1. 1
Olayemi Olubowale
Vanderbilt University- PUBH 5542/MHS 7305
Dr. Moon & Dr. Heimburger
November 21st, 2016
The Explicable Causes and Tangible Effects of Africa’s “Brain Drain”

2. 2
I. Introduction
World-renowned, also highly controversial, human rights activist Malcolm X
(born Malcolm Little in Omaha, Nebraska) was once quoted as saying, “The black man in
Africa had mastered the arts and sciences. He knew the course of the stars in the universe
before the man up in Europe knew that the earth wasn't flat.” Mr. Little fully accentuated
the ability of ‘the black man in Africa’ and his contributions to the humanities, but did his
chronological assertion hold merit? The Greek philosopher Aristotle posited in his
writings (some time between 384-322 B.C.) that the Earth was in fact spherical, much to
the dismay of his contemporary clergymen; however, Mr. Little seems to be correct, fully
formed Egyptian astrology hints at the idea further back, dating to roughly 525 B.C. In
the approximately 2,500 years that follow this discussion, there was a shift in the
paradigm of scholarly pursuits, from between the latitude lines of the Tropic of Cancer
and the Tropic of Capricorn to “the West”—wealthy governments in Western Europe and
North America. Concurrent with this shift of academic influence came a transfer of
erudite professionals from between those tropics to “the West”. Although Africa is not
the only continent1 directly impacted by the flight of its locally trained doctors, engineers
and other skilled constituents with postgraduate education (which will be placed under
the blanket term of “skilled professionals” for the remainder of this text), there is an
ardent case to be made that it is the continent most hindered by this drain of talent. There
are a multitude of reasons that led (and are still leading) to the emigration of skilled
African diaspora, and they all play their respective role in the lull of the growth2 in the
continent over the past few decades.
Although the expression “continent” has already appeared three times—it should
be noted that it is extremely difficult, and shortsighted, to classify Africa as a monolith.
Africa has a broad spectrum of diversity: home to fifty-four distinct countries, which in
total speak about 2,058 languages and dialects3, and practice a variety of religions, from
Christianity to Islam, Hinduism, Judaism, and Buddhism4. The question surfaces, how
did these communities with so little in common end up amalgamated on top of one
another? The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, called by Germany to avoid European
conflict over the claiming of African territory (a whole new discussion, saved for another

3. 3
day), is seen as the primary source of Africa’s quite arbitrary geographical borders
today5. Many countries use natural, physical boundaries, like rivers, mountains, deserts
and other bodies of water to delineate their boundaries; unfortunately, the people of
Africa had no such luxury. Nearly fifty percent of Africa’s borders are straight lines or
follow lines of latitude/longitude, splitting at least one-hundred and seventy seven ethnic
groups into two or more countries6, which places groups having fundamental differences
(religion, desires for governance, etc.) in the same region. For example, in the country of
Nigeria, defined as one nation-state, there are more than two hundred and fifty distinct
ethnic groups and five hundred indigenous languages according to CIA World Factbook
data7. This close coupling of groups historically in contention for innumerable categories
of finite resources and having disagreements on religion8 and resource usage9 has sown
the seeds of instability and turmoil currently being reaped in the region. This mishmash
of groups also plays a role in failure to create collective national identities—a nation-
state, a sovereign state whose citizens or subjects are relatively homogeneous in factors
such as language or common descent, is able to use the state as an tool to foster unity in
the economic, political and social arenas. This overall unpredictability/ lack of general
continuity has impacted key sectors of Africa’s progress into the 21st century, including:
the economic, political and cultural arenas—these three spheres of influence
conglomerate to create an environment that many skilled professionals aspire to escape as
soon as the opportunity presents itself.
II. Recent Continental Developments
While the recklessness behind merging these countries into a singular entity was
already acknowledged, a number of overarching patterns can be noticed from country to
country. Africa’s urbanization rate is currently higher than any other continent in the
world10, apart from Asia. This type of transition has traditionally kick-started movements
away from heavy reliance on agriculture11 and has led to economic growth, social
transformations12 and absolute poverty reduction13 in the past (in the most successful
instances). However, the practice has shown to also have a number of possible
deleterious effects, including, but not limited to: the multiplying of slums14, an uptick in
urban poverty rates15 and increased inequality between urban and rural areas16 (in the less

