ca d e mic p e rf o rma n ce i n re a d i n g and ma t h e ma t ics w h i l e c o n s i d e ri n g i m p o rt a n t b a ckg ro u n d a n d sch o o l f a c t o r s . D e fi n i t i o n o f Te rms The f o l l o w i n g d e fi n i t i o n s p r o v i d e c l a r i t y f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g NELS:88 d a t a i n t h i s s t u d y . NELS:88--The N a t i o n a l E d u c a t io n L o n g i t u d i n a l S t u d y o f 1 9 8 8 , t h e e x i s t i n g d a t a b a se u t i l i z e d i n t h i s s t u d y f o r c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f e i g h t h g ra d e rs o n l y , d u r i n g the 1988 b a se y e a r (USEd, NCES, G u id e , 1 9 9 4 ) . 43
  • 44. 32 Re le va n t NELS:88 t e r m s : A t - r i s k o f S c h o o l F a i l u r e - - A n e i g h t h g ra d e s t u d e n t i d e n t i fi e d a s " a t r i s k " o f d ro p p in g o u t o f s c h o o l b a se d o n b a ckg ro u n d and f a m i l y c irc u ms t a n c e s e x i s t i n g w h i l e i n e i g h t h g ra d e . Fa ct o rs c o n s t i t u t i n g r i s k : wh e t h e r t h e s t u d e n t l i v e d i n a s i n g l e -p a re n t f a m i l y ; wa s f r o m a f a m i l y w i t h a n a n n u a l income o f l e s s t h a n $ 1 5 ,0 0 0 ; h a d a n o l d e r s i b l i n g who h a d dropped o u t o f s c h o o l ; h a d p a re n t s wh o d i d n o t fi n i s h h i g h sch o o l; h a d l i m i t e d p r o fi c i e n c y i n E n g l i s h ; a n d / o r wa s a t home w i t h o u t a d u l t s u p e r v i s i o n mo re t h a n t h r e e h o u rs a d a y. O v e ra ll, 5 5 p e rc e n t o f NELS:88 p a r t i c i p a n t s sh o we d n o a t - r i s k f a c t o r s , 2 5 p e rc e n t h a d o n e , a n d a l mo s t o n e - fi f t h , ( 1 9 p e rce n t ) h a d t wo o r mo re (USEd, NCES, S e min a r, 1 9 9 6 ). Base Y e a r S u rv e y --Co h o rt o f 2 5 ,0 0 0 (3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 i n u n i v e rs e ) e ig h t h g ra d e rs s u rv e y e d n a t io n wid e d u r i n g s p r i n g 1988 i n 1,000 (4 0 , 0 0 0 i n u n iv e rs e ) s c h o o l s (8 0 0 p u b l i c a n d 200 r r i v a t e ) . B ia s (d u e t o n o n re s p o n s e )--Dif f e re n c e t h a t o c c u rs when re sp o n d e n ts d i f f e r a s a g ro u p f r o m n o n re sp o n d e n ts o n a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c b e in g s t u d i e d . F o r NELS:88, t h e o v e r a l l u n i t re sp o n se i s h i g h (9 3 . 4 p e rc e n t f o r s t u d e n t s a n d 9 8 . 9 p e rce n t f o r s c h o o ls ) w h i c h le s s e n s t h e p ro b le m o f nonresponse b i a s . A d d i t i o n a l l y , NEL S:8 8 a p p l i e s re we ig h t in g a d ju s t me n t t o re d u ce n o n re sp o n se b i a s wh ic h se rve s t o a l l e v i a t e t h e b i a s p ro b le m (USEd, NCES, S t u d e n t , 1990; USEd, NCES, S c h o o l, 1 9 9 0 ). 44
  • 45. 33 Cro s s -S e c t io n a l A n a ly s is --Re p re s e n t s e v e n t s a t a s i n g l e p o i n t i n t ime ( e i g h t h g ra d e rs i n 1 9 8 8 ). E l e c t r o n i c Code Bo o k (ECIE1)--A syst e m L i l e o f s e l e c t e d v a r i a b l e s g e n e ra te d t h ro u g h a s o f t w a re p a cka g e u s i n g t h e NELS:88 P u b lic Use CID-ROM t o p e rf o rm q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a ly s e s . F a c t o r--A v a r i a b l e h yp o t h e sí ze d t o a f f e c t o r ca u se a n o t h e r v a r i a b l e o r v a r i a b l e s ; a n in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e . I n cid e n ce T h e n u mb e r o f a c t s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e p e r s t u d e n t o r sch o o l d u r i n g a s p e c i fi c p e r i o d o f t i m e . I n c í d e n t --A s p e c i fi c s c h o o l v í o l e n c e a c t i n v o l v i n g o n e o r mo re v i c t i m s a n d o n e o r mo re o f f e n d e rs . P re va le n ce --Th e p e rc e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n d i r e c t l y p a r t í c i p a t í n g in some sO h o o l v i o l e n c e a c t a g a i n s t s c h o o l r e g u l a t i o n s w i t h i n a g