TEACHERS’ PARTICIPATION IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS_YAGYA P BHUSAL_2015

TEACHERS’ PARTICIPATION IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
Yagya Prasad Bhusal
A Dissertation
Submitted to
School of Education
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of
Philosophy in Curriculum and Instruction
Kathmandu University
Dhulikhel, Nepal
November, 2015

© Copyright by Yagya Prasad Bhusal
2015
All rights reserved.

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation has not been submitted for the candidature for any
other degree.
……………………..
Yagya Prasad Bhusal November 22, 2015
Degree Candidate

DEDICATION
This work is profoundly dedicated...
To the memory of my late mother Mrs. Bhesh Kumari Bhusal.
To all my family and most of all.
To Kent, the love of my life and my inspiration.

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AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF
Yagya Prasad Bhusal for the degree of Master of the Philosophy in Education presented
on November 22, 2015 at School of Education, Kathmandu University.
Title: Teachers’ Participation in Curriculum Development Process
Abstract approved
______________________________
Assoc. Prof. Bal Chandra Luitel, PhD
Dissertation Supervisor
Curriculum development, as a word and a concept, is an integral part of
education systems, used with varying additional meanings and interpretations.
Curriculum can be defined as a sequences or series of coursework, within a particular
area or content focus. The development of curriculum becomes a value laden process of
determining what “should” be taught within the institutions of schools, given the social,
cultural, political, and environmental influences upon this curriculum development
process. Teachers’ participation in curriculum development was the topic of this study.
This study has attempted to document policies and practices of teachers’
participation in curriculum development process in Nepal. It has attempted to integrate
the voices of numerous participants with my own experiences over several years, both as
a student and as an educator. Related literatures, formal and informal conversations with
stakeholders, supervisor’s insightful suggestions and clear guidelines facilitated me
during the course of this study and enabled me to reach to a set of meaningful
conclusions. A qualitative methodology was implemented using interpretivist/

ii
constructivist paradigmatic assumption, with attention afforded to the narrative approach
of qualitative inquiry. Consistent with qualitative methodology, teachers’ perceptions of
curriculum development process were explored through in-depth interviews, observation
and analysis of documents.
One of my major findings through this study is that the participating teachers of
this study were unaware concept of curriculum literally. They tried to understood and
interpreted curriculum on their own way. They have developed their understanding in
metaphorical way like as 'pathyakram ghar ko naksa'. A noticeable reality is that
teachers understand curriculum as blue print, content to be taught and learning
experiences. Participating teachers were perceive curriculum development process as
impractical and centrally dominated. They had strong emphasis that curriculum
development process needs to be decentralized so that it is inclusive and participatory.
Participating teachers' think that their participation is limited in the periphery of
implementation and evaluation so inclusion is needed during curriculum development
process. Indeed their participation seems as developer of curriculum rather than mere
implementer.
I found that various barriers that limit the teachers’ participation in the
curriculum development process. They are proximity to power, teachers' qualification,
language, influences of political and power coercive approach in education sector,
personal access in bureaucracy and teacher's satisfaction on job.
………………………
Yagya Prasad Bhusal November 22, 2015
Degree Candidate

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Master of the Philosophy in Education dissertation of Yagya Prasad Bhusal presented on
November 22, 2015.
APPROVED
………………………………… November 22, 2015
Associate Prof. Bal Chandra Luitel, PhD
Dissertation Supervisor
………………………………….. November 22, 2015
Prof. Mana Prasad Wagley, PhD
Research Committee Member
………………………………… November 22, 2015
Prof. Tanka Nath Sharma, PhD
External Examiner
………………………………… November 22, 2015
Prof. Mahesh Nath Parajuli, PhD
Dean, School of Education
I understand that my dissertation will be a part of permanent collection of
Kathmandu University Library. My signature below authorizes release of my dissertation
to any reader upon request.
………………………
Yagya Prasad Bhusal, Degree Candidate November 22, 2015

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to thank my supervisor, Associate Professor Dr. Bal Chandra Luitel, for
his endless encouragement, intellectual support and enthusiasm, which made this
dissertation possible, and for his patience in correcting both my stylistic and formatting
errors and emotional strength to complete this dissertation within stipulated time frame.
I always remember my respected Dean Professor Dr. Mahesh Nath Parajuli who
gave me many appropriate ideas for conducting this study. Special thanks go to him for
providing me insightful comments and valuable suggestions for selecting appropriate
research topic.
I wish to thank Professor Dr. Mana Prasad Wagley, Professor Dr. Tanka Nath
Sharma for guiding through the beginning stages of my M. Phil study, helping me define
my focus and perspectives and adding layer to my personal and scholarly identity.
I am indebted to my participants. I can’t express my sincere appreciation for
their willingness to participate in this study, engage in hours of interviews and
discussion, and their continued words of engagement. This is their study as much as it is
mine.
I wish to thank all who have aided me in the various stages of interview,
transcription, editing, formatting and proofreading. Their efforts and talents are
invaluable.
Lastly, I am grateful to my elder brother Narayan to his great contribution of my
education. I wish to thank my brother-in-law Ambika, friends and colleagues who have
given me endless support and encouragement throughout this entire process. They are
appreciated beyond words.

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ABBREVATIONS
ACARA Australian Curriculum for the Learning Area
ARNEC All round National Education Commission
CBS Central Bureau of Statistic
CDC Curriculum Development Centre
CTCC Curriculum Textbook Co-ordination Committee
CTSC Curriculum Textbook Subject Committee
DOE Department of Education
HLNEC High Level National Education Council
HSEB Higher Secondary Education Board
KU Kathmandu University
NCC National Curriculum Council
NCERT National Council of Educational Research and Training
NCF National Curriculum Framework
NEC National Education Council
NEPs National Policy on Education
NESP National Education System Planning
NNEPC Nepal National Education Planning Commission
SLC School Leaving Certificate
TU Tribhuvan University
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
VDC Village Development Committee

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF ..........................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..........................................................................................iv
ABBREVATIONS.........................................................................................................v
TABLE OF CONTENTS..............................................................................................vi
CHAPTER 0 ..................................................................................................................1
SITUATING MY SELF ON SETTING THE SCENE OF RESEARCH .....................1
Chapter Overview ......................................................................................................1
My Lived Experiences ...............................................................................................1
Seeking the Answers of My Mysterious Questions ...................................................3
Voyage of Kathmandu University [KU] and My Progressive Movement.................6
Chapter Summary.......................................................................................................7
CHAPTER 1 ..................................................................................................................8
INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................8
Chapter Overview ......................................................................................................8
Statement of the Problem.........................................................................................12
Purpose of the Study ................................................................................................15
Research Questions ..................................................................................................15
Rationale of the Study..............................................................................................15
Delimitation of the Study.........................................................................................17
Synopsis of My Dissertation ....................................................................................17
Chapter Summary.....................................................................................................18
CHAPTER 2 ................................................................................................................19
LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................19

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Chapter Overview ....................................................................................................19
Understanding the Concept of Curriculum ..............................................................20
Development of Curriculum: A Historical Perspective ...........................................23
School Level Curriculum Development Process in Nepal.......................................26
Teacher’s Role in Curriculum Development Process ..............................................29
International Curriculum Development Practices....................................................33
Review of Related Research Studies........................................................................37
Theoretical Review ..................................................................................................41
Lawrence Stenhouse’s Process-Inquiry Model........................................................41
Habermas’s Practical Interest...................................................................................43
Research Gap............................................................................................................45
Development of Conceptual Framework .................................................................46
Chapter Summary.....................................................................................................47
CHAPTEER 3..............................................................................................................48
METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................................48
Journey through Research........................................................................................48
Research Philosophy, My Position and Research Paradigm....................................51
Philosophical Consideration.....................................................................................53
Ontology...............................................................................................................54
Epistemology........................................................................................................55
Axiology...............................................................................................................56
Narrative Approach..................................................................................................57
Working Procedure ..................................................................................................60
Study Area ............................................................................................................60

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Selection of the Research Participants .....................................................................60
Data Collection Procedure .......................................................................................62
Data Analysis and Interpretation..............................................................................63
Quality Standards.....................................................................................................64
Trustworthiness ....................................................................................................65
Reflexivity ............................................................................................................67
Ethical Consideration...............................................................................................68
Chapter Summary.....................................................................................................69
CHAPTER 4 ................................................................................................................71
UNDERSTANDING CURRICULUM FROM TEACHERS’ PERSPECTIVES.......71
The Concept of Curriculum......................................................................................72
Curriculum as Blueprint .......................................................................................72
Curriculum as Content..........................................................................................76
Curriculum as Learning Experiences ...................................................................79
Combining the Different Perspectives of Curriculum..............................................85
Chapter Summary.....................................................................................................88
CHAPTER 5 ................................................................................................................89
TEACHERS' PERCEPTION AND EXPERIENCES IN THE CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS......................................................................................89
Practices of Curriculum Development Process in Nepal .........................................89
Gap in Written and Implemented Process............................................................90
Centrally Dominated Curriculum Development Practice.....................................96
Decentralization of Curriculum Development Practice: Inclusive and Participatory101

