2. 2
Do the major theories agree?
• Psychology theories provide insight into
understanding the teaching and learning
process:
– What is learning?
– Why do learners respond as they do to teachers
efforts?
– What impact does the school and culture have
on students learning?
r.ureta (2018)
4. What is Learning?
• A change in behavior as a result of experience.
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5. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• Learning is an experience which occurs
inside the learner and is activated by the
learner.
- no one directly teaches anyone anything of
significance.
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6. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• Learning is the discovery of the personal
meaning and relevance of ideas.
- students more readily internalize and
implement concepts and ideas which are
relevant to their needs and problems.
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7. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• Learning is a consequence of experience.
- teachers should make use of experiential
learning since it makes use of direct as
well as vicarious experiences.
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8. PRINCIPLE OF LEARNING
• Learning is a cooperative and
collaborative process.
- "two heads are better than one"
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9. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• Learning is an evolutionary process.
- behavioral change requires time and
patience.
.
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10. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• Learning is sometimes a painful process.
- behavioral change often calls for giving up
the old and comfortable way of believing,
thinking and valuing.
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11. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• Learners are one of the richest resources
for learning.
- each individual is an accumulation of
experiences, ideas, feelings and attitudes
which comprise a rich vein of material for
problem solving and learning.
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12. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• The process of learning is emotional as
well as intellectual.
- people are feeling beings as well as
thinking beings and when their feelings
and thoughts are in harmony learning is
maximized.
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13. PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• The process of problem solving and
learning are highly unique and individual.
- each person has its own unique styles of
learning and solving problems.
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14. 14
What is Psychology?
• Psychology is the scientific study of mental
functions and behavior including:
• perception, cognition, behavior, emotion,
personality, and interpersonal relationships.
r.ureta (2018)
15. The major theories of learning have been
classified into three groups:
1. Behaviorist theories:
–Focuses on stimulus response and
reinforcers;
–Studies conditioning, modifying, or
shaping behavior through reinforcement
and rewards
r.ureta (2018) 15
16. 2. Cognitive theories:
–Focuses information processing in relation to
the total environment
–Studies developmental stages, understanding,
multiple forms of intelligence, problem solving,
critical thinking, and creativity.
The major theories of learning have been
classified into three groups:
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17. The major theories of learning have
been classified into three groups:
3. Phenomenological and Humanistic theories:
–Focuses on the whole child, their social,
psychological, and cognitive development.
–Studies focus on human needs, attitudes,
feelings and self-awareness.
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19. 19
Edward Thorndike
Father of modern educational psychology
& founder of behavioral psychology
– Started his research with animals using
stimulus-response (classic conditioning)
and developed the idea of Connectionism.
– 1928-Thordike conducted his first major
study with adults.
Connectionism
– Defined learning as a connection or
association of an increasing number of
habits. (More complicated associations
means higher levels of understanding.)
– Three Laws of Learning
"Photo of Edward Thorndike."
[Online image] 1 February 2009.
<http://http://faculty.frostburg.edu/mb
radley/psyography/thorndike.html>
(1874 – 1949)
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1. Law of Readiness
– Often misinterpreted as educational readiness
– Deals with attitudes and focus. “Why should I do this?”
1. Law of Exercise
– Strength of connections is proportional to frequency,
duration, and intensity of its occurrence.
– Justifies drill, repetition and review.
1. Law of Effect
– Responses that cause satisfaction strengthen
connections and discomfort weakens connections.
– Justifies use of rewards and punishments, especially
Skinner’s operant model.
Three Laws of Learning
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21. 21
Thorndike’s Influence
• Thorndike and other followers believed that rote
memorization does not necessarily strengthen
connections.
– There has to be some sort of meaning
associated with it in order to be transferred to
other situations.
• Thorndike broke the traditional thinking about
hierarchy of subject matter.
– One subject was no more important to
meaningful learning than another.
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22. 22
Ivan Pavlov
–Pavlov was the first to
demonstrate Classical
Conditioning.
–He is best known for his
experiment with salivating
dogs.
–Classical Conditioning "Pavlov's Drooling Dogs." [Online
image] 1 February 2009.
<http://http://nobelprize.org/educ
ational_games/medicine/pavlov/re
admore.html>
(1849 – 1936)
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23. 23
• Dogs were trained to salivate at the sound
of a bell.
– Dogs naturally salivated with food.
(Unconditioned response)
– A bell (neutral stimuli) was rung every time the
dogs were fed over a period of time creating
the association/connection of the bell with
food.
– After time, the dogs salivated at the sound of
the bell alone.
Pavlov’s Dogs
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24. 24
James Watson
• Watson took Pavlov’s findings to another
level.
• Emphasized that learning was observable or
measurable, not cognitive.