i v e n p e r i o d o f t i m e . Ra c e / E t h n ic it y --A me ric a n I n d i a n o r A la s k a N a t i v e ; A s i a n P a c i fi c I s l a n d e r ; B l a c k , n o n -H i s p a n i c ; H i s p a n i c ; a n d Wh ite , n o n -H i s p a n i c . School V i o l e n c e P e rce p tio n --FP E RCV IO: F a c t o r s c a l e f o r st u d e n t s p e r c e p t i o n o f v i o l e n t a c t s i n s c h o o l s o r o n sch o o l campuses a s s e r i o u s , mo d e ra t e , m i n o r , o r n o p ro b le m; r e p r e s e n t s e i g h t o r i g i n a l v a r i a b l e s . School V í o le n c e P e rs o n a l B e h a vio r--FS E L FV IO: F a c t o r s c a l e f o r st u d e n t s' r e p o r t o f p e rs o n a l d i s r u p t i v e v i o l e n t a c t i o n s co mmitte d i n s c h o o ls o r o n s c h o n l ca mp u se s; r e p r e s e n t s t h re e o r i g i n a l v a r i a b l e s . School V i o l e n c e V ic t imiz a t io n --FV CTMV I O : F a c t o r s c a l e f o r st u d e n t s' r e p o r t o f h a v in g e x p e rie n c e d d í r e c t p e rs o n a l 45
  • 46. 34 t h re a t s o r h a rm a t s c h o o l; r e p r e s e n t s t h r e e o r i g i n a l v a r i a b l e s . Student A ch ie ve me n t --S t u d e n t s r e a d i n g a n d ma t h e ma t ics s c o re s o n c o g n i t i v e t e s t s co n d u ct e d b y NELS:88. U r b a n i c i t y - - C l a s s i fi c a t i o n f o r t h e l o c a t i o n o f s c h o o l s w i t h e ig h t h g ra d e c la s s ro o ms c r e a e d f r o m Q u a l i t y E d u ca t io n Da t a f ro m t h e F e d e ra l I n f o r m a t i o n P ro c e s s in a S t a n d a rd s u se d b y th e U. S . B u re a u o f t h e Ce n su s: Urb a n — c e n t r a l c i t y ; Suburban — a re a s u rro u n d in g a c e n t r a l c i t y w i t h i n a c o u n t y c o n s t i t u t l n g t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n S t a t i s t i c a l A re a (MS A ); Ru ra l — o u t s i d e t h e MSA. We a p o n s--De vice s u se d w i t h t h e i n t e n t o f i n fl i c t i n g h a r m . We ig h t—Th e b a se y e a r me a su re (BYQWT) f o r t h e s t u d e n t sa mp le a p p lie d t o a n a ly s e s t o p ro d u ce n a t i o n a l p o p u l a t i o n e s t ima t e s a n d re d u ce b i a s . T h e g e n e ra l p u lp o s e o f we ig h t in g s u rv e y d a t a i s t o compensate f o r u n e q u a l p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f s e l e c t i o n a n d t o a d j u s t f o r t h e e f f e c t s o f nonresponse. F o r e xa mp le , 2 4 , 5 9 9 (ro u n d e d t o 2 5 , 0 0 0 ) b a s e ye a r s t u d e n t s re p re s e n t 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 e i g h t h g ra d e rs e n r o l l e d i n 5 , 0 0 0 s c h o o l s n a t io n wid e i n 1 9 8 8 . Research Q u e st io n s a n d Hyp o th e se s The f o l l o w i n g re s e a rc h q u e s t io n s we re e xa min e d : 1. W h a t i s t h e n a t u re o f v i o l e n c e i n s c h o o l s e t t i n g s i n u rb a n , suburban, a n d r u r a l co mmu n it ie s? a. W h a t a r e t h e mo st p r e v a l e n t t y p e s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e i n 46
  • 47. Methods o f A n a l y s i s 47 35 f o u r t y p e s o f s c h o o l s : p u b l i c , C a t h o l i c , n o n - s e c t a r i a n p r i v a t e , a n d o t h e r p r i v a t e r e l i g i o u s s c h o o ls ? Stu d e n ts d e s c ri b e d t h e d e g re e o f v i o l e n c e p ro b le ms i n t h e i r s c h o o ls a s s e r i o u s , mo d e ra t e , m i n o r , a n d n o t a p ro b le m f o r t h r e e s c h o o l v i o l e n c e me a su re s: p e rs o n a l . b e h a vio r, v i c t i m i z a t i o n , . a n d p e rc e p t i o n o f v i o l e n c e . b. W h a t a r e t h e p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l V i o l e n c e among e i g h t h g ra d e rs b y s t u d e n t b a ckg ro u n d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : s e x , r a c e / e t h n i c i t y , s o c io -e c o n o mic q u a r t i l e , a n d f a m i l y income; b y s c h o o l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : s c h o