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Teachers’ Participation in Curriculum Development.............................................105
Inclusion on Teacher Participation.....................................................................106
Teacher as a Mere Implementer Rather than Developer of Curriculum................109
Combining Different Perspectives of Curriculum Development Process..............114
Chapter Summery...................................................................................................120
CHAPTER 6 ..............................................................................................................121
BARRIERS THAT LIMIT TEACHERS’ PARTICIPATION IN CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT PROCESS....................................................................................121
Chapter Overview ..................................................................................................121
Academic Qualification......................................................................................121
Language ............................................................................................................123
Political and Power Coercive Approach.............................................................125
Proximity to Power.............................................................................................127
Access.................................................................................................................128
Job Satisfaction...................................................................................................129
Chapter Summary...................................................................................................132
CHAPTER 7 ..............................................................................................................134
REFLECTION AND CONCLUSION.......................................................................134
Chapter Overview ..................................................................................................134
Setting the Agenda of My Research.......................................................................134
Developing the Theoretical Perspective.................................................................136
Conceiving Methodology.......................................................................................137
Responding to My Research Questions .................................................................138
How do Teachers Understand and Develop the Concept of Curriculum? .............138

x
How do Teachers Perceive the Practice of Curriculum Development Process in
Nepal?.....................................................................................................................139
How do Teachers express their Experience of Participation in Curriculum
Development Process? ...........................................................................................141
How do Teachers Describe the Barriers that limit their Participation in Curriculum
Development Process? ...........................................................................................142
My Learning...........................................................................................................142
Implication of this Study........................................................................................145
Future Direction .....................................................................................................146
REFERENCES ..........................................................................................................148

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CHAPTER 0
SITUATING MY SELF ON SETTING THE SCENE OF RESEARCH
Chapter Overview
I initiate this chapter with the reflection of my own lived experiences that led me
to this crucial journey of educational research. For setting the scene of the study, I have
tried to link my lived experiences and professional practice with my present research.
In this section, I assembled some pleasant, crucial and unpleasant experiences of my life
as a student and an educator.
My Lived Experiences
I was born at Khaldanda of Shankarpokhari Village Development Committee
[VDC] which lies in Prabat district at a distance of about ten kosh/ twenty miles from
the district head quarters. People of this place basically depended on agriculture of earn
their livelihood. Apart from that, this place also famous for the people's placement of in
public service. I migrated from the place I was born to Chitwan after celebrating my
third birth day because of the job of my father in teaching profession.
I began my journey of pre-primary education in 1987 at a public school. I
joined a private boarding school for primary education and was transferred to public
school for secondary education. I remember some bitter lived experiences from my
lower secondary school age, the most struggling days of my life history, when my father
resigned from his job. Several important activities of my life have huge impact on my
learning journey. Limited income sources and father's great passion for the leadership
of dairy cooperative sector lead our family to economic adversity. Our family was

2
My Understanding in My Dredge Up
I always remember the days of my schooling,
How much the day was struggling for me?
Curriculum like Tiffin of prisoner,
Classroom is like a jail.
Where nothing other than crowd,
Everyone becomes crowd to rehearse.
It becomes serious question,
Why they are always rehearse like parrot?
This activities like me as a beaten rice of iron.
This type of rubbish education not in mind and not in
hand,
I don't like mechanistic curriculum.
Because I also victimized by this type of unskilled
curriculum,
Education without skill does not have any worth.
Curriculum without pertinence doesn't have any
meaning,
That's why I am searching that type of curriculum
which has pertinence.
compelled to do hard work in the farm land for the purpose of income generation. It has
supported me financially and made me able to continue my study.
On the other hand it has bad impact on me socially, emotionally and morally
because in our society doing a hard manual work being a son of headmaster is not
considered good. We were the middle class family members according to the social
stratification at that time. But I had to do such hard manual work at any cost for my
study and my mother used to
repeat a Nepali proverb 'Rope
Pachhi Falchha' (If you plant a
seedling it will give product)
encouraged me in doing
manual hard work related to
agriculture and also my
learning. My mother was very
much tactful in the matter of
income generation in spite of
being an illiterate person and
took burdens upon her own
shoulders. I always appreciate
her great management skills to
manage home, family matters
and our education.
As I flashback my schooling at primary level, I was considered smart (sharp
minded) at my study, compared to other elder brothers. I did very well in lower
secondary level. But in secondary level my position decreased gradually and was

3
unstable because of our family's economic liquidation and hard work. Unfortunately, I
secured second division in my School Leaving Certificate [S.L.C] examination.
Seeking the Answers of My Mysterious Questions
Looking back at my days of schooling, my journey to formal education began
from the public school. I joined this school because my father was assistant head
teacher at secondary level. Then for three years I studied in a boarding school. There I
found child friendly teaching learning environment. Students from privately managed
school are involved in various extracurricular and co-curricular activities which create
sound environment for their learning. Again when I studied in public school at grade
four, I feel that the teachers there were nothing more than political activists. I usually
saw that my father was engaged in home tuition rather than upgrading himself and
doing actual classroom teaching.
I wondered why students used to come to my house to attend this tuition class.
At that time I had no answer to this question. With the passage of time my journey of
learning went ahead towards higher class and I came to know that our education system
was centrally controlled. I was also victimized by this system and finally passed my
S.L.C examination in second division. Then I joined science stream at a government
college in Chitwan district. After completing 2 years, I left science stream and joined
Higher Secondary Education Board [HSEB] and my dream of being an engineer was
broken down. The number system of university led me to join humanities faculty under
HSEB. I passed B. Ed and M. Ed degree in mathematics education from Tribhuvan
University [TU]. My learning journey was stopped for some time after the completion
of master degree. I looked for suitable job in many institutions but I could not find. I
thought to continue my family occupation of cow farming and modernize it because I
had the experience and knowledge of this occupation since my childhood. My

4
mysterious question is related with ownership of curriculum development and its
applicability everyday life of people.
My personal philosophy of education is that education should be technical and
vocational so that everyone has the certain types of skill at his/her hands after
completing some level of education. This makes people self reliant and make them
capable to acquire some types of job opportunities locally. But cultural hegemony of
my society doesn’t provide me freedom to do such types of agriculture based profession
because the social expectation to see educated people in white collar jobs.
Employment oriented education and practicable curriculum develop skills
among learner’s so to enable them to earn money. It makes people self dependent after
some level of academic degree. This motivated me to be involved in agriculture along
with my education. At that time I was able to produce fresh vegetables in our farm land
professionally and sell them in the market. As I had no any academic qualification but
there was need of money to give continuity of my study, I was compelled to do so. I
don't know whether I did this work knowingly or unknowingly. But I did it and I still
have such types of skills.
After the completion of my bachelor's degree I joined a boarding school as a
mathematics teacher for some time. As a teacher, I encountered various curricular
problems and issues and they directly influenced teaching learning activities. Our
school curriculum seems to be very much traditional than that of other countries. Most
of the contents placed in our school level curriculum appeared not useful in solving
daily life problem which made students lost attention for their learning in the classroom.
As a researcher I have felt that the dropout rates in school become a problem in school
education. I felt that the hindrance of our education was nothing other than the
curriculum. Learners suffered because of the curriculum and wanted a curriculum

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applicable to everyday life. This problem hit my mind again and again. When I went
through literatures in my learning journey of curriculum studies, I was able to find that
teachers can only bring those things in curriculum content so as to make it useful in
everyday life of students. I think that the tendency of teachers’ representativeness in
curriculum development process and its success are related to each other because to
make education successful, good curriculum is needed. Curriculum becomes good if
only it addresses the need and interest of learners. Also curriculum can be successful if
it is able to fulfill the needs of pupils in everyday life. Teacher is the only person who
understands the children closely and is able to fulfill their needs because he/she lives in
the society where the children live. Therefore, teachers' involvement in curriculum
development process appeared to be an important issue.
Indeed teachers need to participate in curriculum development process from
designing to revision. If adequate responsibility is provided to teachers they can
incorporate the local concepts in curriculum in accordance with the need and interest of
the learners (Slattery, 2006). Our curriculum policy has also declared such type of
provision to involve teachers in curriculum development process (National Curriculum
Framework [NCF] 2005, [review, 2007]). But a question arises why we are unable to
introduce usable curriculum until now. How teachers will have opportunity to be
involved in curriculum development process?
I bear the experience of theoretical aspect of learning as a student and teacher. I
could not get any job opportunities even after completing my academic degree of
different levels. I am still trying to seek the answer to my question that whose
ownership is best suited in the curriculum development process? To what extent it
fulfills the learners need and interest in their context? Here I used narrative as a tool of