• Believed the key to learning was in
conditioning a child from an early age based
on Pavlov’s methods.
• Nurture vs. Nature
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25. 25
B. F. Skinner
– B.F. Skinner was one of the most
influential American psychologists.
– He began his research with rats at
Harvard and pigeons during WWII.
– His work led to the development of the
Theory of Operant Conditioning.
• The idea that behavior is determined or
influenced by its consequence.
– Respondent vs. Operant behavior
• Respondent behavior is the elicited
response tied to a definite stimulus.
• Operant behavior is the emitted
response seemingly unrelated to any
specific stimuli.
Joyce Dopkeen-New York Times.
"B.F. Skinner." [Online image] 1
February 2009.
<http://http://media-
2.web.britannica.com/eb-
media/92/110192-004-
AC182B61.jpg>.
(1904 – 1990)
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26. 26
• Types of reinforcers (stimuli)
– Primary – stimuli fulfilling basic human drives such
as food and water.
– Secondary – personally important, such as approval
of friends or teachers, winning money, awards, or
recognition.
– Secondary reinforcers can become primary. Due to
the wide range of secondary reinforcers, Skinner
referred to them as generalized.
Operant Conditioning
r.ureta (2018)
27. Operant behavior will “extinguish”
without reinforcement.
– Positive reinforcer – presenting a reinforcing
stimulus.
– Negative reinforcement –
removing/withdrawing a stimulus or reinforcer
but it is not punishment.
– Punishment – presenting harmful stimuli
(rejected by Skinner because he felt it
interfered with learning)
– “Reinforcers always strengthen behavior.”
“Punishment is used to suppress behavior.”
(B.F. Skinner, “A Brief Survey of Operant Behavior” www.bfskinner.org)r.ureta (2018) 27
28. 28
• Desired operant behaviors must be reinforced
in a timely manner. Delay of reinforcement
hinders performance.
• By selecting which behavior to reinforce, we
can direct the learning process in the
classroom.
• Learners can acquire new operants.
– As behavior is shaped, new and more complex
concepts can be introduced and desired behavior
again reinforced.
Operant Conditioning
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29. 29
Albert Bandura
– Bandura contributed to the understanding of learning
through observation and modeling.
• He showed that aggressive behavior can be learned
from watching adults fighting, violent cartoons or even
violent video games. Passive behavior can also be
learned from watching adults with subdued
• Repeated demonstration and modeling is used by
coaches in various sports, military endeavors, and is
also used in the classroom setting to model and practice
desired behaviors.
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30. 30
Robert Gagné
– Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning notes the
transition from behaviorism to cognitive
psychology.
– The Hierarchy of Learning is an
arrangement of 8 behaviors ranging from
simple to complex.
– He also describes 5 observable and
measurable learning outcomes
"Photo of Robert Gagne."
[Online image] 1 February 2009.
<http://http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Ar
ticles/gagnesevents/index.htm>.
(1916 – 2002)
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31. 31
Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning
1. Signal Learning:
Classical Conditioning - Response to a signal
2. Stimulus-Response:
Operant Conditioning – Response to given stimulus
3. Motor Chains:
Linking two or more stimulus response connections to
form a more complex skill
4. Verbal Association:
Linking two or more words or ideas
Behavioral
Behavioral
Behavioral
Behavioral
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Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning (Cont.)
5. Multiple Discriminations:
Responding in different ways to different items in a set
6. Concepts:
reacting to stimuli in an abstract way
7. Rules:
Chaining two or more stimulus situations or concepts
8. Problem Solving
Combining known rules/principles into new situations
to solve a problem
Behavioral
Behavioral - Cognitive
Behavioral - Cognitive
Cognitive – higher order
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33. 33
Five Learning Outcomes (observable and
measurable)
1. Intellectual Skills
• “knowing how” to organize and use verbal and
mathematical symbols, concepts and rules to solve a
problem.
1. Information
• “knowing what” – knowledge and facts
1. Cognitive Strategies
• “learning strategies” needed to process information
1. Motor skills
• Ability to coordinate movements
1. Attitudes.
• Feelings and emotions developed from positive and
negative experiences.r.ureta (2018)
34. 34
Background
• Replaced behaviorism as dominant philosophy in
1960’s
• 1. Criticisms of Behaviorism:
Did not explain:
• language learning
• why people respond differently to the same stimulus
• reinforcement can reduce motivation
*Have you observed this effect?
