2. Software Development: A 5-Step Process
1) Analysis
– English description of what the
system models to meet user requirement / specification
2) Designing the system
– divide & conquer: system is composed of smaller subsystems which in turn may be composed of even
smaller subsystems (diagrams often helpful)
3) Implementing the design (in a particular programming language)
– if design is good, most of the hard work should be done
4) Testing and Debugging
– testing: submitting input data or sample user interactions and seeing if program reacts properly
– debugging: process of removing program bugs (errors)
5) Maintenance
– in a successful piece of software, keeping a program working and current is often said to be 80% of the
effort
Good Program:
– solves original problem
– well-structured, extensible, maintainable, efficient
3. Object-Oriented Programming
• OOP: Now the dominant way to program, yet it is over 40
years old! (Simula '67 and Smalltalk '72 were the first OOPLs)
– Dr. Alan Kay received ACM’s Turing Award, the
“Nobel Prize of Computing,” in 2003 for Smalltalk,
the first complete dynamic OOPL
• It was slow to catch on, but since the mid-90’s everybody’s
been doing it!
• OOP emphasizes objects, which often reflect real-life objects
– have both properties and capabilities
– i.e., they can perform tasks: “they know how to...”
• Look around you... name that object!
4. OOP as Modeling
• In OOP, model program as collection of cooperating objects
– program behavior is determined by group interactions
– group interactions are determined by individual objects
• In OOP, objects are considered anthropomorphic
– each is “smart” in its specialty
– e.g., bed can make itself, door can open itself, menu can let
selections be picked
– but, each must be told when to perform actions by another object
— so objects must cooperate to accomplish task
• Each object represents an abstraction
– a “black box”: hides details you do not care about
– allows you as the programmer to control program’s complexity —
only think about salient features
• So, write programs by modeling problem as set of collaborating
components
– you determine what the building blocks are
– put them together so they cooperate properly
– like building a circuit with discrete/integrated components, some of
which are pre-defined, some of which you design!
5. Example: Tetris
• What are the game’s objects?
• What do those objects know how to do?
• What properties do they have?
6. Example: Tetris (cont.)
• What are the game’s objects?
– piece, board
• Capabilities: What do those objects know how to do?
– piece:
• be created
• fall
• rotate
• stop at collision
– board:
• be created
• remove rows
• check for end of game
• Properties: What attributes and components do they have?
– piece:
• orientation
• position
• shape
• color
– board:
• size
• rows
10. An Example Data Abstraction
Note the difference between data and procedural abstraction.
11. A Complex Number
Data Abstraction (STATE) vs. Procedural Abstraction (BEHAVIOR)
Data
Real Part
Imaginary Part
? Angle
? Magnitude
Procedures
Add
Multiply
GetMagnitude
GetAngle
?
?
12. Abstract Data Types (ADTs)
• Object-oriented programming embodies both
procedural abstraction and data abstraction.
– Procedural Abstraction:- Naming a segment of
code so that it can be executed by giving its name.
E.g. calculateAverage, drawCircle, getUserName, sqrt
– Data Abstraction:- A data abstraction consists of
the following three parts:
• A set S of objects, whose representation structure is undefined.
• A set P of operations defined on elements of S.
• A set R of rules that define the operations and relationships
between the elements of the set.
E.g. an integer (abstracted in C/C++/Java as int)
13. Abstract Data Types (ADTs)
• An abstract data type is a set of data abstractions,
each with its own elements, operations and rules,
where one of the data abstractions within the ADT is
specified as the principal data abstraction.
Examples:
An array (of integers)
A string (of characters)
A queue(of people)
A list(of students),
A stack(of dishes),…
14. Commonly Used ADTs
• Some common ADTs, which have proved useful
in a great variety of applications, include:
Note:
1. You can find commonly used ADTs implemented in PLs like C++, C# and Java
C++ (the Standard Template Library)
C# (.NET’s System.Generics.Collections)
Java (java.util.* - the Java Collection library) – more on this later
2. Plus you can implement your own (Data Structures is a separate course, but you’d
be able to create and/or use basic ADTs)
– A QUICK DEMO
18. 18
Arrays Review
• Arrays are a simple data structure
• Arrays store a row of values of the same type
– Primitive types (int, double, etc.)
// array that can hold 10 chars
char[] letters = new char[10];
– Objects (Students, Dates etc.)
// array that can hold 3 LightSwitches
LightSwitch[] switches = new LightSwitch[3];
19. 19
Arrays Review
• Access each value through an index:
int[] intArray = new int[20];
intArray[0] = 4 ; intArray[1] = 75;
• Array indices start at 0, not 1
– first element of intArray is intArray[0]
– last element of intArray is intArray[19]
• Important: Array lengths cannot be changed
once they are declared!
20. 20
ArrayList
• ArrayList stores its elements internally as
an array. However, its size can be modified
once declared.
• get method is fast – just retrieves the element
at the specified index
• add method is slow – may have to create a
larger array and copy over all the elements.
21. 21
Linked List Data Structure
• A linked list is like a freight train: each link stores
an item and is connected to the next link
• The list holds a reference to the first (and maybe
the last) element
Linked List Link 1 Link 2 Link n
Item 1 Item 2 Item n
. . .
22. 22
LinkedList
• LinkedList stores its elements internally in
a linked list data structure.
• add method is fast – just appends a new link
to the end of the list
• get method is slow – has to walk down the
list retrieve the element at the specified index
23. 23
iterator method
• Both ArrayList and LinkedList
have a method named iterator
• Returns an object of type Iterator
• We use the Iterator to iterate over the
elements of the list.