6
my autobiography to reflect my lived experiences. The essence of my reflection and
narration is that the practical aspect of curriculum.
Voyage of Kathmandu University [KU] and My Progressive Movement
While I decided to get enrolled in master of philosophy [M. Phil] program in
Kathmandu University School of Education as a student of Curriculum and Instruction,
I wanted to improve my knowledge and skill in the field of education and in general
curriculum and Instruction in particular. The unique and enlightened culture and sound
environment of KU provided me with various opportunities to advance my prior
knowledge and skills. Highly qualified and professional professors and tutors have
always encouraged and helped
me in whatever support I
needed. After some time at KU
gradually I experienced some
progress in me and became able
to develop my own ideas.
Finally I became aware of the
burning educational issues in my
field of curriculum studies both
the academic and the personal
ones.
Over the past decades,
the stakeholder's participation in
the field of education and curriculum development or curriculum decision making
became one of the challenging issues everywhere. It seems that many developed
countries around the world have emphasized the teacher’s greater role in the curriculum
Other than In KU…
After joining to K.U. to do M. Phil,
I got sound educational environment and various
opportunities within having the expertise and
experienced professor/tutors and scholarly culture.
Which are not other than in K. U.?
I fulfilled my great passion of quality education.
I became successful to achieve my day dream of
M. Phil in every step.
On defending dissertation proposal, I left all the
fear of research.
Accepting the warm guidance and willing to
completing everything on time.
I became successful because of the cooperative
and friendly culture of K.U.
Which are not other than in K. U.?

7
development process. Also Nepal's government gives emphasis on stakeholder
participation in developing school level curriculum in policy (NCF, 2007).
But teachers, one of the major stakeholders who bring the curriculum in front of
the student seem to be in shadow. This is very much crucial in the field of teaching and
learning. Situating this issue in mind, I tried to study in this area with a purpose of
being able to contribute in the understanding of teachers’ participation in the process of
curriculum development. After thinking for a long time, I discussed with my own soul,
along with professors, tutors and colleagues before finalizing the research issue for my
M Phil Degree.
Chapter Summary
In this chapter, I tried to justify the reason of selecting my research topic
“Teachers’ Participation in Curriculum Development Process”. Here I wrote my story
as personal reflection for the background of this study and tried to depict how I crossed
my school life as well as higher education. Then, I discussed my personal feeling and
circumstances during the several modes of my life.

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In My Words
Why Good Curriculum?
For every nation to make a basic
foundation, development, growth and
new innovation it is crucial to make
good, effective and efficient curriculum.
Curriculum is priority to live in today’s
society.
Curriculum is the key to make us free
from worries and tensions.
Good, effective and efficient curriculum
is necessary, for economic satisfaction
and ecological sustainability.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter Overview
Before introducing this dissertation, I would like to throw light on the present
scenario that provides the justification for the need of this research. To establish my
argument in this chapter, I have discussed the concept of curriculum process,
curriculum development, and teacher's participation in curriculum development process.
I have highlighted the statement of the
problem, rationale of the study, purpose
of the study and research questions as a
researcher. I have delimited my study
within a certain boundary and made a
synopsis of my dissertation before ending
the chapter summary. 'Curriculum' is a
word repeatedly used in education with
different meanings, definitions and levels
of development. Every nation has certain
standards of curriculum development and
is developed by the teams of teachers and administrators at the local or national level.
Whatever be the process of development of the curriculum that is directly associated
with the classroom teacher.
Before one can understand curriculum development process, one needs to
understand the meaning and definition of curriculum. The knowledge of curriculum is

9
important for every professional teacher. Null (2011) said that teachers need to be
knowledgeable about curriculum and the process by which curricula may be developed.
When teachers consider the curriculum issues there are raise up fundamental questions
about why, what, how and when to teach? Why do we teach in the first place? What do
we expect out of the activity called teaching? After these general questions, many other
curriculum directed questions are arising for the teachers and the curriculum developers
such as: What knowledge is of most useful to the learners? What activities are most
effective in enabling learners to acquire this knowledge (information, facts, skills,
values, attitude, etc)? What is the most appropriate way to organize these activities?
How do I know if learners have acquired this knowledge?
The process of curriculum development is essential for successfully achieving
educational goals for students. The term or the concept 'curriculum development'
provides itself to different interpretations and is not easy to capture in one description or
process. It is a complex but dynamic process which tends to lead to many
interpretations and perspectives. Normally a curriculum is developed by designers at
various levels (governmental or departmental) and implemented by practitioners at the
other levels, by teacher in schools (Mostert, 1986‘b’ as cited in Carl, 2009).
Curriculum development is an umbrella concept for the process which is
characterized by the presence of phases such as curriculum design, dissemination,
implementation and evaluation. It is ongoing and dynamic process which involves a
variety of persons and role players (Carl, 2009). NCF (2007) has defined curriculum
development as the process of planning learning opportunities intended to bring about
certain desired changes in pupils, and the assessment of the extent to which these
changes have taken places. NCF emphasizes the importance of professional
development of teachers with a focus on curriculum development and implementation

10
in order to ensure that teachers understand the curriculum content and the process
involved in supporting curriculum to make sound decisions about what is important for
students to learn. "Teachers play fundamental roles in the application of curriculum
process in their classrooms. Whether teachers are directly responsible for curriculum
development or whether they interpret, implement, modify existing curriculum
documents, they require a sound, substantive understanding of how it may affect them
and their students" (Bishop, 1989 as cited in Print, 2007, p. 3). Clearly, teachers
participate in multiplicity of curriculum activities at classroom level. These are the very
substance of their daily teaching tasks and include such activities as selection of specific
content, selection of teaching strategies, use instructional material and so forth. As
implementers, teachers' role is to apply curriculum developed elsewhere and has a
minimum responsibility and involvement in the curriculum development phase of the
curriculum process (Print, 2007, pp. 16-17).
“Teachers may undertake the vital role of curriculum researcher as teachers
become involved with school-level curriculum decision making, they require a sound
understanding of curriculum concepts and processes” (Kelly, 2004, p. 118). Planning,
design and development in curriculum are closely related terms. Once a curriculum has
been conceptualized, through the process of curriculum planning and incorporating a
curriculum design, it may then be developed, usually to become a written document and
finally to be implemented and evaluated. All this curriculum process become
successful and applicable whenever a teacher gets directly involved in the whole
process (Wiles, 2009).
In Nepal, the Education Act and Regulations 8th
amendment (2004) has
entrusted the Curriculum development centre (CDC) for the development of curriculum
for the school level. So the centre plays a vital role for curriculum development,

11
updating, revision and improvement and has developed a mechanism for collecting
information and feedback on curriculum from its users (students and teachers) and other
stakeholders. One of the most important elements in a successful school teaching
program is the existence of a well articulated curriculum. Definitely, a teacher is the
primary audience of the curriculum development. Only professional and efficient
teachers can serve the curriculum development process because they are the ones who
have authentic knowledge on what students have already learned and what is required to
prepare for the uppers levels (Joshi, n. d). Therefore, curriculum articulation becomes
smooth if the teachers are involved in the curriculum development process.
Furthermore, their engagement in the curriculum development process helps to
develop their ownership and commitment for the effective implementation of
curriculum. Traditional view of curriculum implies that curriculum is developed by one
set of people, implemented by another and received by yet another. This is the way of
perceiving curriculum which is sometimes described as naturally occurring "thing"
(Grundy, 1987; Maphosa & Mutoppa, 2012). Curriculum is also viewed as an activity
or plan of action (Stenhouse, 1975; Su, 2012). But "curriculum is in the mind of the
curriculum transmitter, and can only be learned from the words and actions of such a
mind" (Sharpes, 2013, p.19). What is the situation of curriculum development in Nepal
in terms of ‘developer’, ‘implementer’ dichotomy? How teachers are talking and
fulfilling their roles in curriculum development? There are some important questions
relating to the process of curriculum development in Nepal and the participation of
teachers in it.
Taba (1962), as cited in Ornstein and Hunkins, (2013) said that the teachers
should participate in developing curriculum. She felt that the administrative model was
really in wrong order. Curriculum should be designed by the user of the program that is

12
classroom teacher. Curriculum perceived in this light requires active teacher
participation in its making. In other words, a teacher is the most important person in
designing and improving the curriculum. Sharpes (2013) explains that "curriculum is
what the teacher does and what the teacher knows, and who the teacher is, the teacher's
behavior, knowledge and personality" (p. 11). Since teachers are the critical agents for
bringing changes into their classrooms, the teachers themselves should be the major
focus of analysis and source of evidence regarding the introduction of curriculum
development (Doyle & Ponder, 1977as cited in Anthony, 2008).
Thus, this study aims to seek teachers’ participation in existing curriculum
development process of Nepal. Also this study aims to uncover the existing curriculum
development practices of Nepali schools from teacher’s perspective. It also tries to see
the teachers’ understanding as well as perceptions about curriculum concepts and
curriculum development practices. This dissertation derives from interpretive research
paradigm, which is depended on qualitative information gathered during fieldworks
carried out in schools of Chitwan district. On the basis of my research purpose, this
study is qualitative in nature which required in-depth understanding of these
phenomena. What I experienced, what I saw, what I observed and what I argued about
curriculum development process and teachers’ participation would always be
insufficient for a comprehensive and representative study. Therefore, I selected three
teachers as my research participants to strengthen and support my study.
Statement of the Problem
After analyzing related documents, discussion made with teachers and
classroom observation during my pre-proposal fieldwork, I have come to know that
there are several barriers and problems to make curriculum development process
participatory.

