Final paper.docx Curriculum Development

Running Head: Overview of Curriculum Development in Ecuador
EDCI 803
Curriculum Development
Overview of Curriculum Development in Ecuador
July 28, 2014
Ximena Naranjo

2
Introduction
How do children learn best and how do teachers teach best to meet their students’ needs,
are two essential questions for curriculum development; these questions have been answered
through multiple perspectives and by many philosophers, psychologists, pedagogues and
sociologists through time. Teachers and students are the protagonists of the most important life
changing event in a person´s life “Education”. I mention two groups, but the process of education
involves more than teachers and students. It includes at the macro, meso and micro level, the
instructional contents, materials, resources, and evaluation of educational experiences. In broad
terms, the curriculum is everything that is related to the teaching and learning process.
Curriculum is frequently defined as “what is taught in the school” (Sorenson, Goldsmith,
Mendez, Maxwell, 2011, p. 96). Bobbit (1918) cited by Wiles and Bondi, (1998) define
curriculum in two ways: as the range of experiences both, indirect and direct concerned in
unfolding the abilities of the individual or as a series of consciously directed training experiences
that schools use for completing and perfecting the individual (Wiles & Bondi, 1998). It is also
important to cite other authors who see curriculum from different perspectives. Ralph Tyler, who
is cited by Wiles and Bondi (1998), states that “curriculum is all the experiences that individual
learners have in a program of education. Its purpose is to achieve broad goals and specific
objectives which are planned in terms of a framework of theory and research or past or present
professional practices” (p.11). Hilda Taba (1945) described curriculum as a “plan for learning”,
(p.2), while Peter Oliva said it was “a plan or program for all the experiences which the learner
encounters under the direction of the school” (Armstrong, 1989, p.2; Wiles & Bondi, 1998).

3
Incidentally, when referring to what is being taught in the school, it is important to
discuss the overt, explicit, or written curriculum, which is the written part of formal instruction of
school experiences (Oliva, 2005). The hidden, cover, or implicit curriculum, which relates to
rules, values, perceptions and attitudes that educators have about topics events or people. The
null, nonexistent, not present curriculum, which is the content that is deliberately avoided in
teaching sending students the message that is not important, because it is left out or overlooked
(Shambaugh & Magliaro, 2006). This combination, the implicit, explicit and null curriculums is
what every teacher presents to the students through multiple perspectives in different learning
experiences. Thus, meaningful learning is the result of what teachers present to students as a form
of curriculum- in- use (Oliva, 2005). Consequently, based on what is curriculum and how it is
enacted in the teaching learning process, it is essential for educators to look for the most
appropriate curriculum based contents, skills and values to contribute to the society in the
process of educating better human beings.
Specifically, this paper will discuss the basics of the curriculum development in the world
and in Ecuador as part of the strengthening process intended to improve an integral, integrated,
decentralized and flexible educational system. The Ecuadorian government is promoting a
structure to satisfy social and individual learning needs, support cultural identity and foment
unity and diversity. This new educational system wants to consolidate an intercultural society to
support Ecuador as a pluri-nationality and multi-ethnic country with democratic, critical,
inclusive, flexible, and universal education. This government also wants to base the educational
transformation on values, skills and knowledge that assure the competitive, productive, scientific
and technical development of Ecuador. The government intent is to reach our sustainable
development without compromising the ability of future generations.

4
In sum, the general objective of education is to create an education inspired by ethic,
pluralistic, democratic, and scientific principles that promote respect for human and collective
rights. Education should develop critical thinking, foment civicism, and develop skills for
efficient work and production. It should also stimulate creativity and full development of the
personality. Through these personal skills, education encourages intercultural solidarity and
peace. That is to say, an education that prepares citizens for production of knowledge and for
working collaboratively.
Ultimately, the Ecuadorian government is promoting a sequence of changes at all levels and areas
of the curriculum with the Ten Year Education Plan 2006-2015 through two slogans that speak
by themselves. “Educamos para tener patria” “We educate to have a fatherland” and
“Educación un compromiso de todos para cambiar la historia” “Education is everybody´s
commitment to change history”. Hopefully the education planned for all the Ecuadorians does
that, prepares us to face life with multiple skills and through different perspectives.
Social Forces
Social and Cultural Influences in Curriculum
Social and cultural influences affect curriculum directly or indirectly. The influence is
direct, if the curriculum development processes are backed up by authorities, influential
politicians, governing bodies, federal legislation. These organizations restrict curriculum
developers from doing or not doing what is the most convenient for the schooling system and the
society. Indirectly, if community realities of the social and cultural environment put pressure on
curriculum specialists to make decisions, which sometimes were not planned (Armstrong, 1989).

5
For instance, as a direct social influence, the Ecuadorian government signed the
Salamanca Treaty (1994) encouraged by the UNESCO to create a more inclusive education. The
Ecuadorian Constitution also enforces social justice and quality education for all Ecuadorians.
(Ministry of Education, 1994). There are several other direct influences in the Ecuadorian
Education system that guarantee children equal access to education (Plan Nacional del Buen
Vivir 2013-2017)
Indirect social influences are also part of the curriculum development. For example, the
students of second year of high school have to take three months of “Catedra de Montalvo” in
Language and Literature. Teachers from my city, Ambato, have to plan instruction based on
Montalvos´work, as the most prominent writer from Ecuador who was born in this city. This
addition to the curriculum was the result of the community in relation to the importance of Juan
Montalvo in Ecuador and Latin America (Ministerio de Educación, Acuerdo Ministerial No.
000198, 2006).
Socio economic influences. The country´s economy also affects the curriculum and
schools as a whole because the money movement revitalizes income in the society. Some
governments make cuts or improvements to the educational system budget, therefore, schools’
finances are affected by receiving more infrastructure and professional development. The
economic policies and the world recession are a big reason why schools facilities and curriculum
areas are affected (Brunner, 1940).
Ponce and Bedi (2010) stated that there are several economic problems in education.
They, along with the social problems, have affected the educational system in Ecuador. For
instance, the conditional cash transfer which goal is to influence the human accumulation of

6
resources and reduce poverty impacts the Ecuadorian education, economy, and health. The ideas
of the government to give an amount of money to families who have no income and live in low
human conditions have helped to move the economy. Educational studies also demonstrate that
these programs helped to increase school enrollment, ensured regular school attendance and led
to a reduction in child labor (Ponce, and Bedi, 2010).
The American economy is undergoing a transformational process from predominantly
industrial production to information and service (Walker, 2003). Along the same line, the
Ecuadorian government established a rise of 15, 31% in the budget of education in the year 2014
(Ministerio de Economia y Finanzas, 2014). With this increase comes closer supervision on how
the education budget is spent. This plan aims at improving the quality and consistency of
teaching in Ecuador (Ministerio de Educacion, 2005).
Population diversity and migration. Society is becoming more multiethnic as
immigration and differential birth rates add physical and cultural differences to the population.
Families’ diversity also needs to be considered at the time of planning curriculum, divorce and
marriage or remarriage misplace children among families. Additionally, mobility weakens bonds
between generations. And as a result of this lack of parenting children relay more on peers for
emotional support (Walker, 2003). As a matter of fact, in the year 2013 there was a rise of 37.8%
of immigration in the country, without considering our population of mestizos, indigenous, and
afro-Ecuadorian among other ethnicities (Instituto Ecuatoriano de Estadisticas y Censos, 2014).
These characteristics are influential at the time of planning content, objectives, processes and
evaluation of the curriculum.