24. 24
Iterators
• We use Iterators to iterate over the
elements of lists
• hasNext method returns true when
there are more elements to iterate over
• next method returns the next element
in the iteration
25. 25
Casting
• Because the next method returns type
Object, you must cast the return value to
the actual type of the value.
• "Casting" means "promising" the compiler
that the object will be of a particular type
• This allows you to use methods of the actual
type without the compiler complaining
27. 27
Access & Organization
• Let’s say you have 100’s of files on your PC.
What kind of problems do you encounter?
– can’t find particular files
– duplicate or similar file names
– hard to keep personal files private
• Solution: Sort and organize your files into
subdirectories
28. 28
Packages
• Organize your classes into sets or units
• Reduce problems with name conflicts
• Identify your classes in a set with specific
functionality
How to specify the package for a class:
package <package name>;
29. 29
Using Packages
• A class can always access other classes in its
own package
• A class can always access public classes in
other packages
Q: What happens if we don’t specify a class
as public or private?
A: the default level of access is package
30. 30
Levels of Access Control
Visibility private package
(default)
public
From the same
class
yes yes yes
From any class
in same package
no yes yes
From any class
outside the
package
no no yes
31. 31
Import Classes and Packages
• Specify the class you want to import:
import java.util.Date;
• You can import multiple classes:
import java.util.ArrayList;
• You can also import whole packages:
import java.util.*;
• Default imported package:
import java.lang.*;
32. 32
Package Example: Person.java
package examples;
class Person {
String name;
// add a field to store a birthday
// write a method to set the birthday
// write a method to get the birthday
}
33. 33
Using java.util.Date
package examples;
class Person {
String name;
java.util.Date birthday;
void setBirthday(java.util.Date d) {
birthday = d;
}
java.util.Date getBirthday() {
return birthday;
}
}
37. 37
Packages Quiz 1
package example1;
public class A {
public int a = 5;
}
package example1;
public class B {
int b = 5;
}
package example1;
public class C {
private int c = 5;
}
package example1;
public class quiz{
void main() {
A ant = new A();
B bug = new B();
C cat = new C();
// Which are correct?
int testa = ant.a;
int testb = bug.b;
int testc = cat.c;
}
}
38. 38
Package Quiz 2
package example2;
import example1.*;
public class quiz{
void main() {
A ant = new A();
B bug = new B();
C cat = new C();
// Which are correct?
int testa = ant.a;
int testb = bug.b;
int testc = cat.c;
}
}
package example1;
public class A {
public int a = 5;
}
package example1;
public class B {
int b = 5;
}
package example1;
public class C {
private int c = 5;
}
40. 40
Scope of a Variable
• Definition: the block (section) of code for
which your variable (identifier) exists
• The scope is set to the block in which you
defined your variable
• This is the block of code where you can use
the variable
41. 41
Scope Quiz 1
class TestScope {
int x = 0;
void f() {
int y = 20;
x = 10;
}
void print() {
System.out.println(x);
f();
System.out.println(x);
System.out.println(y);
}
}
What is the output of
print()?
This file won't
compile, so print will
never execute
42. 42
Method Scope
class TestScope {
int x = 0;
void f() {
int y = 20;
x = 10;
}
void print() {
System.out.println(x);
f();
System.out.println(x);
System.out.println(y); // ERROR
}
}
• x is defined for the
whole class block.
• y is defined inside the
method f().
43. 43
Scope Quiz 2
class TestScope {
int x = 0;
void f() {
int y = 20;
x = 10;
}
void print() {
int y = 0;
System.out.println(x);
f();
System.out.println(x);
System.out.println(y);
}
}`
Does this fix the
problem?
What is the output
of print()?
0
10
0
44. 44
Scope Quiz 3
class TestScope {
int x = 0;
int y = 0;
void f() {
int y;
y = 20;
x = 10;
}
void print() {
System.out.println(x);
f();
System.out.println(x);
System.out.println(y);
}
}
Now, we declare a
new field, y.
What is the output of
print()?
0
10
0
45. 45
Scope Quiz 4
class TestScope {
int x = 0;
int y = 0;
void f() {
y = 20;
x = 10;
}
void print() {
System.out.println(x);
f();
System.out.println(x);
System.out.println(y);
}
}
Now, we change the
method f().
What is the output of
print()?
0
10
20
46. 46
Scope Quiz 5
package examples;
class Operations{
int square(int a) {
a = a * a;
return a;
}
void print() {
int a = 5;
System.out.println(square(a));
System.out.println(a);
}
}
• What is the output of
print()?
25 <- square(a)
5 <- a
47. 47
Scope Quiz 6
package examples;
class Operations{
int a = 5;
int square(int a) {
a = a * a;
return a;
}
void print() {
System.out.println(square(a));
System.out.println(a);
}
}
• What is the output of
print()?
25 <- square(a)
5 <- a
48. 48
Scope Quiz 7
package examples;
class Operations{
int a = 5;
int square(int a) {
this.a = a*a;
return a;
}
void print() {
System.out.println(square(a));
System.out.println(a);
}
}
• What is the output of
print()?
5 <- square(a)
25 <- a
49. 49
Loop Scope
void adding() {
for (int j = 0; j<5; j++) {
int sum += j;
}
System.out.println(sum);
}
• What’s wrong with the above segment of code?
ERROR: sum is only defined inside the for loop
50. 50
Loop Scope Fixed
void adding() {
int sum = 0;
for (int j = 0; j<5; j++) {
sum += j;
}
System.out.println(sum);
}
• sum is now defined for the whole block of
code for the adding method