13
NCF (2007) has mentioned that;
Curriculum development process is required to be highly participatory such that
curriculum experts are teamed up with parents, teachers, gender experts, experts
of child-centered teaching and learning, and representative ethnic minorities,
dalits, and people with disabilities so that curriculum becomes non-
discriminatory and based upon principles of social inclusion and equity (p. 25).
Without seriously considering the participants' voices, this study could not have
provided detailed and deep understanding about the curriculum concept, curriculum
development process and teachers’ participation in it. So it was imperative for me to
understand and appreciate the voices of my participants. Being a teacher myself,
educator and a student of curriculum and instruction, my keen interest made it easier for
me to conduct this study.
As I have experienced in teaching learning process, there are a number of
curriculum reform initiatives taken in school education in Nepal. But there are not any
studies that analyze the curriculum development process from teachers' perspectives
and that explore the extent of teacher's participation in this process. Carl (2009) noted
that teachers must not be mere implementers of curriculum. They are able to develop,
apply and evaluate the relevant curriculum dynamically and creatively.
Teachers have many roles and responsibilities in the process of curriculum
development apart from implementation and evaluation. To make a curriculum
participatory, inclusive, applicable and successful teachers’ participation in each and
every phase of curriculum development seems to be crucial. Teacher explores student
reactions and interactions with learning experiences and uses this information to design
the curriculum in a way that is responsive to their needs (Glanz & Horenstein, 2000).

14
A curriculum should be grounded in practice, students’ needs and interests.
Curriculum development is an attempt to describe the work observed in classrooms to
ensure that it is adequately communicated to teachers and others (Stenhouse, 1975 as
cited in Smith, 2000). Literature of scholars has explained differently about the
curriculum development process in accordance with the context of education.
Curriculum development process itself has different phases. Government of Nepal has
tried to make an effort to participate teachers in each phase of curriculum development
process (NCF, 2007). However, behaviorally teachers are not seen to be participated in
other process except form implementation and evaluation overtly. Indeed there has been
a place to raise questions about the roles and representativeness of teacher in the
process of curriculum development. So, it is crucial to investigate not only the question
of teacher participation, but also what is expected of them when their participation is
sought.
Certain key questions such as the following arise: How the teachers understand
and explain the curriculum? What are teachers' perceptions in respect of their present
role in curriculum development, or what should they be? To what extent are the voices
of teachers who wish to become more involved taken in cognizance for ensuring their
access and participation? If such opportunities do exist, what is the nature and scope of
their participation? What is the present tendency regarding teacher's participation in
terms of being recipients or partners in curriculum development process? How the
teachers utilize the curriculum in the teaching learning process? What factors are more
responsible to limits the teachers' participation in curriculum development process?
These questions seek answer to the key questions. With these questions in mind,
research was undertaken to investigate teacher's participation in curriculum
development process.

15
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to explore the teachers’ perception of
curriculum development process, their concept of curriculum itself and their ownership
of the curriculum. More specifically, the study attempted to explore teachers'
conceptualization of curriculum, perceived roles of teachers in curriculum development
and barriers of teachers' participation in the curriculum development process.
Research Questions
As a researcher, I understand that research questions are crucial for every
researcher to snapshoot the whole research. Whole research processes is controlled
according to research questions during the study of any research.
Clearly, good research questions not only provide right direction to the research
but also give solution to the study problem. Keeping this in mind, I have constructed
following research questions to hold my research problem.
1. How do teachers perceive and develop the concept of curriculum?
2. How do teachers perceive the practice of curriculum development process in
Nepal?
3. How do teachers express their experience of participation in curriculum
development process?
4. How do teachers describe the barriers that limit their participation in curriculum
development process?
Rationale of the Study
As a researcher, gaining the perspective of the teachers in the curriculum
development process through this research allowed me to better facilitate the process
and provided me with an ‘emic’ perspective from which to drawn upon. Emphasizing
the importance of gaining the ‘emic’ perspective to understanding phenomena saying,

16
“The very rigidity of definition may lead to misunderstanding of the essential problems
involved. If it is our purpose to understand the thoughts of people, the whole analysis of
experience must be based on their concepts, not our” (Pleto & Pleto, 1978, p. 55 as cited
in Lauridsen, 2003). I was engaged in this study of the process of curriculum
development and attempted to uncover and bring to light teachers' perceptions of their
roles in this process. I had needed to do so from various perspectives, while exploring
the phenomenon as a researcher. I needed to respect and reflect the voices of classroom
teachers’ as the participant in this process.
Currently educational changes have been taking place in Nepal. These changes
require curriculum development strategy for school level. Efforts are being made to
make education based on local needs. Further, the necessity of local curriculum is also
being emphasized by persons from different sectors as well as research reports. NCF
declared ten to fifteen percentage of authorities to local need based education in
secondary level. Curriculum will be developed by teacher themselves locally (CDC,
2005). But, my concern is not local curriculum; it's just a scenario of teacher
participation in curriculum development process of Nepal.
Curriculum development is an integral part of education and is a phenomenon
critical to education and deserving examinations. But, exploration of this phenomenon
from voices of the teachers who engage in the curriculum development process is
significant with respect to the process of curriculum development itself, the actual
curriculum construction/development and the implementation of curriculum. It may
provide alternative feedback to the concerned bodies so that they maximize teachers'
participation. So, this study might be efficient and effective for increasing quality of
future activities.

17
Thus, this study is crucial to analyze teachers’ participation in the curriculum
development process of Nepal. Also, the study plays a prominent role to investigate the
extent of teachers’ participation in curriculum development process of Nepal. Thus this
study intends to bring change in existing practices of curriculum development process
and to contribute in the academic field. At the same time it aims to draw lessons to
improve the curriculum development and implementation process in Nepal and provide
lessons for policy and practice.
Delimitation of the Study
This study largely focuses on exploring the ideas of teacher’s participation and
curriculum development practices in Nepali schools. Also I have tried to argue about
existing policies and practices of curriculum development and teacher’s participation.
Due to time constraint and lack of resources, this study was limited in Chitwan district.
During the study, only three public schools were selected. The information was
collected from the purposively selected key informants, one teacher from each of the
selected schools. So informants of this study were three secondary level mathematics
teachers.
Synopsis of My Dissertation
This study consists of seven chapters. First three chapters focus on introduction
of the study, literature review and methodological and paradigmatic considerations to
justify my thesis. I would like to say that first three chapters lay the foundation of my
study which directs the further discussion and guides the whole study. I have discussed
and analyzed participants' feeling and understanding in chapter four, five and six
through empirical materials that are directly derived from the fieldwork. The final
chapter includes the reflection of overall process and the discussion of outcomes.

18
The first chapter gives a scenario about curriculum concept and curriculum
development process as an introduction of the study. This chapter includes statement of
the problem, purpose of the study and research questions. I justify my study in the '
rationale' of the study and I delimit my study in the delimitation of the study. At the
end of the first chapter, I introduce the synopsis of my dissertation.
Chapter two forms the backbone of my study from the theoretical perspective
where I have reviewed literature about curriculum concepts and practices of curriculum
development and participation of teachers in it. My third chapter has introduced my
philosophical lens as the methodological aspect of the study. In this chapter, research
paradigm, research design, tools and procedures are discussed with suitable
justification. In fourth, fifth and sixth chapters, I have presented empirical finding from
my fieldwork. Seventh chapter is the last chapter of my dissertation where I have tried
to draw the meaning of my study as findings and conclusion.
Chapter Summary
This chapter forms the introduction to my research study. I have defined
curriculum and curriculum development, practices of curriculum development process
using some evidences in my brief introduction. Highlighting teachers’ role in
curriculum development process, I have presented some statements as statements of the
problem. Based on this, I have tried to justify my purpose of the study.
I have raised some research questions that have been addressed in this
dissertation. Ownership of curriculum practices is a burning issue of the 21st
century in
the academic field all over the world. So I have justified my study in rationale of the
study. My study was qualitative, the required fieldworks for the study were conducted
in Chitwan district, and I was selected three teachers as participants from different
schools, it has been was explained in the delimitation of the study.