7
Globalization. Taylor who is cited by Rizvi and Lingard ( 2009) states that neoliberal
discourses of globalization are embedded within a social imaginary and that this transformation
requires the exercise of collective political agencies in imagining the world differently (Rizvi &
Lingard, 2009 ). In general, globalization is a concept that includes the globe and the people
inhabiting it. Globalization relates to the interaction of people everywhere, anywhere and at any
time. Globalization relations don´t distinguish economic, political, cultural and technological
differences. Globalization affects education as it connects directly or indirectly with many school
related activities that teachers can use to develop knowledge. Globalization promotes the
development of education. Teachers and parents need to connect the dots between global and
local. They need to understand the depth of globalization in order to see the importance of
changing the way we thinking about teaching and learning (Sinagatullin, 2006).
Sinagatullin (2006) states that globalization “builds and destroys, ameliorates and
deteriorates, joins and separates, and performs many activities at a time”(p. 51). The author
compares globalization to language; it can be used for communicating, generalizing, ideas,
constructing educational programs, writing constitutions and laws, praising one´s colleagues and
their work, and educating children. On the other hand inappropriate language can humiliate
people and cause harm (Sinagatullin, 2006) .
Leadership. Leadership is a transactional process. School leaders have to link the
individual needs with the tasks of the organizations (Wiles & Bondi, 1998). Leithwood Jantzi
cited by Brundrett, Burton, and Smith (2003) identifies six major categories of leadership models
in education. The instructional style focuses on student learning; moral leadership considers that
there are particular duties of instructors who care for learners and states that values should

8
predominate in leadership and it is also associated with democracy. Participative leadership
focuses on shared decision-making. Managerial is related to cold achievement of targets,
contingent leadership adapts the leader´s demands to the group and context. Jantzi also considers
that transformational leadership is the one that offers a comprehensive approach to leadership,
helping and serving present and future schools to respond productively to the new challenges
(Brundrett, Burton, & Smith, 2003).
Religion. According to the last census 2010, Catholicism is Ecuador´s primary religion. It
was in the 1800s after Ecuador won its independence from Spain. Today, the influence of
Catholicism can be seen throughout the country; from the architecture of old and new churches,
to the celebration of holidays in the country. Religious education contains sociologic doctrines,
customs and rites to live in community. The Ecuadorian State promotes freedom of cults and rites
as an Ecuadoran right, according to the United Nations Organization and the Ecuadorian
Constitution, 2008. Religion influences the Ecuadorian society giving special cultural
characteristics to the inhabitants. It affects education through the possibility of parents to choose
from the many religious private schools as option´s for schooling (Lara, 2009).The Ministry of
Education gave educational institutions an open prospect to insert religion in the institutional
curriculum that by consensus could apply it independently (Ley Orgánica de Libertad de Igualdad
Religosa, 2011).
Media. Shambaugh and Magliaro (2006) consider that media and technology are related.
Media carries messages and information for instructional purposes. Furthermore, the use of
media for instruction is based on the idea of instructional experiences. Students can see things
from different spaces and times. Media and technology can be combined for curriculum planning

9
to gain students attention, inform objectives, stimulate prior learning, present new content,
provide learning guidance, prompt students’ performance, provide feedback, assess performance,
and enhance retention of learning (Shambaugh, & Magliaro, 2006).
The Ecuadorian Ministry of Education started a Project named EDUCA. It is a media
program which was promoted by executive decree N. 0233-13, 2013 to stimulate audiovisual and
multimedia educative content to strengthen the Ecuadorian community in the process of looking
for the “Good Living”. The “Ley Orgánica de Comunicación (2013) states that all of the media
channels have to transmit one hour of official programs of “tele-education” with content like
health and human rights. EDUCA generates innovative experiences for the community to support
the learning processes (Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador, 2013)
Technology. Society is being transformed by computers, and knowledge bases are
blowing up and have become totally uncontrollable in schools. Students develop academically
along new ways and through different lines. This innovative learning characteristic brings
challenges to curriculum improvement. Wiles and Bondi (2002) state that this technological era
and “the internet age brings with it new problems and lots of considerations. The web based
learning is highly individualized, nonlinear, traditional, deductive; logic of philosophy/ goals/
objectives/ programs/ activities/ lessons may not be appropriate procedure for curriculum
construction” (p. 127).
The government is trying to implement new technologies along with infrastructure to
provide schools with better facilities. For instance, The Millennium Schools offer technologically
equipped schools to the rural areas. These schools aim to reach a percentage of students who have
difficulty in accessing schools and provide these children from rural areas with mini libraries,

10
facilities, computers, and tools for farming. This program supports teachers with continuous
technical assistance. The basic areas of studies are: mathematics, language and communication,
social studies, and natural science. Teachers from these schools are required to meet periodically
to share experiences, establish compromises and to implement innovation in their pedagogy of
education (Ministerio de Educacion, 2011)
History of Ecuadorian Educational Progress in Relation to Politics
The education system in Ecuador has had governments who prioritized their government
concentrated policies to country´s guidelines to reach high standards in Education. There was an
idea of having education as a privilege better than a human right for the Ecuadorians.
Politics, the major social force of Ecuador, influenced the educational development. Most of the
Ecuadorian presidents from Juan Jose Flores (1830) to Francisco Robles (1859) didn´t support
the country´s educational system. Except from Vicente Rocafuerte (1835) who founded schools,
high schools, museums, none of the other presidents empowered or gave importance to the
Ecuadorian Education (Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, 2014; Palma, 2010).
Garcia Moreno encouraged important changes in public education in 1861. He planned
physical implementation of educational institutions, printing stores and polytechnic schools. The
new infrastructure made Ecuador the first country that considered education as a motor for
development in South America. Garcia Moreno brought a Curricular Project from Europe which
needed specialized people for implementation. That was how the Jesuit Priests came to Ecuador
to be in charge of elementary schools. The Christian congregations were also responsible for boy
institutions until they finished elementary education. The Sisters of Charity taught girls in the

11
same level as well as established hospitals. Additionally, the Sisters of the Holly Heart were
brought for teaching high school students. Higher education was also led by German teachers
who gave a more specialized education.
The eighties was a time when obedience was the main premise for Ecuadorians. The
Liberalism, a political current, encouraged physical implementation; however, it was religion
centered. The progressive period of Ecuadorian political life couldn´t keep up with Garcia
Moreno´s changes and didn’t take care of education as Moreno did. The number of illiterate
people increased in the country after his government.
Eloy Alfaro, at the end of the XIX century, established education as a public, free,
compulsory, and religion free until the elementary level in 1897. The religion free education was
very difficult to apply as there were well structured religious groups that maintained educational
institutions. The Ecuadorian constitution of 1907 established the separation between the state
matters and religion as the first step of giving Ecuadorians the options to choose religion and
schooling. This separation also implied new educational processes that pursued utilitarian
knowledge. Eloy Alfaro created the first Normales institutions to form the new teachers for the
country. After the Liberal period of Eloy Alfaro, Ecuador suffered a time when governments
imposed their ideologies and personal doctrines. Every government had its own idea of
education, which was imposed as a personal policy, rather than State policy. Jose Maria Velasco
Ibarra again directed his eyes to education in 1946 with the Sixteenth Constitution. It stated that
education is the children´s right and parents ´obligation. The political variability of the time was
once again reflected in education. Ecuador couldn’t have curriculum development projects for
about seventeen years. The educational system couldn´t not give access to public education to all