4. 4
than stellar instances). Samuel Kelton Roberts’ Infectious Fear weaves a tale of science,
political economies and social geographies coming together in Baltimore, MD. to allow
for the proliferation of tuberculosis in the Black/African-American community17. This is
mentioned to illuminate a negative consequence most important to those in the field of
global health; these newly clustered populations can act as tinder for the fire of new
epidemics. The newly created urban environment is a vessel for a number of risk factors:
poor housing situations can lead to rodent zoonotic illness18 and inadequate water
supplies/poor waste management. In order to combat these concerns adequate
infrastructure planning and health surveillance systems will be powerful tools to improve
the health of the populations and decrease the burden of communicable diseases. This
accelerated growth of urbanization plays a partial role in the reversal of economic trends
observed in Africa over the past seven to eight years.
This feeble African economic turnaround must be highlighted before delving into
what has held the oldest inhabited territory on Earth19 back for so many centuries. The
“Lion Economies” is a catchall nickname given to Africa’s recently burgeoning
economies20, which had a collective GDP of $1.8 trillion in 2008, mainly consisting of
natural resources, agriculture, transportation and telecommunications. However, before
this modern uptick, Africa’s instability, largely rooted in colonization21, played a
substantial role in countries being unable to maneuver themselves out of difficult
circumstances created for them, not even by their own powers. In the last ten years,
Africa’s overall growth rates have approached those of Asia, and on a country-by-country
average Africa will have the world’s fastest growing economy of all the continents over
the next half-decade22. This must be underscored, because if anything will undermine the
success Africa is headed towards in the coming years, it will be a gruesome inability to
retain its most talented compatriots. According to the World Economic Forum’s 2016-
2017 Global Competitiveness Report, Chad, Nigeria and Algeria all reside in the
lowermost (bottom half) of countries able to retain the services of their top talent, each
for their own individual reasons. In order to effectively analyze this (economic) and the
two other arenas (political and cultural), one is best served looking specifically at the
experiences of countries that see the largest exodus of skilled workers.

5. 5
III. Economics in Chad
Economic instability is best understood by focusing a microscope on the country
of Chad. Chad is bordered by Libya to its north, Sudan to its east, Cameroon and Nigeria
to the southwest, Niger to the West, and the Central African Republic; the World
Competitiveness Report ranked Chad the third least globally competitive country in the
world (right before Mauritania and Yemen). Before any conversation can be had on the
specifics of Chad’s finances; one must notice that Chad shares a border with the largest
African economy, Nigeria23, and three other members of the top twenty largest African
economies. This fact exacerbates, yet again, that each country must be individually
considered to tease out the larger forces at play. Chad actually lags far behind many other
developing countries in terms of both economic and human development, according to
the 2016 Index of Freedom24. Chad has been making efforts to diversify its economy25,
but it is still principally dependent on oil revenue and is subjected to the volatility that
accompanies an economy being so contingent on its supply of “black gold”26.
Institutional support for economic freedom remains weak, and corruption prevails
through all levels of government—mainly from the Presidential Cabinet’s siphoning from
the nation’s accumulated oil wealth27. These things all contribute to the expected lack of
economic reward for skilled labor, either from the government or within the walls of the
private sector. To provide a contrast, one needs not look further than the United States of
America. The lowest average salary of any specialized U.S. physician in 2015 was
roughly $284,00028, roughly two hundred and seventy times the GDP per capita in Chad.
This, in and of itself, could be enough to send skilled laborers fleeing for greener pastures
internationally. The main concern29 cited from African practicing doctors is low pay
(followed by poor working conditions and hostility from their employing country). The
lack of tangible economic compensation and insecurity from top-to-bottom in Chad and
many other African countries are the most obvious impetuses for skilled emigration.
However, one would be severely misguided to ignore the implications politics have on
skill retention, as is the case in Nigeria, another West African nation-state.