19
Review of Literature
Develops the new insight and tries to
summarize the literature.
Tries to seek the systematic, explicit and
replicable knowledge.
Fills the gaps and extends the prior study.
Integrates the summary of broad themes,
theories, experiences, policies and practices.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter Overview
“Literature review is the comprehensive study and an interpretation of the
literature that relates to a particular topic for the research tries to develop the new
insight, relevant information”
(Aveyard, 2010, p. 5). Reviewing
the literature is important in any
research study because it tries to
summarize the literature that is
available on any topic. “A research
literature review is a systematic,
explicit and replicable method for identifying, evaluating and synthesizing the existing
body of completed and recorded work produced by researchers, scholars and
practitioners” (Fink, 2010, p. 3). Literature review is crucial and essential aspects to
justify and to make sense of the particular research topic.
It provides essential support and information to make the study more reliable
and helps to make the research contextual. Creswell (2013) says that literature review
relates a study to larger ongoing dialogue in the literature about a topic, filling in gaps
and extending prior studies. Literature review can be accepted as the integrative
summary of broad themes, theories, experiences, existing policies and practices in the
research topic. Indeed, I had gone through the different sources to review related
literature to finalize my topic of research, filling the gaps of knowledge and extending

20
prior studies. They are books, journal articles, empirical studies, policy related
documents, historical documents and theories related to curriculum development.
I have organized this chapter with the beginning of reflection over literature
review and ends with chapter summary. Throughout this chapter I have highlighted
concept of curriculum and reviewed it from the philosophical point of view. Also some
effort has been made to see the development of curriculum from historical perspective
and school level curriculum development process in Nepal. Curriculum development
process and teacher’s role in it and international scenario of curriculum development
practices are also reviewed. I have tried to review previous research and two theories
related to curriculum development. Finally I have mentioned the research gap and tried
to develop my own conceptual framework for this study.
Understanding the Concept of Curriculum
The word curriculum steams from the Latin verb Currere, which means to run.
The Latin noun curriculum refers to both a 'Course' and a 'Vehicle' (Mckernan, 2013).
In the context of education, the most obvious interpretation of the word is to view it as a
course of 'Learning'. The very short definition of curriculum as a 'plan for learning'
used by the Hilda Taba in 1962, therefore seems quite adequate. Therefore the word
'Curriculum' means different things to different people. To some, curriculum is the text
books used in the course. To others it means daily actions taken by the teachers and the
students in the classroom for learning achievement. To some others it is the content of
instruction (Kelly, 2004). Moreover, it is a set of skills targeted for instruction and also
assessed for instruction. In this sense, curriculum does not refer to the materials (text
books, information material, lab materials) utilized and does not refers to the education
tools and methods used by teachers to achieve the instructional targets i.e. Curriculum.

21
As defined in this fashion, curriculum is simply the list of skills that we wish our
students to learn (Null, 2011). In a broad sense Mckernan (2013) says, "A curriculum is
more like a musician's folio than an engineer's blue print" (p. 7). Carl (2009) said that
curriculum is therefore a broad concept which may include all planned activities and
thus also subject courses which take place during a normal school day. It also includes
after school planned activities, such as societies and sports.
This all takes place within a specific system, is continuously subject to
evaluation and the aims lead to accompany the child to adulthood so that he/she can be
a useful citizen with in community. (Schubert, 1986 as cited in Anderson, 2004) tries to
makes different images or characterization of understanding of the curriculum.
Curriculum as Subject Matter is the most traditional understanding of curriculum as the
combination of subject matter to form a body of content to be taught.
Curriculum as Experience is a more recent understanding of curriculum as the
set of experiences that learners encounter in educational contexts. Most of these
experiences have been purposively planned by means of the written curriculum but
many more experiences are encountered by learners in educational contexts. By
experiencing the hidden curriculum learners acquire many forms of learning that were
not planned but are usually highly significant.
Curriculum as Intended Learning Outcome argues that curriculum is a
comprehensive planning of learning experiences for students, predetermined before
they commence and is the best way to address learners’ needs. Curriculum as Cultural
Reproduction, views that curriculum should reflect the culture of a particular society.
The role of school, it is argued, and hence the curriculum, is to pass on the salient
knowledge and values used by one generation to the succeeding generation. Curriculum
as Currere refers to curriculum as a process of providing continuous personal meaning

22
to individuals that emphasizes the individual’s capacity to participate and re-
conceptualize up on one’s experience of life. Curriculum is the interpretation of lived
experience. Through the social process of sharing, individuals come to a greater
understanding of themselves as well as others and the world. Curriculum as an Agenda
for Social Reconstruction holds that schools should provide an agenda of knowledge
and values that guide students to improve society and the cultural institutions, beliefs,
and activities that support it.
Curriculum as Discrete Tasks and Concepts is seen as a set of tasks to be
mastered, and they are assumed to lead to a pre-specified end. Curriculum as a Program
of Planned Activities focuses on a comprehensive view of all activities planned for
delivery to students and incorporates scope and sequence, interpretation and balance of
subject matter, motivational devices, teaching techniques, and anything else that can be
planned in advance.
After analyzing the above concepts of curriculum, I have come to know to that
curriculum indicates content to be taught in the classroom to the way of providing the
personal meaning of individual through the lived experiences. Not only that,
curriculum is a set of learning experiences that learner encounter in educational context.
Similarly, Curriculum is intended plan which reflects what student should learn and
must acquire after the end of entire year of schooling and also the competencies to be
mastered by student. Society should be improved by curriculum because no society or
culture is perfect and curriculum reflects the culture of particular society where it is
being taught. Hence the concept of curriculum may depend on the thought of people,
their place and their culture.

23
Development of Curriculum: A Historical Perspective
Undoubtedly, curriculum is a bottom line of education. It is an essential and
crucial aspect of education. Education exists due to curriculum and without education
curriculum does not exist too. They are interrelated each other and so are human being
and education. The development of human beings and the development of education
seem to be taking place simultaneously. That’s why development of human,
development of education and development of curriculum go hand in hand helping one
another (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2013).
However no clear time can be traced on when the curriculum started to exist,
though education is found to be changing according to the change of time. Education
and curriculum seem to be changing to meet the needs and aspirations of individual and
society. Throughout the western as well as eastern history of education, it is found to be
used as a means of getting salvation however no written curriculum existed in the past.
At that time, education remained confined within the religious doctrine. In the other
words, religious institutions provided education which was dedicated to the religious
principles to promote religious impact. Religious scriptures like Bible and Koran were
taught by Christian and Muslims respectively. And, Geeta, Chandi, Veda etc were
taught in Gurukul education system so far as Hindu religion is concerned. At that time
the main objectives of education were to preserve, develop, promote and transfer
culture and religion to the successive generation by evoking an individual to have self-
actualization (G. C, 2007).
All human activities take place within the particular time and context. So do the
curricular activities. Curriculum is not so an old field because it is emerged after the
publication of Franklin Bobbitt’s book 'The Curriculum' in 1918 (Ornstein and Hunkins,
2013). Nepal has its own history of understanding curriculum and its development

24
process. At the ancient age, the families and the society took the place of educational
institutions in the Nepali society. The religious scriptures like Veda, Upanishad, Puran,
Astrology, Geeta etc were the means of education in Hindu society and curriculum was
based on these religious scriptures, according to different religious principles (G. C,
2007).
At the time of Amnshubarma, in the 7th
century B. C, the means of education
were “Gurukul”, “Devekul”, “Rajkul” and “Rishikul” etc. However in Malla period in
Nepal, curriculum was constructed including different cultures, arts, handicrafts and
other vocational subjects. Also in the time of king Prithivi Narayan Shah, Veda, Puran,
Astrology, Grammer, Tantrik Bidhya were highly emphasized in curriculum (Sharma,
1993). Overall the ancient period of Nepalese education emphasized morality,
spirituality and discipline through the religious scriptures. During medieval age, the
education system of Nepal was comparatively more developed. English education
systems as well as religious scriptures were established. However, the education
system was based on “Gurukul” though the curriculum was made by some British
scholars. And, at the end of this age, curriculum was implemented in Nepal which was
based on the curriculum of Patna University of India (Sharma, 1993).
After, the establishment of democracy in 1950 education became a right of the
people. In 1952, Nepal National Education Planning Commission [NNEPC] was
formed and it determined the curriculum of primary and secondary level formally for
the first time in Nepal. It also encouraged making necessary curriculum for non-formal
education. It emphasized to make national education planning to make new curriculum
as a national curriculum. The new curriculum was centrally controlled was based on
top-down approach and was same for all students all over Nepal. Role of teacher in the
curriculum development activities was not ensured because the responsibility was given