12
Ecuadorians nor could it develop well prepared teachers who provide the citizens with quality
education. However, The Junta Militar created a Literacy Program which improved adult literacy
as means or reducing illiteracy in rural areas. Higher education also faced problems with the
Central University, which was closed for three times due to social problems of that time.
After the Military Dictatorship, Ecuador had a time of bonanza due to the Petroleum
exploitation. Bilingual education was promoted and more schools were built in the highland
region. The democratic period started with Jaime Roldos Aguilera with a National Literacy Plan.
The first Organic Educational Law was created after our former president died. Later, the Law for
Professional Development was passed and teachers were more organized and stable (Palma,
2010).
The movement Education for Everybody promoted by UNESCO encouraged
governments to satisfy the children’s learning needs and guarantee free access to education.
However, by the year 2000, Ecuador couldn´t make a well-structured plan to include five year old
children in the regular process of education. Around the same time, Abdala Bucaran signed a
decree of education emergency in 1996. This was an excuse to abuse the educational budget
planned for building schools and implementation. This was the most corrupt time in Ecuadorian
political history (Palma, 2010).
The Ecuadorian president Jamil Mahuad in 1998 and the national Constitution of 1998
required from the state to guarantee equal conditions and opportunities. This Constitution stated
that education was an ethic, pluralistic democratic, humanistic, scientific and undeniable human
right. This constitution also guaranteed the education for people with special needs. It gave free
content options and prioritized the rural areas and borderlands communities. There were several

13
improvements at that time: the new Higher Education Law, the strengthening of the kindergarten
education, and the division of the schooling process into two levels basic and high school. High
schools offered students several specialties: Sciences (Mathematics, Biology and Social
Education), Technic (Informatics, Accountant, Mechanics, Electronics). Even though there were
several improvements, the education system was still disorganized. The high school system
suffered a process of experimentation. Some institutions signed an agreement with the
Universidad Andina Simon Bolivar, offering an option for finishing the schooling system. The
other option was provided by the Ministry of Education creating disorganization (Palma, 2010).
Current Policy
Ecuador created new educational policies to reach new goals for education. The Ministry
of Education started the Pan Nacional para Todos 2003 - 2015 making new special agreements.
The National Consult of 2006 resulted in the acceptance of the Decenial Plan Objectives by a
67 .08% (5’030.612) which resulted in improvements in infrastructure and professional
development (p.29). Therefore, it is expected from the Ecuadorian State to guarantee equity,
intercultural, and inclusive education. The State has to respect human rights to strengthen unity in
diversity. The 2008 Ecuadorian Constitution also adds new policies to the educational system.
The creation of a new curriculum and the strengthening of the whole process of education is a
key element in this new law. Most importantly, it conceives education as a state duty, and
provides free access to higher education, if the assessment criteria are met. It is undeniable to say
that the most valuable contributions to education have been given during Rafael Correas´
presidency. His progressive policies revolutionized the idea of seeing education as a way to
change history (Palma, 2010).

14
Five Major Educational Philosophies
School systems, choose their philosophy of education based on their views and values as
well as the society and political currents they are immersed in. The philosophy describes the view
of reality and idea of truth and goodness. In this way, the mission of the school and school system
is to find the best approach to guide the work (Wiles & Bondi, 1998).The root philosophies of
education are Perennialism, Idealism, Realism, Experimentalism, and Existentialism (Wiles &,
Bondi, 1998; Wiles & Bondi, 2002). However, four philosophies emerged from them to guide the
educational processes. These new currents are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism,
Deconstructionism (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).
Perennialism is a conservative and inflexible philosophy of education. It is based on the
view that reality comes from fundamental fixed truths-especially related to God. It believes that
people find truth through reasoning and revelation and that goodness is found in rational
thinking. As a result, schools exist to teach reason and God's will. Students are taught to reason
through structured lessons and drills. Idealism believes in refined wisdom. It is based on the view
that reality is a world within a person's mind. It believes that truth is in the consistency of ideas
and that goodness is an ideal state to strive to attain. As a result, schools exist to sharpen the mind
and intellectual processes. Students are taught the wisdom of past heroes. Realism believes in the
world as it is. It is based on the view that reality is what we observe. It believes that truth is what
we sense and observe and that goodness is found in the order of the laws of nature. As a result,
schools exist to reveal the order of the world and universe. Students are taught factual
information. Experimentalism believes that things are constantly changing. It is based on the
view that reality is what you experience. It believes that truth is what works right now and that

15
goodness comes from group decisions. As a result, schools exist to discover and expand the
society we live in. Students study social experiences and solve problems. Existentialism believes
in the personal interpretation of the world. It is based on the view that the individua l defines
reality, truth and goodness. As a result, schools exist to aid children in knowing themselves and
their place in society. Students learn what they want and discuss subjects freely (Wiles & Bondi,
1998; Ornstein, & Hunkins, 1988). Oliva (2005) suggests that it is good for education to apply a
combination of several of these philosophies or approaches in order to provide a more inclusive
education. This combination is called Eclecticism (Oliva, 2005).
“Change Agents” of Curriculum in Ecuador
Everyone is a change agent in the Ecuadorian curriculum. It is a sociopolitical process
that involves the national level, the Executive, Legislative and Judicial powers. They contribute
with guiding principles and information to base the transformational process.
The social forces and social and management groups influence educational priorities. These
groups like Unions dictate expectations according to their needs. For instance, the Ecuadorian
government, the National Assembly and the Supreme Court are the most important organizations
ruling the country. There is a second step in the hierarchy when working in curriculum
development. This involves the Ministry of Education and the Sub- Secretary´s Office, which
both contribute with ideas. There is always a team of experts who are members from the cited
organizations who are put in charge of designing the macro and meso curriculum. They also
provide guidelines to teachers who in the end will be the Change Agents who put into practice
their guidance, their philosophy of teaching and the professional judgment at the time of working
to achieve the planned goals of education (Van Damme, Aguerrondo, Crespo, Robalino, 2013).
The philosophy that impacts curriculum in Ecuador