o l t y p e , s c h o o l p o v e rt y i n d i c a t o r ( p e r c e n t o f s t u d e n t s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a f r e e o r re d u ce d l u n c h p ro g ra m), a n d p e rc e n t o f m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g a s c h o o l? 2. W h a t i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f s c h o o l v io le n c e p ro b le ms t o s t u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n re a d in g a n d mathemazics? N u l l Hy p o t h e s is I . T h e r e w i l l b e n o s i g n i fi c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n st u d e n t a ch ie ve me n t re g a rd i n g t h e mo st p re v a le n t t y p e s o f s c h o o l v i o l e n c e . N u l l Hy Do t h e s is I I . T h e r e w i l l b e n o s i g n i fi c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n stu d e n t a ch ie ve me n t i n p u b l i c , O a t h o l i c , n o n -s e c t a ria n p r i v a t e , a n d o t h e r p r i v a t e r e l i g i o u s s c h o o ls wh e re s c h o o l v i o l e n c e o ccu rs. Samole NELS:88 i n i t i a t e d a t wo -s t a g e s t r a t i fi e d p r o b a b i l i t y sa mp lin g d e s ig n t o s e l e c t a n a t i o n a l l y r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sa mp le o f sch o o ls (n = 1 , 0 5 1 ) t h a t h a d e i g h t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s (n = 2 4 , 5 9 9 ) d u rin g t h e 1 9 8 8 -8 9 s c h o o l y e a r . O n a ve ra g e , e a c h s c h o o l wa s
  • 48. re p re se n t e d b y 2 5 co -L - e s t u d e n t s r a n d o m l y s e l e c t e d f r o m e i g h t h grade s c h o o l r o s t e r s ; t w o t e a c h e rs f o r e a ch s t u d e n t ; a n d o n e p a re n t p e r e i g h t h g ra d e r. H i s p a n i c a n d A s i a n s t u d e n t s we re o ve rsa mp le d t o p e r m i t a n a l y s i s o f t h e p e rf o rma n ce o f la n g u a g e m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s languaae m i n o r i t y about t h e NELS:88 T a . b l e 1 V a ri a b l e Male Female Re f u sa l Mis s in g T o t a l r e s u l t i n g i n st u d e n t s p e r a u g me n ta tio n o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 -3 sch o o l. Te c h n ic a l i n f o / 36 ma t io n d a ta b a se c a n b e f o u n d i n t h e NELS:88 U s e r ' s Manuals (USEd, 1 9 9 0 , NCES S c h o o l; USEd, 1 9 9 0 , NCES S t u d e n t ). Ta b le 1 p r e s e n t s sa mp le d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s e n s t u d e n t s ' background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : s e x , r a c e / e t h n i c i t y , s c h o o l t y p e , c i t y t y p e , f a m i l y in co me , s t u d e n t s ' s o c i o -e c o n o mi c s t a t u s a u a r t i l e , p e r c e n t o f s t u d e n t s r e c e i v i n g f r e e o r re d u c e d lu n c h , and D e rc e n t o f m i n o r i t y i n s t u d e n t s s c h o o l . E ic h t h Gra d e S t u d e n t s b v S e le c t e d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : 1 9 8 8 Number P e r c e n t 14,923 14,892 9 257 30,081 48 Sex 49.6 49.5 .0 .9 100.0 Note. ( n = 2 4 , 5 9 9 S t u d e n t s ), R e p re s e n t i n g (N=3 0 , 0 8 1 S t u d e n t s ) (t a b l e c o n t in u e s )
  • 49. Ta b le 1 (c o n t i n u e d ) V a ria b le Number P e r c e n t R a c e / e t h n i c i t y A sia n P a c i fi c i s . 1 , 0 4 2 3 . 5 Hisp a n ic 3 , 0 8 9 . 1 0 . 3 B la ck n o n -h is p a n ic 3 , 9 3 2 1 3 . 1 Wh ite n o n -h is p a n ic 2 0 , 3 8 1 6 7 . 7 American I n d i a n 1 , 2 6 2 4 . 2 Mu lt i-re s p o n s e 5 9 . 2 Re fu sa l 6 4 . 2 M' s s ' n a 2 5 2 . 8 To t a l 3 0 , 0 8 1 1 0 0 . 0 School t y p e P u b lic 2 6 , 4 5 8 8 8 . 0 C a t h o l i c 2 , 2 8 3 7 . 6 P , - i v a t e O t h e r R e l i a i o u s 8 7 5 P riv a t e No n -Re lig io u s 4 6 5 1 . 5 T o t a l 3 0 , 0 8 1 1 0 0 . 0 C i t y t y p e Urban 7 , 5 6 0 2 5 . 1 Suburban 1 3 , 1 1 7 4 3 . 6 Ru ra l 9 , 4 0 4 3 1 . 3 To t a l 3 0 , 0 8 1 1 0 0 . 0 Note. ( n = 2 4 , 5 9 9 S t u d e n t s ), Re p re s e n t in g (N=3 0 , 0 8 1 S t u d e n t s) 49 37 (t a b l e c o n t in u e s )