25
to national board of curriculum writing committee but there was a little freedom
provided for teachers to make local curriculum placed in the periphery of
national/central curriculum framework (Sharma, 2009).
To address the real need of Nepali education arena, National Education System
Planning [NESP] was implemented 1971 and it brought a change in pattern, structure
and organization of educational, national and grade wise objectives, teaching materials,
teaching methods, teaching learning activities, teacher training and evaluation methods.
Undoubtedly, it was the first effective step in the development of education in Nepal.
NESP considered “Curriculum as the educational program to meet the objectives of
education”. For this, curriculum should be directed on the basis of national objectives
and principles of education. NESP was proved to be the first scientific educational
planning because it clearly referred to establish a curriculum development centre to
make the curriculum according to the need of time. But it also emphasizes centrally
directed same curriculum for all levels based on the objective model of curriculum
development and no more role was provided for local teachers to participate in the
activities for development of the central curriculum (Sharma, 2009).
After the peoples’ movement and re-establishment of the democracy in 1989,
relevant changes were made in education sector. National Education Commission
[NEC] was formed. The commission recommended further strengthening of the
Curriculum, Textbooks and Supervision Development Centre. The centre was expected
to bring reforms in the matter of curriculum, textbooks, and teaching-materials,
teaching procedures, evaluation, observation and methods of examination through
research, development and innovation. The commission further recommended to made
school level curriculum relevant to local environment and useful for daily lives of
students. This certainly has some implications to curriculum making and teaching-

26
learning processes. The commission also highlighted the need for continual
development and renewal of curriculum. In this regard, it has recommended to updates
curriculum in every five years based on research and experience (Sharma, 2009).
NEC has emphasized to make the curriculum scientific and relevant to the
national needs and aspirations. For this the commission recommended to encourage the
participation of teachers in designing and developing the curriculum. National
Curriculum Framework (NCF, 2006), in line with the policies proposed in School
Sector Reform Program [SSRP], recommended to re-structure the school level. NCF
also highlighted the need for encouraging the participation of civil society in the
different phases of curriculum development process. Based on the provisions made by
NCF, Curriculum Development Centre [CDC], plays the main role for the development
of centrally directed curriculum leaving limited space for the involvement of teachers
and civil society in the conceptualization and development of national curriculum
(Sharma, 2009). NCF (2007) declared ten to fifteen percentage of authorities to local
need based education in secondary level. Curriculum will be developed by teacher
themselves at local.
School Level Curriculum Development Process in Nepal
The concept of curriculum and the process of curriculum and textbook
development have been changed in recent years. Curriculum is now viewed as a
process and it includes intended, taught and learned curriculum. In this context, we
need to capture the interactive, dynamic nature of the curriculum process where national
education goals are established. Also, the curriculum development process needs to be
changed so that many actors such as female and male teachers, other educators with
recent teaching experience, curriculum experts, and members of the wider community
become actively involved.

27
Figure: Curriculum Development Process in Nepal
A Continuous Process
Source: The Development of Education: National Report of Nepal. Ministry of
Education and Sport, Kathmandu, 2004.
As indicated in the ‘Curriculum and Textbook Development Guidelines’ (2002),
CDC draws from the following sources for the development of new curriculum:
• Recommendations given by education commissions formed at the national level.
• Suggestions provided by teachers.
• Suggestions and reactions obtained through workshops and interaction programs
attended by teachers, guardians, social workers, and intellectuals.
• Suggestions received from various sectors established to develop human
resources.
• Objectives, policies and programs determined for the purpose of updating
curriculum on timely manner.
• Innovations, research and development outcomes and philosophy of education.
• Suggestions and advice received from different channels of communication.
According to (Ministry of Education [MOE], 2004), National Curriculum
Council [NCC] chaired by the minister of education, approves all curriculums and
guides the detailed development work of the CDC by setting operational and
Curriculum
Development Process
in Nepal
Stakeholder
Regional Curriculum &
Textbook Co-ordination
Committee
National Curriculum Development and Assessment Council
Subject Committees
Curriculum
Development Centre

28
administrative policy. NCC forms technical committees when additional advice is
required. Matters concerning the relevance of curricula drafted by CDC may be
redrafted by such a technical committee if the NCC feels the need of additional advice.
CDC is responsible for the maintenance, transmission and renewal of the school
education curriculum.
The wide ranging activities of the centre include developing, revising and
disseminating textbooks and teacher’s support materials. A program of seminars and
workshops supports these activities. CDC’s development and monitoring work is
carried out by curriculum subjects units, advised by curriculum subject specialist
committees. Subject unit covers languages, sciences and math, social studies, health
and physical education. To support CDC’s activities, various studies and surveys are
conducted on curriculum related issues and problems. The activities of CDC give rise to
a wide range of relationships with other institutions. The most important of these
relationships is with teachers and student in schools who are the immediate end users of
the centre’s products (MOE, 2004).
CDC claim that it has developed a mechanism for collecting information and
feedback on curriculum from its users (students and teachers) and other stakeholders
such as parliamentarians, guardians, school management committees, members of
district education committees, special needs groups and civil society. Furthermore,
curriculum updating, revision and improvement also claimed to be done according to
the feedback received from different types of stakeholders and through piloting of the
curriculum (NCF, 2007).

29
The curriculum development process described in any the 8th
amendment of
education and education act 2004, appendix-7, rule 32 is followed the following steps.
1. In any subject area, a write-up subcommittee consisting of the Curriculum
Officer of the CDC and other subject experts first draft the curriculum.
2. The subcommittee then submits the draft curriculum to the Curriculum
Textbook Subject Committee (CTSC) consisting of subject teachers, teacher
educators, and university professors for comprehensive review.
3. CTSC reviews the draft curriculum on the basis of objectives, content, curricular
weighting, instructional materials, and assessment methods.
4. If deemed necessary, the CTSC makes necessary additions or deletions and if
major revision is needed the CTSC sends it back to the subcommittee for
redrafting or revising the draft curriculum.
5. In Nepal with deep study, detailed analysis of experts and curriculum officers,
drafting and redrafting and revising curriculum was developed and improved.
6. The final draft is submitted to the national curriculum committee for approved.
After reviewing the curriculum development process in Nepal, I have come to
know that the centre plays a vital role for curriculum development, update, revision and
improvement and has developed a mechanism for collecting information and feedback
on curriculum from its users (Students and teachers) and other stakeholders.
Teacher’s Role in Curriculum Development Process
As we are saying teachers are the curriculum themselves. They do not need to
implement the curriculum as they adapt from some agency. They can develop their
own curriculum. Carl (2009) said that the direct participation of teachers in the
curriculum process will ensure the levels of successes, they must therefore, demand
their voices to be heard while developing curriculum. Teachers want to be partners in

30
the process of curriculum development and not mere passengers or onlookers.
Teachers' involvement, co-operation and their role is said to be crucial for consultation
and receiving feedback before and during the design phase; while there will be greater
participation during implementation and evaluation. Hence teacher is a core person
whose responsibility in regard to curriculum development cannot be entirely ignored
(Print, 2007).
Ornstein and Hunkins (2013) argue that the politics of education is concerned
with who benefits and how those benefits are determined. Curriculum participants, both
educators and non educators, have to determine what types of curricula will benefit
what students, how to select those curricula, who will receive the benefits of particular
curricula, and how to deliver those benefits. Emphasizing the importance of
participation of stakeholders on policy formulation, Marsh (2009) says that proposals
for curriculum reform can come from various sources; teachers, teacher unions, policy
makers, academics, politicians, media and pressure groups. Teachers' general
participation in policy making helps the process of curriculum development and
innovation to be effectively and efficiently implemented. Also teachers will have an
opportunity to add to their knowledge, skills and experiences to enrich the policy.
Curriculum development process requires the participation of curriculum team to
include expertise in curriculum design. Curriculum design and planning is one of the
stages in the process involved (Carl, 2009). Regarding various design options that exist
Ornstein and Hunkins (2013) says, regardless of the particular design, educators must
be concerned with the scope and sequence of the curriculum elements. They must also
pay attention to articulation, continuity, and balance.
According to Carl (2009) planning, being one of the curriculum development
phases, it possesses different actions such as situation analysis, formation of goals, and