16
Wiles & Bondi (1998) described the determinants for educational philosophies. The
authors considered that the philosophies are based on three criteria: What is good? What is true?,
and What is real?. However, the answer to these questions may be up to individual perceptions of
goodness (axiology - values), truth (epistemology – mediums of learning) and reality (ontology-reality,
substance of learning) (Wiles & Bondi, 1998).
The Ecuadorian education philosophy is to generate social opportunities to improve the
Ecuadorian quality of life and contribute to the reduction and elimination of poverty (Ministerio
de Educación del Ecuador, 2006). Ideally, our education will improve the equal of resources,
distribution, and improve the Ecuadorian economy through science, technology and innovation.
Additionally, productivity and competency developed appropriately will give to the country´s
sustainable development. Education´s function is also to develop learnings that enable children
and adults to make good use of their rights and responsibilities to participate in public and private
spaces. Additionally, the Ecuadorian educational system wants to include pluricultural and
multiethnic feelings, which will revive our cultural tangible and intangible patrimony to
consolidate our national identity (Consejo Nacional de Educación, 2006). The Ecuadorian
educational principles are equity of education, quality of education, belonging, inclusion,
efficiency, participation, unity, continuity, flexibility, and alternativeness. What is more
important, the Ecuadorian education develops values like honesty, justice, respect, peace,
solidarity, responsibility, plurality, ethics, democracy, humanity, investigation. (Ministerio de
Educación del Ecuador, 2006; Hacia el Plan Decenal de Educación del Ecuador, 2006).
Even though the idea is well described and incudes values, mediums of learning and the
substance of learning, I have to admit that the president´s philosophy and the curriculum
specialists will mark the processes. We will never have a pure structure, the team perceptions and

17
social and educational forces will add specific details to the present and oncoming projects. In
sum, according to my description, I can say that Ecuador´s educational philosophy is primarily
Progressive and social Reconstructionist.
Aspects of Psychology and Child development that Affect Curriculum Development
Several psychologists, sociologists, and pedagogues have researched about human cognition.
Piaget, Vygotsky, Havighurst, Erickson, and Gilligan have described the aspects of psychology
that affect human learning in multiple theories.
The psychologist Jean Piaget described children cognitive progress in a series of four
stages. Each stage of development and characteristics shows how children develop and
understand the world. Piaget considered that children are natural discoverers and that they try to
explore and make sense of the world around them through their curiosity. Piaget developed a
phase theory of intellectual development that included four distinct stages: the sensorimotor
stage, from birth to age 2; the preoperational stage, from age 2 to about age 7; the concrete
operational stage, from age 7 to 11; and the formal operational stage, which begins in
adolescence and spans into adulthood (Wiles & Bondi, 1998).
Vygotsky is one of the most important contemporary psychologists. Vygotsky´s
framework states that children construct their knowledge and that learning can lead them to their
development. Besides, he claims that children´s development is associated with and through
their social context which also involves language. Besides, Havighurst describes three sources for
human developmental tasks: the biological, psychological and cultural areas (Wiles & Bondi,
1998). He describes tasks that relate to physical maturation, for example learning to walk, talk,
and control of bowel and urine. He describes behaviors and acceptable manners to the opposite

18
sex and adjusting to changes like menopause. There were a second group of tasks that related to
personal values like choosing an occupation, or determining philosophical perspectives. A third
group related to tasks that were originated in social pressure like learning to read, or be
responsible citizen. Based on this theory, teachers can find out the “teachable moment” which is
the time that is the most appropriate to teach (Wiles & Bondi, 1998).
Erickson explained the human development of personality in eight stages from infancy to
adulthood. Each sequential stage determines that a person confronts, and masters, different
challenges. However unsuccessful completion of any stage may cause problems in the future
development. Erickson stages are described by their psychosocial aspects and their human basic
virtues according to the learners´ age: infancy, trust and mistrust and hope; early childhood,
autonomy, shame, and will; play age, initiative and guilt and purpose; school age, industry and
inferiority and competency; adolescence, ego identity and role confusion and fidelity; young
adult, intimacy and isolation and love; adulthood, generativists and stagnation and care; and
maturity, ego integrity and despair and wisdom (Sowell, 2000).
Ausebel’s theory described how individuals relate new knowledge to relevant concepts
they already know. This new knowledge interacts with the learner’s knowledge previous structure
to develop meaningful learning. Ausubel believes that the students’ knowledge is hierarchically
organized. He said that new information is meaningful to the extent that it can be related to what
the students already know (Wiles & Bondi, 1998). Moreover, Kohlberg Stages of Moral
Development describe how humans develop their morality trough six stages grouped into three
categories: pre - conventional, conventional and post - conventional. Children at the pre-conventional
level are only interested in securing their own benefit. The conventional level

19
determines learning about rules and authority. The post- conventional level demonstrates that
children can make differences between what is right and wrong in the moral aspect and in
relation to rules (Wiles & Bondi, 1998). Along the same line, Gilligan describes his theory of
moral development in three groups: Individual survival (from selfishness to responsibility), self-sacrifice
and social conformity (from goodness to truth) and morality and nonviolence (Morales,
2014).
Summary of Psychology. A good way to plan curriculum for the students’ developmental
needs is to include perspectives, the human learning psychology and the teaching philosophies.
That is to say how learners evolve in their cognitive, physical, emotional, moral, and social areas
and how the people involved in education plan education considering those needs. The
curriculum design has to consider the developmental characteristics that help educators; parents
and psychologist understand and differentiate between their development stages from the
sensorimotor, preoperational, and concrete to the abstract stages. The behaviors and highlights
which determine that a person is going through the process of childhood, puberty or adulthood
have to be known and addressed carefully. Curriculum has to consider the profound intellectual,
physical and emotional changes in development. Additionally, age and development
characteristics make learners´ thinking become more complex; conversely, curriculum has to
include all of these characteristics from multiple perspectives. In sum, curriculum specialists have
to understand the instructional needs of students to support their physical, cognitive, social and
emotional development (Wiles & Bondi, 1998).
Needs of the Curriculum

20
Ralph Tyler cited by (Armstrong, 1989) described three sources of the curriculum, the
society, the learners and the subject matter. So, in this way the curriculum has to fill the needs of
the society mediated by the philosophies of education and psychology of learning. According to
Tyler´s point of view, Ecuadorian curriculum must provide the society education based on
quality, equity, inclusion, belonging, flexibility, and efficiency as the main characteristics. The
curriculum needs to articulate different components of the national education through the
compromise and participation in the social construction, with implementation of projects that
promote human development to satisfy the socio educative requirements of the community.
(Armstrong, 1989; Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador, 2006)
Essential Elements in the English Curriculum
English as a Second Language needs to develop the communicative competence by
developing the linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences in the learner with a good
level of fluency of reading speaking, reading and writing based on the principles of
communication.
According to the Curriculum Guidelines 2012:
“The main objective of the present English curriculum design is to help students develop
their communicative language skills through the consideration of the following principles:
• Language is a system for the expression and conveyance of meaning.
• The primary function of language is interaction and communication.
• The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses (p.5)
Models of Curriculum Development
Amstrong, (1989) describes a list of tasks that curriculum specialists should develop at the
time of working on curriculum construction. These are some of the steps that different models