6. 6
IV. Politics in Nigeria
Politics, defined as, the activities, actions, and policies that are used to gain and
hold power in a government or to influence a government, are, unavoidably, closely tied
to economics. The two spheres of thought can be viewed as different lenses. From the
lens of the economist, politics can be used as a tool to gain/access/manage higher levels
of capital. From the lens of the politician, economics can be viewed as a tool to
gain/access/manage higher levels of power. Cynicism aside, understanding this delicate
balance and focusing on Nigeria give one the best chance at comprehending the complex
interface between politics and “brain drain”.
Nigeria is bordered by Niger to its north, Chad and Cameroon to the east, Benin
to the West, and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. Nigeria was ranked second of the three
aforementioned countries (Chad and Algeria being the others) in terms of its Global
Competitiveness Index Ranking. Unfortunately, that left the country with the eleventh
lowest tanking internationally. As alluded to earlier, Nigeria possesses the most robust
economy in the entire continent23, which wholly underscores financial clout’s failure to
serve as a protective factor from this brain drain “disease”. Nigeria suffers from
corruption in its political ranks—much like every other African country. Transparency
International (TI) is a transnational non-governmental organization devoted to identifying
and fighting corruption30, and in its most recent report TI included 17 African countries
in its bottom quintile (so 17 out of 33 spots with 167 countries represented) in the
Corruption Index, Nigeria among them. The values are absolutely staggering- since
Nigeria gained independence in 1960 from England, a review has confirmed that over
$400 billion of the nation’s oil revenue has either been stolen or misappropriated31.
This corruption extends its dirt caked nails into the healthcare sector as well; Dr.
Rabiatu Hadi notes that Nigeria spends only 5.7% of all public expenditure on health
endeavors. This is especially startling considering Nigeria signed onto the 2001 Abuja
Declaration32, a pledge made by members of the African Union to increase their health
budgeting to at least 15% of the state’s annual budget. If the government can get away
with this blatant circumvention of international policy, what else are they capable of?

7. 7
Primary health centers, locally known as the government hospitals, are dilapidated
structures with physicians that are regularly on strike33 due to government refusal to
compromise on demands. A short interview was posed to a recently (within the last 25
years) emigrated Nigerian physician on the healthcare strike during June 2016. The
response? A shoulder shrug and, “They’re always on strike. You see why I left.”
The widespread frustration with lack of supplies and pharmaceuticals without a
doubt causes physicians to escape for better learning and working conditions on a regular
basis. These two causes for flight appear to materialize as the physicians move up the
ranks of their profession; however, there are a myriad of cultural issues impacting youth
that leave them searching for improved living and working conditions from birth.
V. Culture in Algeria
As noted previously, Africa is a country of different cultures, all of them impacted
by settlers sometime during the 1800s—some more than others34. To understand this
phenomenon best, one should look at the case of Algeria. Algeria is the tenth largest
country in the world by geographical size and is bordered by Tunisia to the northeast,
Libya to the east, Morocco to the west, Western Sahara territory, Mali and Mauritania to
the southwest, and the Mediterranean Sea to the northeast. The World Competitiveness
Report ranked Algeria the highest of the three countries in terms of its Global
Competitiveness Index Ranking (still in the bottom half).
Algeria declared its independence from France on July 5th, 1962 and the Oran
massacre of 1962 commenced that day as well. To provide background on the subject, the
Algerian War between France and the Algerian National Liberation Front (NLF) virtually
ended with the Evian Accords35 of March 18th, 1962. These accords intended to guarantee
safety of the pied-nors36, a term referring to Christian and Jewish families who had
migrated from the Mediterranean to French Algeria. These people had been bitterly
opposing Algeria’s independence from France and as a result, they made numerous local
enemies over the course of the Algerian War. As the accords were released, many people
with European descent departed Algeria, but some remained. On the morning that Algeria

8. 8
declared its independence NLF soldiers entered Oran, and were fired upon by pied-nors37.
This led to native mobs sweeping into the city and slaughtering many of the remaining
European men, women and children who didn’t depart Algeria. Estimates of those
slaughtered still range to this day, from 100 to slightly over 3,00038—this marked the
beginning of French dependency to some degree when the French Gendarmerie (national
police force) was needed to quash this slaughter.
Algeria’s relations with the French have steadily improved throughout the course
of history, with France acting as a standard for how Algeria wanted to govern. As a
result, Algerians have been constantly attempting to enter France, and anti-immigrant
vitriol has been building within the French people over the last decade. These negative
feelings have led to Algerian resettlement elsewhere in Europe. Those that decided to flee
to France remain isolated, and they see regular difficulty39 in obtaining healthcare,
housing, education and employment. This animosity resulted in a larger-scale form of
Stockholm Syndrome40. Frantz Fanon, a member of the Algerian National Liberation
Front, an esteemed psychiatrist and philosopher, published his 1952 piece Black Skin,
White Masks to explore the psychological undercurrents of racism and dehumanization
inherent in systems of colonization41. Fanon reveals the harmful effects of colonial
racism, how this particular brand of forced superiority led to mental disorders/illness,
while showing how the system of colonization stripped the indigenous peoples of their
human status. This removal of human status played a hand in their inferior treatment—
then it was taught that the only way to be considered worthy of proper treatment was to
act like the colonists.
“The black man wants to be like the white man. For the black man there is only
one destiny. And it is white.” (178, Black Skin, White Masks) The thought is jarring, but
even today Fanon’s message resonates. This poorly worded desire isn’t for some sort of
ontological transformation, but for a realization that the black man is in this world,
occupying the same space as well.
VI. Situation Gravity