31
determination of criteria for the selection and classification of content and planning of
an experimental design. Wiles and Bondi (2002) said that an emphasis should be given
to the persons who should involve in curriculum designing and planning in general and
the teachers in particular. Participation of teachers in designing and planning helps in
the curriculum development of quality and implementable materials. It also enables
every staff members to know what to do at each step of activities in the process.
Tyler (2000) said that the task of curriculum development among other things is
mainly to include constructing curriculum materials such as the syllabus, text books,
and teachers' guides. The construction of the syllabus, textbook and teachers' guides
must follow systematic and logical steps and procedures from the beginning to the end.
According to Finch (1999) whether an individual or team approach is used, it is
important to keep in mind that development consists of several stages, each of which
contributes to the overall materials' quality. Although it should take place on a
continuous basis, an important following phase in which teachers can participate in
curriculum activity is curriculum evaluation.
Derebssa (2000) suggests that curriculum evaluation should be included at the
beginning and at every stage of curriculum development. Evaluation is needed to
support the successful development and use of the new program. Ornstein and Hunkins
(2013) made also an argument more or less from the same stand point. They maintain
that teachers are perhaps the most obvious professionals who should assume evaluation
roles. In some cases, they have worked alone evaluating the curriculum, and in other
cases they have been shut off from the evaluation process.
Teachers' involvement in curriculum development activity is assumed crucial for
many authors. Carl (2009) noted that the teacher must not be mere implementers but
development agent who is able to develop, apply, and evaluate the relevant curriculum

32
dynamically and creatively. Ornstein and Hunkins (2013) quoting Taba indicated that
perhaps the best reason for cooperative evaluation of the curriculum is that such;
collective effort allows all unvoiced to get a total curriculum picture. If they
collaborate, they can ascertain the program's effectiveness not only with their own
students but also with all types of students. Marew (2000) said that curriculum
improvement is another area in which teachers can involve is the development of
curriculum materials and pinpoint that teachers are in the ideal position to advice on the
appropriateness, relevance and feasibility of both teacher guides and pupil texts.
According to Finch (1999), curriculum improvement focuses on the five aspects
of curriculum materials quality: effectiveness, efficiency, acceptability, practicality and
generalizability. However, Marew (2000) says that, the results arrived at and decisions
made as a result of piloting facilitate a final revision of the curriculum program before it
is made available for implementation in the schools. The revision will affect the whole
curriculum package from the objectives through the syllabus preparation as well as the
supportive textbooks and materials.
Another area in which teachers are expected to participate on curriculum
development process is at the stage of curriculum implementation (Marew, 2000).
According to Marsh (2009) implementation is an initial use phase for varied phases of
planned change of curriculum. Curriculum development is a never-ending process it
never stops because one must always aspire to continue improving. Carl (2009) said
curriculum revision and or quality control, therefore, can be employed as part of
reviewing the materials as a result of field testing. Finch (1999) and Marew (2000)
consider it as constant follow up of the process. Aggarawal (2009) said that quality
control should be taken into consideration during curriculum implementation. He
further ascertains that curriculum must be evaluated from time to time so as to make it

33
in conformity with the changing needs. Finally, teachers are expected not only to
participate in the major steps of curriculum development processes, but also in updating
and in quality control mechanisms of curricular materials throughout their career
endeavor.
After reviewing the above section of teachers’ role in curriculum development
process I have come to know that policy formulation, curriculum design and planning,
curriculum construction, testing the materials and curriculum improvement,
implementation, evaluation, and quality control are the major areas of curriculum
practice in which the role of teacher may seems to be very crucial. Every nation has its
own policy and practices of the role of teacher to participate in curriculum development.
No one can distract the teacher from this process but the dimension may vary for nation
to nation.
International Curriculum Development Practices
The nature of curriculum development may vary in accordance with the national
philosophy, aims, goal and purpose of education. According to Ornstein and Hunkins
(2013), the state sets the broad curriculum guidelines for what students should know
and be able to do. School districts or schools generally select textbooks, adhering to
state guidelines in the U.S. Within these guidelines, schools and even individual
teachers are generally expected to determine content details and the pace of instruction
so that it is suited to the characteristics of students. Elementary schools do not
generally assign students to specific teachers or classes based on their ability (U. S
Department of Education, 2008). Hence in United State of America the main
responsibility of curriculum development is on the teachers' shoulders because teachers
know the every student’s pace of learning.

34
According to the Australian curriculum for the learning area (ACARA, 2012),
process for developing the Australian curriculum has been involved broad engagement
with, and discussion and feedback about, the shape and content of curriculum that
involves four interrelated phases. Curriculum shaping includes key periods of
consultation- open public consultation as well as targeted consultation with key
stakeholders including teachers and schools, state and territory education authorities,
parents and students, professional associations, teacher unions, universities and industry
and community groups.
Curriculum writing phase produces Australian curriculum for a particular
learning area, that is, specifications of content and achievement standards to be used by
education authorities, schools and teachers in all states and territories. This phase
involves teams of writers, supported by expert advisory groups, and includes key-
periods of consultation-open public consultation as well as targeted consultation with
key stakeholders including teachers and schools, state and territory education
authorities, teacher unions, universities and industry and community groups.
Preparation for implementation phase involves delivery of the curriculum to school
authorities and to schools in an online environment for school authorities, schools and
teachers to prepare for implementation (ACARA, 2012).
Curriculum monitoring, evaluation and review of the foundation of year 10
Australian curriculum will be ongoing, with annual reports to the ACARA board
detailing any issues identified. Monitoring will be coordinated by ACARA and when
relevant data gathering is required it will apply partnerships approach involving state
and territory curriculum and school authorities. This might include data about areas for
which teachers require ongoing support in order to teach according to the curriculum.

35
The evaluation process may result in minor changes to or a revision of, the curriculum
(ACARA, 2012).
In Finland, the national core curriculum is a framework for making at the school
level curricula. It determines a common structure and the basic guidelines that the local
curriculum makers, school officials and teachers, use in order to build a local, context
driven curriculum. The national core curriculum has two parts. It includes the
objectives and core contents of teaching for all school subjects, and also describes the
missions, values and structure of education (The Finish National Board of Education,
2011).
China has adopted three level Curriculum development and management
system. National, State and School-based curriculum account for 80%, 15% and 5%,
respectively in the whole national curriculum plan. Based on local condition, schools
can develop their own curricula or implement the national curriculum creatively, such
that students can have a wide range of choices in their studies. This was the first time
that the central government announced that schools, on a national scale should design
their own curricula to some extent. Teaching periods have also been guaranteed. These
policies guaranteed some chances for schools, including their teachers, to participate in
curriculum development (Education Committee of China, 1997 as cited in Law Hau-
Fai & Nieveen, 2010).
The process of curriculum development in India lies between the two extremes
of centralization and decentralization from time to time, the national government
formulates the national policy on education [NPEs] which includes broad guidelines
regarding content and process of education at different stages. These guidelines are
further elaborated by the national council of educational research and training
[NCERT]. Using the NPEs of 1968 and 1986, two curriculum initiatives have been

36
launched by NCERT. The curriculum framework prepared at the central level provides
a broad overview of the school curriculum, including general objectives, subject-wise
objectives, suggested scheme of studies and guidelines for the transaction of the
curriculum and the evaluation of pupil outcomes. These detailed curricula, syllabi and
instructional materials are developed at the national level.
NCERT has also develops the syllabi and instructional materials to be used in
the schools run by central organizations. However, the states consider whether to adopt
or adapt the NCERT syllabi and instructional materials. Thus, the NCERT curriculum
framework is always a suggestion rather than prescriptive and it is not enforceable by
law in the states. However, it is readily accepted by the states because of the NCERTs
credibility and the participatory development approach it follows (NCERT, 2006).
By reviewing the above literature, I have come to know that different countries
have different practices of curriculum development. United States gives priority to
individual teacher participation to determine content details and the pace of instruction.
Australia has the priority for shaping, writing, implementation, monitoring, evaluation
and review of curriculum development process. Finland values teachers as curriculum
experts in the school- based curriculum development process.
Chinese policy guarantees their teachers participation in curriculum
development process. India has more rigid policy for the teachers’ participation in
curriculum development. National curriculum framework binds the perimeters of
teachers’ involvement in curriculum development process. State should develop its
curriculum by the active participation of teachers under the curriculum guideline
provide by central government. So it seems to be the participatory approach of
curriculum development.

37
Review of Related Research Studies
Bennett (2002) did his doctoral dissertation, “Teacher Participation in
curriculum development: A History of the idea and practice” using qualitative approach
implemented through historical research. A narrative approach was used to explore the
story of participant adopting interview as a tool for data collection as primary source.
Also historical document was analyzed as the secondary source of data. The purpose of
this study is to provide historical perspective and understanding to advise current
attempts to involve teachers in curriculum development.
This study found that the practice of teacher participation was widespread,
though it never matched the rhetoric and that teachers participated at school system, and
state levels. The study also revealed that teachers participated from inception and even
initiated curriculum work, but most often were involved in the production of actual
materials. After reviewing this study I have come to know that teachers' participation in
curriculum development is essential from inception to the production of curricular
material.
Endeshaw (2003) did his research entitled "The state teachers' participation in
the process of primary school curriculum development in southern nations and
nationalities peoples' region". The purpose of this study was to investigate the
relationship between nine categorized possible curriculum development areas for
teachers' participation and the extent of present and desired participation on forty item
decisional statements, as well as education officials' practice of encouraging
collaborative and participative curriculum development activities. Both open ended and
closed ended questionnaire were used to collect the information using mixed
methodology.