21
have followed, and they can serve as a guide to follow depending of the educational needs.
Identify needs and purposes, select and organize participants, develop a master program and
management scheme, develop components needed for each setting, pilot tests, assess and
reorganize, disseminate and implement, evaluate and revive (Amstrong, 1989)
Tyler’s Rational – Linear Approach. Ralph W. Tyler stated that there are four guiding
questions when developing curriculum. These four questions guide curriculum specialists when
selecting objectives, learning experiences, organizing learning experiences and evaluating in a
sequential order. That is why Tyler’s model is known as rational- lineal model. Tyler also
identified three sources of knowledge: learners, the society and subject matter. He explained that
these sources determine the objectives. The educational philosophy and psychology of learners
are screening processes for analyzing the objectives. The next step is to identify learning
experiences which are different learning activities that will help the students to obtain the
objectives. The third concern of Tyler is how to organize the learning experiences in order to
meet the objectives. Finally, Tyler considers that evaluation determines if the objectives are
achieved by identifying changes in the students’ behavior (Oliva, 2005; Tyler, 2013).
The Taba Model. Hilda Taba suggested an inductive approach to curriculum
development. She considered that teachers should design the curriculum rather than the higher
authorities. Taba Model of developing the curriculum includes a series of steps. The first step is
diagnosis of the students’ needs. The second one is formulation of objectives. The third step is
the selection of content. The fourth step is the organization of content. The fifth step is the
selection of learning experiences, which will help the students learn the content. The final step is
the evaluation (Oliva, 2005).

22
Eisner’s Artistic Approach. Elliot W. Eisner designed seven components in his
curriculum development model. He included goals and priorities. The second is the content of
the curriculum. The third one is the types of learning opportunities. The fourth is the
organization of learning opportunities and the fifth is the organization of content areas. The sixth
is the mode of presentation and mode of response. The last is the types of evaluation procedures
(Oliva, 2005).
Peter Oliva´s Model. Peter Oliva´s model is very useful for educators. Oliva’s model
presents a good framework for schools curriculum development and for instruction. Besides,
authorities and faculty can use this model to make pragmatic decisions of the curriculum
structure, or use it as a guide for instruction. It has twelve components divided into planning
phases and operational phases, characteristics that make it easy to follow. It illustrates a step-by-step
process of developing the curriculum from specifying the needs of students in general and
the needs of the society, to evaluating the curriculum, something which is similar to what Tyler
describes as the philosophical and psychological screening. Oliva suggests a comprehensive and
systematic model combining a scheme for curriculum development and a design for instruction.
One important feature of this model is the feedback lines that evaluate the curriculum goals as
well as the instructional goals. This model shows the requirement for constant adjustment of the
components of the sub-cycles. Oliva´s model integrates two sub-models: the curriculum sub-model
and the instructional sub-model. The curriculum sub model includes mostly the planning
stages and it cannot be completed if it is not transformed into the instructional sub
model. Oliva’s model answers the limitations of the Taba model in terms of diagnosing only the
need of the students before formulating the objectives (Oliva, 2005).
What knowledge is of worth?

23
Curriculum should include knowledge that promotes intellectual development and the
organization of new cognitive skills. The curriculum should embrace contents as means of
learning to develop the cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills. It should also contain
subjects that are wide and deep related to human environment, and that can help humans develop
personally and professionally in the local setting, but also at national and international level. (ICE
47, 2004)
The Levels of Control
Planning curriculum takes many important ascendant levels. People involved in education
have decreasing opportunities to participate in this process as planning into upper levels to help
the members reach the goals. Classroom planning is the most important step in curriculum
control because this is where the curriculum impacts on the leaners. All of the teachers in their
classrooms at educational institutions participate in the curriculum development. The second step
is the schools; most teachers participate in curriculum planning at the school level. Third, the
district, level at where some teachers contribute to the process. The regional, national and
international levels also give fewer curriculum specialists to participate in the curriculum
development process. Each step gives curriculum planners unequal.
Personally, teachers have to promote constructive relations among the members of the
community, evaluate permanently according to the current law, and provide an inclusive
education according to the students’ cultural and linguist ic diversity. Support the students
learning process; develop competencies, knowledge, abilities and attitudes. Coordinate with the
authorities the curriculum work to guarantee permanent inclusion in the learning process.
Promote physical, psychological and sexual integrity respecting the students´ human rights

24
At the classroom level, the teachers are classroom managers and counselors, they have to
understand student learning needs, it is their responsibility to supervise the children assuring a
good process as well as their safety. Teachers also have to work collaboratively with colleagues
to build the institutional curriculum in a student friendly way.
The district makes the human resources department, control and citizen support, regulates and
administers school finances and risk management. The districts help to organize and unify
schools making Educational Unities.
The Ministry of Education is in charge of planning the national education, establish the
best criteria and regulate the educational processes. This organization sets the technical and
quantitative and qualitative parameters that contribute with accessibility, quality and equity to all
children and adolescents to the all modalities, elementary, and high school public and private day
and night shifts. This institution plans educational development programs including national
organizations, educational institutions and he society in general so that they join forces to
contribute to the economic and social development of the country.
Education systems around the world have two modalities, the centralized system and the
decentralized system. Centralized system, the federal or national ministry offices found in most
developed countries and private schools tend to handle the old curriculum. The state provides the
framework for schools and schools work on the curriculum framework for different subjects
outsourcing is explored. The Centralized system is handled by the government and holds all
power and decision making authority, it focuses on nation building and national developing
curriculum as its locations. The ministry of education and the curriculum development center
exercises close supervision on what happens in schools so all of the curriculum systems are made

25
by agency bodies, like state departments, district education offices and so on. There are many
contributor of the curriculum. In some countries some groups take leading roles. The Ecuador the
National level policy makers from the ministry of education, they decide almost everything about
the curriculum that should be implemented at the school level. And also include special groups’
professor vocational professor and curriculum specialist (Ornstein, 1988).
Roles of Curriculum Developers
Teachers are the initiators and change agents in the process of the curriculum
development. Teachers plan, design, revise and collaborate units and lessons to deliver in class
every day. Teachers have to be knowledgeable about the teaching practice and present the best
clinical expertise available (Ornstein, 1988)
Principals and authorities play an important role in this process. They know the school
organization, climate, and people in the institutions. Authorities set the tone in the schools
creating an atmosphere for good working relationship. They are willing to take risks and deliver
dynamic programs as well an implementing them in the institutions. A principal is a facilitator
who fosters professional growth and leadership and skills (Ornstein, 1988). Facilitators and
coordinators also contribute with the development of curriculum. These people concentrate the
process of implementation and evaluation. Supervisors monitor the curriculum during the entire
development and implementation. The supervisors provide direction and guidance. They work
collaboratively and give leadership responsibilities to other members of the team. They keep
channels for communications assisting to the total faculty (Ornstein, 1988).
Curriculum police makers
This is the group of experts who have the responsibility of developing he curriculum at
the macro level. They are accountable for including all professional organizations and most