9. 9
Cascading effects are not exclusive to the areas in which these intellectual
workers are going to, and they can be observed in the homes they left behind. When
scientists, engineers, physicians, and those involved with academia are trained with the
scarcely available supplies in their home country and then leave internationally, their
home countries are left with little return on investment. For example, in the year 1981
there were 202 physicians in the U.S. who were trained originally in Nigeria or Ghana,
but by 2002 that number saw a 1200% increase to 2,636 physicians42 (my father is
actually included in that statistical jump). In Ghana specifically, the impacts on the
healthcare field are palpable; the country has one physician for every 6,700 inhabitants.
Medical training specifically relies heavily on the expertise of “attending
physicians”43 —those who have completed residency and are placed in charge of a
resident group. As students soak up the time/resources from attending physicians, they
are draining the system of a finite supply; upon flight, they, in turn, are not able to
reciprocally contribute their time/resources as attending physicians. This leaves behind
fewer physicians to teach the upcoming medical generation, and students start to look
internationally for medical education (a self-propagating cycle of sorts). It is salient that
there is an issue when Uganda has less than five thousand doctors and thirty thousand
nurses for roughly thirty-five million people44; however, this negative “attending cycle”
is often forgotten. These kinds of trends are discernible in African universities across the
continent, particularly evident in scientist, medical and engineer training.
VII. Solutions
In 2010 the World Health Organization formulated the User’s Guide to the WHO
Global Code of Practice on the International Recruitment of Health Personnel. The text
acknowledges the gravity of the situation45—“...57 countries still experience critical
shortages of appropriately trained health personnel” (3)—and also provides this
particularly perceptive morsel, “While all countries can be affected by the international
and national migration of their health workforce, it is particularly challenging for those
with already fragile health systems.” (3) The text works to establish and promote

10. 10
voluntary practices for ethical international recruitment, which, if followed closely,
would alleviate some of the existing pressures on the global system.
There are a number of extremely plausible solutions for the issue of brain drain
facing the continent. Primarily, if richer African states (Nigeria, Egypt, South Africa,
Algeria and Morocco) were to cooperate with poorer states to discourage intracontinental
and intercontinental talent poaching by the provision of capital for work subsidies,
significant strides would be made. The three wealthiest African countries (Nigeria, Egypt
and South Africa) in terms of 2016 GDP combined equal that of Russia by themselves.
Unfortunately, this is all but impossible if standards of government transparency are not
upgraded from the current kleptocracies46 rampant throughout the continent today. There
already exist organizations dedicated to furthering the cause of governmental clarity—
like Transparency International (TI) and InterAction—partnerships with them would be
fruitful in forming trustful relationships between citizens and their leaders.
After trust is rebuilt, which will surely be an arduous process, due to the deep
roots of corruption and misguidance46, government attention can shift towards revamping
public education sectors. Lucrative scholarships could be given to individuals who pledge
their service domestically for a certain number of years upon graduation, and if they
renege on their agreement they could agree to have their degree withheld as collateral.
Upon graduation, higher wages could then be offered to those same students trained
within the local universities and scaled according to years of service to the country.
Concurrently, efforts can be made within the walls of academia to show students the
impact felt when they flee the country. If these skilled professionals still decide to take
their talents elsewhere, taxes could be levied against them for draining the individual
countries’ resources.
All of these solutions sound phenomenal in theory, but they require extensive economic
and political analyses to gauge plausibility.