38
The major findings of this study were: (i) teacher's desire of participation in all
areas of curriculum development practices was significantly higher than they actually
experienced, (ii) the concern given by educational official for encouraging teachers '
participation in curriculum development activities was at significantly lower level, (iii)
female experienced and desire more participation at instructional or classroom level
than males, who actually experienced and desire more participation at policy
formulation, curriculum designing and planning, (iv) low level of academic
qualification was found to hinder teachers' participation, (v) academic qualification,
work experience, and acquisition of nationality languages, lack of resource materials,
were found to influence to be low teachers' participation. This study shows that varied
stage of teachers' participation in curriculum development process and there are limiting
factors which are teachers' internal factors like as qualification, language etc as well as
external factors like as lack of resource material.
Lauridsen (2003) did his research entitled "What are teachers’ perceptions of the
curriculum development process?" Purpose of this study was to find out the teachers'
perception of the curriculum development process. For this, author using the qualitative
research implemented through interpretive/ constructivist-anthropological paradigmatic
assumption, with attention also afforded to the critical theory paradigmatic assumption
as well. Consistent with qualitative methodology adopting the grounded theory
approach, teachers ‘perception of the curriculum development process were explored
through interviews, participant observations and document analysis and the study found
that the teachers' internal and external factors influenced technically in the curriculum
development first. Second, teachers' affective aspects like group size engaging in the
time of curriculum development process. Teachers’ perceive the curriculum
development process as a process one could not undertake and accomplish without the

39
group work and it creates the sense of ownership. We can say from above study the
group work in curriculum development process creates the sense of ownership to the
curriculum. Indeed, maximum number of teachers' participation in curriculum
development process seems essential.
Carl (2005) did his research entitled "The “voice of the teacher” in curriculum
development: A voice crying in the wilderness?" and concluded that curriculum change
does not only require new thinking on relevant curricula; it should also realize the role
of the teachers in this process. Curriculum change should, therefore, not only include
new thinking and action concerning curriculum development, but also how it relates to
the way teachers can be optimally involved in the process, making the outdated focus
on the role of teachers as mere "recipients" redundant. By ignoring "the teacher's
voice", the outcomes of new thinking on curriculum development may in fact be
limited. So for bringing newness in curriculum, teachers' participation in curriculum
development process is crucial.
Oloruntegbe (2011) did his research, "Teacher involvement, commitment and
innovativeness in curriculum development and implementation" using quantitative
approach. This study was designed to investigate Nigerian science teachers’
involvement, commitment and innovativeness in curriculum development,
implementation and change. Questionnaire was used 630 secondary level science
teachers for data collection and used frequency counts and percentage for analysis of
data. The author found that teachers are seldom involved in the development of
curriculum and concluded that teachers are often show resistance to implement such
curriculum. This study recommended to the grass root approach of curriculum
development involving all stakeholders including teachers who would implement the
curriculum. From this study we can say that for the innovativeness in curriculum

40
development process grass root approach is more effective by participating teachers
who would implement the curriculum in local level.
Maphosa and Mutopa (2012) conducted research in, "Teacher's awareness of
their role in planning and implementing school-based curriculum innovation". Purpose
of this study was determining teachers’ awareness of their role in planning and
implementing school-based curriculum innovation. A quantitative-cum- qualitative
survey design was used. A semi-structured questionnaire was used to collect data from
242 teachers. Interview were held purposeful sample of teachers who had responded to
the questionnaire. This study found that teachers were generally aware of their role in
planning and implementation of school-based curriculum but their understanding of
their role was as limited as their understanding of the concept of curriculum. This study
recommends the emphasis of teacher training to enhance teacher's knowledge of
curriculum and their role in planning and implementing school-based curriculum
development. Indeed, teacher must have the conception of curriculum to participate and
enhance the quality of curriculum. Hence the awareness of teacher to the concept of
curriculum may increases their participation in curriculum development.
Mosothwane (2012) did his study," The role of senior secondary school
mathematics teachers in the development of mathematics curriculum in Botswana".
Purpose of this study was examines the role played by secondary school mathematics
teachers in the development of mathematics curriculum. It was conducted using a
sample of 60 senior secondary school mathematics teachers. The findings of this study
suggested that the majority of senior secondary school teachers’ play only a minor role
in the development of the mathematics curriculum, but are active in the implementation
and production stages. This study suggested that full participation of teacher in the
development of the curriculum would help them to better implement the material

41
because they would feel their own. Teachers use a variety of teaching methods and
materials to promote effective learning. An effective curriculum would develop if
teachers were encouraged to participate in the development process.
After reviewing the above empirical literatures, it seems that teacher and
curriculum development practices have the inseparable relationship. Different scholars
did their study in their own perspectives. Whatever the approach of study one thing that
is common to all of them is that the teachers’ participation in curriculum development
process was widespread. Nature of participation may vary from school to national level
and from inception of curriculum development to the revision and quality assurance of
developed curriculum. Without teacher's participation, curriculum development process
won't be success in any society and nation. So this review makes me think about the
gap in the tendency of this participation in our context and at this context a question is
pertinent. How is curriculum practice going on with teacher's role and responsibility in
our secondary education system?
Theoretical Review
Theory is a formal set of ideas that is intended to explain why something
happens or exists and it is established to suggest application of practical value. Indeed,
theories are used to explain or verify particular phenomenon according to the nature of
the study. In this research I would like to link Lawrence Stenhouse’s 'Process-Inquiry
Model of Curriculum Development' and Jurgen Habermas’s Theory of ‘Knowledge-
Constitutive Interest’. I would follow the Habermas’s Practical Interest of Curriculum
development which resonates with a process view of Curriculum development.
Lawrence Stenhouse’s Process-Inquiry Model
Stenhouse (1975) and James (2013) offered process model as an alternative to
the product driven objective model of curriculum development as Freire elucidated as a

42
“banking” concept of education. According to Stenhouse, the Process- Inquiry model
allows teachers to become artist rather than technicians in giving them a fair stake in
qualitative judgment, classroom research and evaluation (Srivastava, 2005). “It is
strongly linked with the belief that decision-making belongs to individual teacher and
that curriculum development is the province of the local school and such a model allows
for a measure of continuous improvement and organic development” (Kelly, 2004, p.
86).
The process model is premised upon the belief that curriculum planning should
not take an instrumental approach that is either based upon the nature of
subject/discipline knowledge, or upon a determination of the behavior a pupil is to
exhibit, but rather, more crucially, it should be based on what counts as an educational
procedure and the nature of the growth of that pupil.
Stenhouse suggests that;
A curriculum, like the recipe for a dish, is first imagined as a possibility, then as
the subject of experiment. Similarly, a curriculum should be grounded in
practice. It is an attempt to describe the work observed in classrooms that is
adequately communicated to teacher and others. Finally, within limits, a recipe
can be varied according to taste. So can a curriculum (Stenhouse, 1975, p.4, as
cited Srivastava, 2005).
In this sense curriculum is not like a physical thing, but is rather the interaction
of teacher, student and knowledge. In other words, curriculum is what actually happens
in the classroom and what people do to prepare and evaluate. It is an active process and
links with the practical form of reasoning, thinking, acting and feeling which the learner
is able to use for his/her own purpose. Supporting the process model, Bruner said that
knowledge is the process not a product and curriculum content needs to lie in the

43
Process Model Focuses on…
• Teacher's activities and teacher's role.
• Student and learner activities.
• Conditions in which learning take
place.
• Emphasis on means rather than ends.
• Learner should have part in deciding
nature of learning activities.
• More individualized atmosphere.
• Assumption that learner makes unique
response to learning experiences.
• Emphasis on learning skills.
Stenhouse (1975)
structure of the field of that knowledge. The subject matter to be taught is worth
knowing and is suitable beyond the situation which it is taught.
Stenhouse also argued that curriculum should provide an empirical study in
which there is a guiding principle on which to study and evaluate individual student's
and teacher's progress; guiding as
to the feasibility of implementing
the curriculum in varying school,
context, environment and peer
group situation. Curriculum should
provide information about the
variability of effects of differing
context and different pupils and
facilitate understanding of the
causes of variation (James, 2013).
Indeed the intention behind the process model is the provision of opportunity to
develop abilities identified through learning experiences in the classroom settings.
Emphasis is given on certain learning experiences as important in learners and for their
life also.
Habermas’s Practical Interest
Habermas calls historical-hermeneutics, a way of interpreting the meaning
system of people and cultures. Its goal is to achieve understanding by making explicit
the patterns of consensus and reciprocity that make human interaction possible. The
practical/hermeneutic interest refers to those aspects of knowledge and action which are
concerned with attaining and extending understanding and consensus in inter-subjective
relations so as to achieve community and mutuality. Historical- hermeneutic

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