26
particular legal groups into the project. They can be part of state, local boards of education, tax
payers, parents, and students. National level policies makers decide almost everything what
should be implemented in the schools. They include specialist and consultants from other
countries too.
Selecting the Appropriate Curriculum Model: Oliva´s Model
The curriculum development process includes a series of steps that need to be planned,
implemented and assessed carefully. Considering the different elements described by Tyler,
Taba, Eisner, Saylor Alexander and Lewis, and Oliva, I have chosen Oliva´s model as a pattern to
follow at the time to develop curriculum at the macro, meso, and micro levels. Some of them
have similarities while others are entirely different. Some are linear, inductive and prescriptive
while others are deductive and prescriptive. However, all of them include parts of the previous
models which were updated and modified according to the needs.
I will describe how the curriculum can be developed according to Peter´s Oliva´s eyes.
Peter Oliva’s Model has twelve components divided into components for curriculum
development and for instruction. It illustrates a step-by-step among the 12 planning and
operational stages. This process of developing curriculum goes from specifying the needs of
students in general and the needs of the society to evaluating the curriculum.
Planning the Curriculum
Rationale. Every country and school curriculum should be authentic and integrated. It
must address the children´s needs. It should teach students how to learn while encouraging
creativity innovation and collaboration. It has to develop high order thinking skills and problem
solving. Planning implementation and evaluation are systematic processes at the time of thinking
of curriculum development. The educational system members have to be self- accountable of

27
their roles and responsibilities to achieve the aims goals and objectives of education. Students
need a constructivist approach developing methodologies and strategies that promote
communication, collaboration, and hands-on instructional experiences.
The curriculum has to be adapted to the society and students’ needs responding to the
evolution of time. It has to be updated constantly including community as change agents of the
process. It has to consider the society evolution, technology and new knowledge as fundamental
changes based on group decisions. Curriculum needs planning, monitoring, evaluation and
support by adequate internal and external resources. The learners’ knowledge evolution and
technology updates have to be combined with the needed time for reaching the goals and
qualified personnel. Curriculum changes look for finding out how learners become independent
and productive individuals, socially competent and effective contributors with the society. Thus,
curriculum has the responsibility to prepare students to face today´s challenges combining roles
consistent with the purpose of education (Sowell, 2000)
Component I: Identify the Aims of Education and their Philosophical and
Psychological Principles. Curriculum developers need to state the aims of teaching based on the
educational philosophy and psychological principles. Oliva considers that students´ needs the
society and the subject matter need to be well-thought-out when stating the aims of education
screened by the philosophical and psychological principles. This approach is similar to Tyler’s
considerations for selecting the objectives (Oliva, 1992).
Peter Oliva´s model starts with stating the aims of education and the philosophical and
psychological principles. The aims proposed by Oliva come from the society, the individual
needs and the subject matter as the same as Tyler´s model. Additionally, Sowell (2000) stated

28
that educational aims are extensive declarations that provide form and course to a set of more
complete targets for the future. Aims are “Philosophical and long term” (p. 145) “Aims show the
direct target, thus an effort directed to a specific end” (Saylor & Alexander, 1974).
The National Education Association reported seven Aims for education in 1918 calling
them The Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education “Health, command of fundamental
processes, worthy home membership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical
character” (Flinders & Thornton, 2013, p. 399). They were considered as guiding educational
aims of that time. Along the same line as the system looks for aims for the 21st century, the
cardinal aims are reaffirmed as they are still looking for educating “Whole persons”. These aims
deal with general processes of education, they transform into goals when they narrow into a
school system and subject. The educational aims for a changing world are abilities to
communicate effectively, ability to work as a team member, preparedness to face chances and
challenges, flexibility, preparedness to identify and solve problems, skill in analysis and
conceptualization, capacity and willingness to learn new things, ability to question challenges and
innovate, willingness and capacity to assume personal responsibility, and capacity for self-reflection
and self- management (Flinders & Thornton, 2013).
According to the Ecuadorian Good Living plan 2013- 2017 these are the aims for the Ecuadorian
Life:
“To Foster Social and Territorial Equality, Cohesion, and Integration with Diversity ; To
Improve the Citizens’ Capabilities and Potentialities; To Improve the Quality of Life of
the Population; To Guarantee the Rights of Nature and Promote; a Healthy and
Sustainable Environment ; To Guarantee Sovereignty and Peace; to Promote Ecuador’s

29
Strategic Insertion in the World, and Latin American Integration; To Guarantee Stable,
Fair and Dignified Work in its Diverse Forms ; To Build and Strengthen Public and
Intercultural Spaces for Social Interactions ; To Affirm and Strengthen National Identity,
Diverse Identities, Plurinationalism and Interculturalism ; Objective 9: To Guarantee
Rights and Justice ; To Guarantee Access to Public and Political Participation; To
Establish a Sustainable Socio-economic System Based on Solidarity ; To Build a
Democratic State for Good Living” (Secretaria Nacional de Planificación y Desarrollo,
2013, pp.70-82).
Component II Analyze the needs of the community. Peter Oliva considers that the
needs of particular students in particular locations have to be measured because they vary from
place to place. It is also important to identify the needs of the curriculum which are related to the
students, society and subject matter.
Tyler considers that students have physical needs like necessity of food water activity,
likes. He also describes the students ‘social needs of affection, belonging, status, respect. Among
the students ‘needs it is described the philosophy of life which determines the vision and attitudes
to see their own lives. Both, Tyler and Oliva recognize human beings regardless of races, social
or economic status. They consider that human beings must have equal opportunities to participate
in social activities.
Component III Specify curriculum goals. Curricular goals are based on aims and
beliefs. Goals consider the students’ needs the community and the subject matter. In general,
goals are statements of end points or outcomes of education. They reflect the philosophical
preferences; they determine the scope of an education program. They are specific statements

30
used as guidelines to achieve particular purposes. Goals come from aims and provide instructors
with broad statements of what they can accomplish in terms of students learning as a result of a
subject or educational programs (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).
Goals are statements of the intended outcomes of education. They are considered the
building blocks of educational planning. Goals have different levels of specificity. The
association for Supervision and Curriculum development, a national organization of curriculum
specialist proposed a group of learning goals “that reflected the holistic nature of individuals”
they proposed ten major goals for youth: self-esteem, understanding others, basic skills, interest
and capability for continuous learning, responsible members of society, mental and physical
health, and creativity (Wiles & Bondi, 2002, p. 104).
Component IV Specify Curriculum Objectives. Oliva defines this stage for planning
general objectives, pragmatic objectives and expectations, Wiles & Bondi (2002) describe three
levels of objectives: the Level I objectives that are broad goals or purposes, formulated at the
district level by councils or school boards, they are seldom revised. The level II goals that are
general, but more specific than level I formulated at school or department level, they contain an
outline of process to accomplish Level I objectives. And the Level III objectives that are
behaviorally stated, they are formulated by teams of teachers or single teachers. These level
objectives describe expected results, the evidence for assessing outcomes and level of
performance. Behavioral objectives contain three essential elements: an observable action
demonstrating learning, the description of the condition under which the behavior is expected and
the criteria of the acceptable performance.