11. 11
1. Wealthy African Country Work Subsidies
S: Specific
 The three wealthiest countries in terms of GDP (Nigeria, Egypt and South Africa)
will work with the remaining fifty-one countries to increase their physicians per
1,000 people to the emerging markets average (2.15/1,000 people) by providing
work subsidies tangentially with local governments.
M: Measurable
 The Sub-Saharan African average of physicians per 1,000 people sits at 0.214 per
1,000 people (+1.936/1,000 people).
 The Middle Eastern and North African average of physicians per 1,000 people sits
at 0.513 per 1,000 people (+1.637/1,000 people).
A: Achievable
 This objective is achievable, largely due to how poor these countries are at
retaining talent. If the countries do not improve substantially in retaining the
talent, schools can simply admit and educate larger classes to compensate. If the
countries do improve substantially, they are virtually creating physicians that
would not have been there previously.
R: Realistic
 This objective is the less realistic of the two proposed interventions, but it can be
implemented in a short time frame. The World Economic Forum on Africa meets
May 3rd to May 5th in Durban, South Africa.
T: Time-Phased
 This objective will be measured over the course of six years, roughly the amount
of time all African countrymen spend in medical school.
2. Retention Scholarships
S: Specific
 A pilot program will be launched in Botswana, ranked relatively high in terms of
ability to retain talent (58th globally), on the basis of its singular medical school.
The school, University of Botswana, will institute a scholarship for students who
pledge to spend three years serving their home country.
M: Measurable
 Although Botswana is not struggling as mightily as some of the other African
countries, improvement can still be made. Botswana currently holds 0.4
doctors/1,000 countrymen—even though they manage to preserve their talent.
The emerging markets average (2.15/1,000) can be met (+1.75/1,000) if a
concerted effort is made with the school to increase matriculating classes
tangentially.
A: Achievable

12. 12
 This objective is largely feasible because of the work only relying on a sole
institution. With the first intervention there exist a multitude of actors that must
come on board; however, the University of Botswana is the only group that needs
to be swayed.
R: Realistic
 This objective is the more realistic of the two proposed interventions, but it will
take longer to see improvement, largely due to the time it takes for students to
actually complete their medical education.
T: Time-Specific
 This objective will be measured over the course of six years, roughly the amount
of time all African countrymen spend in medical school.
VIII. Conclusions
The “Lion Economies” of Africa are actually experiencing an upward trend in
economic growth that will be substantially aided by the retention of its best and brightest
minds. Even though Africa was placed in an extremely disadvantageous position
economically, politically and culturally and the effects are still being seen to this day-
there is reasonable optimism for turnaround in the coming years. If one were to expect
that out of any group of people it would be those in the “land of contrasts”, and John
Hemingway, grandson of Ernest, said it best, “If I have ever seen magic, it has been in
Africa.”

13. 13
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
References
1. Saxenian, AnnaLee. "From brain drain to brain circulation: Transnational communities and
regional upgrading in India and China." Studies in comparative international
development 40.2 (2005): 35-61.
2. Easterly, William. "The lost decades:developing countries' stagnation in spite of policy reform
1980–1998." Journal of Economic Growth 6.2 (2001): 135-157.
3. Blommaert, Jan. "4. Linguistic diversity: Africa." Handbook of language and communication:
Diversity and change 9 (2007): 123.
4. Fearon, James D. "Ethnic and cultural diversity by country." Journal of Economic Growth 8.2
(2003): 195-222.
5. Rosenberg, Matt. "Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 to Divide Africa The Colonization of the
Continent by European Powers."About. com, The New York Times Company.
http://geography.about. com/cs/politicalgeog/a/berlinconferenc. htm(accessed
November 15,2009)(2010).
6. Green, Elliott. "On the Size and Shape of African States1." International Studies
Quarterly 56.2 (2012): 229-244.
7. “Nigeria.” CIA World Factbook. CentralIntelligence Agency, 10 Nov. 2016. Web. 17 Nov.
2016. <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-
factbook/geos/ni.html>
8. Soares,Benjamin F. "Muslim-Christian Encounters in Africa." (2006).
9. Alao, Abiodun. Natural resources and conflict in Africa: the tragedy of endowment. Vol. 29.
Rochester,NY: University of Rochester Press,2007.
10. Sy, Amadou. "Foresight Africa: Top priorities for the continent in 2016." African Growth
Initiative (2016).
11. Imhoff, Marc L., et al. "The consequences of urban land transformation on net primary
productivity in the United States."Remote Sensing of Environment89.4 (2004): 434-443.
12. Barakat,Halim. "The Arab family and the challenge of social transformation." Women and
Islam: Social conditions,obstacles and prospects 2 (2005): 145-165.
13. Ravallion, Martin, Shaohua Chen, and Prem Sangraula. "New evidence on the urbanization of
global poverty." Population and Development Review 33.4 (2007): 667-701.
14. Ooi, Giok Ling, and Kai Hong Phua. "Urbanization and slum formation." Journal of Urban
Health 84.1 (2007): 27-34.
15. Ravallion, Martin. "On the urbanization of poverty." Journal of Development Economics 68.2
(2002): 435-442.
16. Lu, Ming, and Zhao Chen. "Urbanization, Urban-Biased Economic Policies and Urban-Rural
Inequality [J]." Economic Research Journal 6.5 (2004).
17. Roberts, Samuel. Infectiousfear:politics, disease,and the health effects of segregation. Univ
of North Carolina Press,2009.
18. Taylor, Peter J.,et al. "Understanding and managing sanitary risks due to rodent zoonoses in
an African city: beyond the Boston Model." Integrative Zoology 3.1 (2008): 38-50.
19. Pace,Norman R. "Origin of life-facing up to the physical setting." Cell 65.4 (1991): 531-533.
20. Hain, P. "An Africa of Lion Economies." World Economic Forum, Durban.Vol. 22. 2000.
21. Brown, David S. "Democracy, colonization, and human capital in sub-Saharan
Africa." Studies in Comparative International Development 35.1 (2000): 20-40.
22. French, Howard. "The Next Asia Is Africa: Inside the Continent's Rapid Economic
Growth." Atlantic Monthly, May 21 (2012).
23. Soludo, Chukwuma C. "Can Nigeria be the China of Africa." Lecture Delivered at the
Founders’ Day of the University of Benin,Nigeria 23 (2006).
24. Miles, Marc,et al. Index of economic freedom. Heritage Books (DC),2004.