• 2. Popularity of newly discovered theories of Piaget
and Vygotsky in the 50’s and 60’s
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Working Mental Model
•Bandura- bridge/transition
•learning is social by observation, modeling, imitation
Behaviorism Cognitive
Pavlov Skinner Bandura Vygotsky Piaget
Environment Behavior
Spectrum
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37. 37
Basic Characteristics
• Focus on how individuals
process information
• Emphasis on memory
(storage, retrieval, types)
• Chunking can aide working
memory, which is limited
• Successful learners transfer
information to long term
memory - “infinite” in capacity
http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/m/r/mrs331/cognitivism.htm
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Behaviorism vs. Cognitive
Attribute Behaviorism Cognitive Theory
Behaviors The end in themselves-
the only observable
truth
Evidence pointing to
brain activity- learning
Activation of Prior
Knowledge
Irrelevant Essential
Teachers role Provide stimulus Prepare environment
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39. 39
Maria Montessori
(1870 - 1952)
• Rationale for including her:
• Authors do not place her with
progressive child- centered
approaches-lack of “free play” vs.
freedom within structure
• Opposed behaviorist focus on only
“doing” but focused also on
looking and listening
• Focus on how sensory stimulation
from the environment shapes
thinking r.ureta (2018)
40. 40
Jean Piaget
1896 - 1980
• Swiss psychologist (Pestalozzi)
• America noticed in the 50’s and 60’s
• Text reminds us that his theories are not
fact, and should be taken as “suggestive”
• Influenced: Tyler, Taba, Bruner, Kohlburg
• and MANY MORE!!!
•Tyler- various assessment
•Taba-Too many facts, not
enough connections
•Bruner-stages like Piaget,
but are revisited to develop
in complexity
•Kohlberg- moral stages
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41. 41
Piaget- Cognitive Development Stages
Formal
operations
begins
@ 11-15
abstract thinker
Concrete operations
(ages 7 to 11)
begins to think abstractly,
needs physical, concrete examples
Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 4)
Needs concrete interactions (no abstract)
use of symbols (pictures, words) to communicate
Sensorimotor stage (Birth to 2 years old)
learning by movement and sensory exploration
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Learning involves:
• assimilation (filing info in an existing
schema)
• accommodation (changing schemata to
fit new info)
Schema theory explains:
• importance of accessing prior knowledge
•why cognitive dissonance strategies work
Like Gagne, stages described as hierarchal
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43. 43
Lev Vygotsky
(1896-1934)
• Russian psychologist
• Theory of sociocultural development
• Culture requires skilled tool use
(language, art, counting systems)
The Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD): distance between a student’s
performance with help and
performance independently.
• learning occurred in this zone
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44. 44
Piaget vs. Vygotsky
Piaget Vygotsky
Emphasis Discrete hierarchal
stages of the
individual
Modeling and
guided learning
Which comes
first: social
learning (chicken)
or development
(egg)?
development social learning
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45. 45
Constructivism
• Some include this as a separate theory,
other include it inside of cognitive theories
• What is learning?
• Individual must construct own knowledge- make
meaning
• Learner must reshape words- mimicking is not
enough.
• Learners must make knowledge personally
relevant
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46. 46
Constructivism
• How does learning take place?
• New information is linked to prior knowledge, so mental
representations are subjective for each learner
• Learning is optimal when there is awareness of the
process- metacognition
• “A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is
that instructors should never tell students anything
directly but, instead, should always allow them to
construct knowledge for themselves. This is actually
confusing a theory of pedagogy (teaching) with a theory
of knowing. Constructivism assumes that all knowledge is
constructed from the learner’s previous knowledge,
regardless of how one is taught. Thus, even listening to a
lecture involves active attempts to construct new
knowledge.”
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61. The spirit is looking at the
grave
In Einstein’s face you’ll see
the three graces
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Hinweis der Redaktion
Thorndike maintained that:
Conditions influence behavior
Attitudes and ability can improve over time
Instruction can be designed and controlled
It is important to select stimuli and experiences that are integrated consistently and reinforce connections
He attempted, more than others at the time to apply his theory to the classroom.
Examples:
If a student does well, praising them is a positive reinforcment.
If a teacher shouts “keep quiet!” the students silence reinforces the shouting.”
Negative reinforcement is the removal of a harmful stimulant when desired behavior occurs (removing electric current in the operant box with rats when the pressed the lever)
In the rats, if they pressed the lever, they were rewarded. If the food was not provided when they pressed the lever, (negative) then they would eventually stop pressing.
While learning new skills, students must know if they are doing things correctly or they will become frustrated or unsure of themselves.
He doesn’t seem fall solely under behaviorism. He is in between behaviorism and congitive pyschology.
He is best known for his Nine Instructional Events. (Cognitive)
1. fear response to a rat (scared of it)
2. Student’s response to “please sit”
3. dotting the i and crossing the t in a word with both letters
4. translating a foreign word
5. discriminating between grass and trees
6. examples, animals grammar, and so on
7. animals have offspring – adjective modifies a noun
8. finding the area of a triangle given the dimensions of two sides.