31
Objectives.Objectives are statements that enable curriculum decision makers, developers,
teachers and students and community members find out the particular intent of a particular action
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988). Objectives are more specific than goals. They are used as a basis of
instructional development at school. Saylor & Alexander (1974) state that objectives are overt
changes in student behavior, the ones that are expected to obtain from participation in a unit of
learning activities, the objectives help to develop goals. Objectives are statements that enable
curriculum decision makers, curriculum developers, teachers, and even students and members of
the society identify the particular intent of an action. Objectives that are stated precisely will
improve the quality of teaching and learning. Besides, they have to be meaningful and useful in
guiding educators (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).
Hilda Taba cited by Ornstein, and Hunkins (1988) considered that educational objectives
can be of two sorts: the ones that describe school wide outcomes and the ones that describe the
behavior to be obtained after a unit or a subject course or a grade level program. The general
curriculum objectives related to subject or grade level and unit objectives and unit or lesson
objectives classroom level. Along the same line Robert Zais cited by Ornstein and Hunkins,
(1988) classify school objectives as curriculum goals and specific objectives as curriculum
objectives.
Components of objectives. Ornstein and Hunkins (1988) consider that objectives either
behavioral or none behavioral refer to specific characteristics intended to the learners. They
describe an environmental condition in which the students perform. However, the behavioral
objectives describe the conduct and the statement of the criterion or acceptable performance
explicitly (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).

32
Guidelines for Formulation Objectives. Educators must pay attention to several aspects at the
time of formulating objectives for example: Matching: Objectives must be related to the goals
and aims. Worth: Obtaining objectives must have values for students at present and future paying
attention to updated knowledge. Wording: Use of appropriate words stating the intended purpose.
The types of objectives must describe a general subject, grade objectives, unit objectives, lesson-plan
objectives. All of them must meet the descriptive criteria. Appropriateness: Pay attention to
the instructional and content demands. Logic grouping: Objectives have to show good
organization and coherence. Periodic revision: Curriculum developers need to analyze the
objectives through the time because students, society, realm of knowledge and instructional
strategies change constantly ((Wiles & Bondi, 1998).
Behavioral Objectives.Ornstein, and Hunkins, (1988) state that behavioral objectives are
statements of outcomes in terms of observable performance expected of students after instruction.
These objectives describe the behavior of the learner, at demonstrating the achievement of the
objective, the condition under which the students will determine the mastery of the objective and
the level of acceptable proficiency. They are clear, people know what they mean and determine
the extent of the outcomes. They use words like “name”, “describe” “solve” “write” “build”
(Ornstein, & Hunkins, 1988). Behavioral objectives help to identify the specific objectives to be
changed, increase the interschool and intraschool communication, direct instructional activities in
the classroom, and provide a meaningful basis for evaluation. However they are sometimes too
simple as the human behavior is a more than the sum of the parts, they do not consider the human
activity, limit choice of alternatives, and the learning in the classroom (Willes & Bondi, 1998)

33
On the other hand, nonbehavioral objectives are general in wording and use words like
“appreciate” know” “understand”. Ornstein and Hunkins (1988) state that objectives describing
high order learning are not considered in this group as they don´t allow precise measurement.
Taxonomic Levels of Objectives. Curriculum developers need to pay attention to the
cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning. The best classifications of learning
objectives are proposed by Benjamin Bloom, David Krathwohl and Anita Harrow.
The Cognitive Domain. Benjamin Bloom proposed a cognitive taxonomy. It has been the most
familiar and the greatest influence in the formation of objectives. The levels of Bloom´s
taxonomy are: Knowledge, this level includes objectives that recount knowledge facts,
terminology and means of dealing with specific conventions and universal abstractions.
Comprehension, relates to translation, interpretation and extrapolation of information.
Application, describes the use of abstraction in particular situations. Analysis, describe objectives
when students have to break a whole into parts, elements, relationship and organizational
principles. Synthesis, it is to put parts together in a new form developing unique communication,
plan for operation setting for abstract relationships. Evaluation, this is the highest complex level
they describe internal evidence or logical consistency in the content (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).
The affective Domain. David Krathwohl presented the taxonomy of objectives in the affective
domain. The levels of Krathwohl´s Taxonomy are: Receiving, which is related to the learners
sensitivity. It includes awareness, willingness to receive, and select attention. Responding, this
refers to the learners’ active attention to stimuli like acquiescence, willing responses, and feelings
of satisfaction. Valuing, this describes the learners believes and attitudes of worth like
acceptance, preference, commitment. Organization, this describes internalization of values and

34
beliefs like conceptualization and organization of a new value system. Characterization, this
relates to the behavior that reflects the highest level of internalization of values a generalized set
of principles and a characterization of the philosophy of life (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).
The Psychomotor domain. Anita Harrow developed the taxonomy of the psychomotor domain
according to this description. Reflex movements include segmental and intersegmental reflexes.
Fundamental movements are related to running, jumping, pushing, pulling, and manipulating.
Perceptual abilities are kinesthetic, visual, auditory, tactile and coordination abilities. Physical
abilities like strength, flexibility, agility, reaction- response time and dexterity. Skilled
movements are objectives related to games, sports, dances, and the arts. Nondiscursive
communication related to expressive movements like postures, gestures, facial expressions, and
creative movements (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1988).
Planning for Instruction
Curriculum developers have to establish the instructional goals and objectives clearly. It includes
the validation process deciding on instructional strategies and approaches. Wise planning is the
first and the most important step for effective curriculum. Teachers must know what they need to
accomplish and how they are going to do it. They have to consider macro objectives, the national
standards, and objectives for subject and year. Start visualizing instruction in terms of
methodologies, strategies, contents, materials and evaluation over a period of time.
Component V Organize and Implement the Curriculum. Organize and implement
curriculum stablishing its structure. Oliva suggests a linear model. It follows a certain order or
sequence of progression through the various steps. The term “linear” is used for models whose

35
steps proceed in a more or less sequential, straight line from beginning to end. This is a deductive
model as it proceeds from the general (examining the needs of society to the specific specifying
instructional objectives. It is a descriptive model suggesting what ought to be done. However,
curriculum workers should exercise judgment as to the entry points and analyze the
interrelationships of components of the models to see what is applicable to the individual, society
and subject matter needs ( Oliva, 2005).
Instructional Goals and Objectives
Component V I Specify Instructional Goals. Oliva´s model requires objectives for each
level and subject. Instructional goals are reports of presentation estimated of each student in a
class, phrased in overall terms without standards of achievement. They are programmatic. They
refer to the accomplishment of individual students and are derived from the macro curriculum to
the class. They are statements of performance expected of each student in a class. They are
phrased in general terms without criteria of achievement.
Component VII Specify Instructional Objectives. Additionally, this model requires
instructional objectives. They are statements of performance to be demonstrated by each student
in the class, derived from an instructional goal, and phrased in observable and descriptive terms.
Component VIII Select Strategies. Instructional strategies the teaching styles and
teaching skills are chosen and implemented to fulfill educational goals and objectives.
Instructional strategies come from a multiple sources like the objectives, the subject matter,
students the community and the teacher. For example, teachers have different teaching methods,
specific competences, generic skills that teachers are good at. Oliva (2005) states that