14. 14
25. Gould, John A., and Matthew S. Winters. "Petroleum blues: The political economy of
resources and conflict in Chad." High-value natural resourcesand post-conflict
peacebuilding (2012).
26. Watts, Michael J. "Oil as money: the devil’s excrement and the spectacle of black
gold." Reading Economic Geography (2004): 205.
27. Massey,Simon, and Roy May. "Dallas to Doba: Oil and Chad, external controls and internal
politics." Journal of Contemporary African Studies 23.2 (2005): 253-276.
28. Peckham,Carol. "Medscape Physician Compensation Report 2015."Medscape Physician
Compensation Report 2015 (2015).
29. Hagopian, Amy, et al. "The migration of physicians from sub-Saharan Africa to the United
States of America: measures of the African brain drain." Human resourcesfor health 2.1
(2004): 1.
30. Wang, Hongying, and James N. Rosenau. "Transparency international and corruption as an
issue of global governance." Global Governance 7.1 (2001): 25-49.
31. BELLO, MATTHEW FUNSHO,SAMUEL OTOHINOYI,and ALBERT TERKULA
AKUME. "CORRUPTION ANDDEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA:ISSUES,
CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS (1999-2007)." ISSN 0781–3232 Published by
Ebonyi University Press Abakaliki:171.
32. Union, African. "Abuja declaration on HIV/AIDS,tuberculosis and other related infectious
diseases."OAU/SPS/Abuja/3 27 (2001).
33. Omotoso, Femi. "Public-service ethics and accountability for effective service delivery in
Nigeria." Africa Today 60.3 (2014): 118-139.
34. Johnston, Harry H. A history of the colonization of Africa by alien races. Cambridge
University Press,2011.
35. Talbott, John. "French public opinion and the Algerian War:a research note."French
Historical Studies 9.2 (1975): 354-361.
36. Kern, Richard. "Technology, social interaction, and FL literacy." New ways of learning and
teaching:Focus on technology and foreign language education(1998):57-92.
37. Cassidy, Robert M. "A Savage War of Peace." Military Review 87.3 (2007): 113.
38. Stora, Benjamin, and Jane Marie Todd. Algeria, 1830-2000: A short history. Cornell
University Press,2004.
39. Silverman, Maxim. Deconstructing the nation: Immigration,racismand citizenship in
modern France. Routledge,2002.
40. Namnyak, M., et al. "‘Stockholm syndrome’: psychiatric diagnosis or urban myth?." Acta
Psychiatrica Scandinavica 117.1 (2008): 4-11.
41. Fanon, Frantz. Black skin,white masks. Grove press,2008.
42. Hagopian, Amy, et al. "The flight of physicians from West Africa: views of African
physicians and implications for policy." Social science & medicine61.8 (2005): 1750-
1760.
43. LIBOW,LESLIE S. "A geriatric medical residency program: A four-year experience." Annals
of internal medicine 85.5 (1976): 641-647.
44. WHO. "Global health observatory data repository." (2011).
45. World Health Organization. "User's guide to the WHO global code of practice on the
international recruitment of health personnel." (2010).
46. Ellis, S. D. K. "The roots of African corruption." Current history 105 (2006): 203.