36
“instructional strategies must be appropriate to the teacher style, model and skill” (Oliva, 2005, p.
370).
Teachers have to choose instructional strategies for working with students considering that
students must have new experiences. Good selections of strategies give them the opportunity to
practice the kinds of behaviors implied by the objectives. They need to obtain satisfaction from
carrying learning outcomes. Strategies need to consider the reactions desired in the experience
within a range of possibilities for the students involved. It is very important to contemplate the
learning practices that develop thinking skills and let students acquire information, develop social
attitude, and motivates interest.
Component IX Preliminary Selection of Evaluation. Good selections of evaluation
techniques, refine, add and complete the range of means to evaluate pupil performances. This
stage finds out how far the learning experiences were developed and organized and if they are
producing the desired outcomes in the evaluation. This stage will identify strengths and
weaknesses of the plan. Oliva (2005) says that evaluation instruction must begin at the time of
selecting instructional goals. He implies the need of pre assessment for identifying the
prerequisite knowledge and the other at the end to identify if students achieved the goals. He also
considers that formative assessment helps to monitor the students’ progress (Oliva 2005).
Component X Implementation of Instructional Strategies. Curriculum evaluators have
to analyze the objectives to see what they want to evidence, and then identify the situation that
will give students the opportunity to see the expected behavior. Instructors have to examine the
available instructional instruments to see if they are going to serve the purpose desired. It is

37
mandatory to look for means of recording the students’ behavior. Additionally, develop an
evaluation instrument analyzing if it meets the criteria of objectivity, reliability, and validity.
Component XI Final Selection of Evaluation. Evaluation of instruction has to be
planned carefully. It has to cover the three domains cognitive, psychomotor, and affective.
Evaluation is an integral part of the instructional development process. It is the most reliable step
for continuous improvement in the curriculum process. It provides constant feedback to improve
instruction as well as to rebuild the curriculum if needed.
Component XII Evaluation of Curriculum. Oliva (2005) concludes that there is no
fixed model of curriculum to follow. They can be changed or modified according to after a
process of evaluation. The evaluation of curriculum goal is to improve the school program. All
aspects of evaluation must adhere to the planned criteria. The process of evaluation provides
curriculum developers information about the degree to which the aims were met. Teachers and
school administrators must be involved in the process of evaluation. The evaluation provides
information about how well curricula met the aims. Evaluators collect data from school staff and
community members to provide additional information on the effectiveness of the curriculum.
Evaluators examine both processes and product to analyze and interpret data in terms of
limitations. The outcomes result in decisions about continuation and modification of the
curriculum (Sowell, 2000). The evaluation of the curriculum must consider the scope of the
curriculum, the relevance of the content, Integration of disciplines, sequence, continuity,
articulation, transferability (Oliva, 2005)

38
Conclusion
Teachers are curriculum developers. The classroom gives educators the opportunity to develop
instruction, the most important step in the education process. Teachers bring to the classroom
their strengths and pedagogical philosophies which impact the students through their education.
Several authors cited in this review said that curriculum is a program. It refers to the plans or
programs for the learning experiences that the students encounter under the direction of the
school. Whereas, instruction is the method. It is the means for making the curriculum operational.
Instruction includes the techniques that teachers use to make curriculum more available to the
learners. Both curriculum and instruction are combined when planning, implementing and
evaluating educational changes.
Curriculum development occurs on several levels hierarchically: classroom, grade,
school, district, and state. Therefore, teachers, school leaders, authorities, community members,
parents, professional personnel, and curriculum specialists are all involved in this process. Some
of them take leadership in the development, but all of them are influenced by several social forces
that implicitly or explicitly affect the changes.
Instructional outcomes must be identified in three major domains: cognitive, affective,
and psychomotor. Indeed, the taxonomies for each domain organize objectives in a categorized
mode. By extension, aims, goals, and objectives are planned carefully. Likewise, aims of
education and society are considered nationally and internationally. Curriculum specialists plan
the goals and objectives that light the road where the members of the educational system walk.
A very important piece of curriculum refers to the evaluation processes: diagnostic, formative or
summative. These processes help curriculum developers interpret data to modify or change
curriculum based on reliable information.

39
In sum, our curriculum is everything which is related to the learning process. It reflects who we
are and what we do in terms of education.

40
References
Armstrong, D. (1989). Developing and Documenting the Curriculum. Needham Heights: Allyn and
Bacon.
Brundrett, M., Burton, Smith, (2003). Leadership in Education. London: SAGE Publications.
Brunner, E. (1940). Large Social Forces Affecting Education. American Educational Research
Association, 1.
Instituto Nacional Ecuatoriano de Estadísticas y Censos (2010). Estadisticas Sociales. Quito.
Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador (2006). Plan Decenal 2006-2015. Quito: MEC.
Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador (2011). Acuerdos Ministeriales. Quito: MEC.
Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador (2011). Ley Organica de Libertad e Igualdad Religiosa.
Quito: MEC.
Ministerio de Educación del Ecuador (2013). Ley Organica de Comunicación. Quito: MEC.
Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores (2014). Presidentes del Ecuador. Quito: Norma.
ICE 47. (2004). 47º REUNIÓN DE LA CONFERENCIA 2004.
National English Curriculum Guidelines, Jenny Villalva, I. R. (2012).English Curriculum . Quito.
Lara, D. (2009). LA PRESENCIA DE LA RELIGION EN LA EDUCACION Document.
Morales, A. (2014). Learning, Human Development, Knowledge, and Cognition. Manhattan.
Oliva, P. (2005). Developing the Curriculum (6th ed.). Boston: Pearson.
Ornstein, A. &. Hunkins (1988). Curriculum Foundations, Principles and Issues. New Jersey:
Prentice Hall.
Palma, A. (2010). Historia del Sistema Educativo del Ecuador. Quito: Monografias del Ecuador.

41
Ponce, J. &. Bedi (July de 2009). The impact of a cash transfer program on cognitive
achievement: The Bono de Desarrollo Humano of Ecuador. pp. 116 - 125.
Rizvi, F. &. Lingard (2010). Globalizing Education Policy. New York: Routledge.
Saylor, G. &. Lewis (1974). Planning Curriculum for Schools. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc.
Secretaría Nacional de Planificación y Desarrollo, 2. (2013). PLan Nacional del Buen Vivir. Quito:
Senplades.
Shambaugh, N. M. (2006). Instructional Design. Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Sinagatullin, I. (2006). The Impact of Globalization on Education. New York: Nova Science
Publishers.
Sorenson, R. G. (2011). Curriculum Leadership. London: Corwin.
Sowell, E. (2000). Curriculum an Integrative Introduction. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Tyler, R. (2013). Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Chicago: The university of
Chicago Press.
Van Damme, W. A. (2013). A Story of Change: How Ecuador Seeks to Sustain its Development
Agenda through Large Scale Education Reform. UKFIET International Conference on
Education and Development, (p. 15). Oxford.
Walker, D. (2003). Fundamentals of curriculum. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates,
Publishers.
Wiles, J. &. Bondi (2002). Curriculum Development. A guide to Practice. Ohio: Merrill Prentice
Hall.

Final paper.docx Curriculum Development

Empfohlen

Empfohlen

Weitere ähnliche Inhalte

Was ist angesagt?

Was ist angesagt? (20)

Ähnlich wie Final paper.docx Curriculum Development

Ähnlich wie Final paper.docx Curriculum Development (20)

Kürzlich hochgeladen

Kürzlich hochgeladen (20)

Final paper.docx Curriculum Development