Earth sci

DIVISION OF NAVOTAS CITY
S.Y. 2021-2022
NAVOTAS CITY PHILIPPINES
EARTH SCIENCE
1st or 2nd Semester

Earth Science for Senior High School
Alternative Delivery Mode
1st or 2nd Semester
Second Edition, 2021
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Published by the Department of Education
Secretary: Leonor Magtolis Briones
Undersecretary: Diosdado M. San Antonio
Inilimbag sa Pilipinas ng ________________________
Department of Education – Navotas City
Office Address: BES Compound M. Naval St. Sipac-Almacen Navotas City
____________________________________________
Telefax: ____________________________________________
E-mail Address: ____________________________________________
Development Team of the Module
Writers: Vincent L. Dublin, Mary Grace C. Magno, Socora B. Retuya, and June Kathleen
A. Sayo,
Editor: Socorra B. Retuya
Reviewer: Russel P. Samson
Illustrators: Vincent L. Dublin, June Kathleen A. Sayo, and Socorra B. Retuya
Layout Artist: Vincent L. Dublin and Russell P. Samson
Management Team: Alejandro G. Ibañez, OIC- Schools Division Superintendent
Isabelle S. Sibayan, OIC- Asst. Schools Division Superintendent
Loida O. Balasa, Chief, Curriculum Implementation Division
Russell P. Samson, EPS in Science
Grace R. Nieves, EPS In Charge of LRMS
Lorena J. Mutas, ADM Coordinator
Vergel Junior C. Eusebio, PDO II LRMS
02-8332-77-64
Navotas.city@deped.gov.ph

Table of Contents
Quarter 1 or Quarter 3
What I Know ................................................................................1
Module 1......................................................................................2
Module 2......................................................................................10
Module 3......................................................................................21
Module 4......................................................................................30
Module 5......................................................................................37
Module 6......................................................................................46
Module 7......................................................................................52
Assessment..................................................................................54
Quarter 2 or Quarter 4
What I Know ................................................................................56
Module 8......................................................................................57
Module 9......................................................................................61
Module 10....................................................................................65
Module 11....................................................................................71
Module 12....................................................................................76
Module 13....................................................................................82
Module 14....................................................................................86
Assessment..................................................................................88
Answer Key ..................................................................................90
References ...................................................................................93

1
Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write your answers on a separate sheet
of paper.
1. The following are the characteristics of the sun that makes Earth a habitable planet
EXCEPT:
A. The sun is an average sized star
B. The sun is not too near nor too far from Earth
C. The sun heats Earth to keep waters from freezing
D. The sun is an unstable young star
2. Some methods of identifying minerals could be destructive to the mineral. Which of
the following properties of minerals could be used to identify minerals without causing
notable damage on the mineral?
A. Creating and counting the cleavage
B. Brushing the mineral on a streak plate.
C. Checking the reaction of the mineral with hydrochloric acid.
D. Measuring the density and specific gravity of the mineral.
3. What type of rock would be plausibly seen in a magmatic mineral deposit?
A. Sedimentary C. Metamorphic
B. Igneous D. Organic
4. A fossil fuel that is composed of the remains of prehistoric plants that were buried
and compacted for millions of years is a:
A. Geothermal C. Oil
B. Coal D. Natural Gas
5. A type of mining where large hole is excavated on the ground to extract the ores is
called:
A. Underground Mining C. Open-pit Mining
B. Strip Mining D. Placer Mining
6. The type of water used and reused by geothermal powerplants is:
A. Saltwater C. Streams
B. Wetlands D. Groundwater
7. A powerplant that uses moving water to power a turbine is called:
A. Hydropower C. Wind Farm
B. Geothermal D. Solar Panel
8. This happens when excess fertilizers end up in the waters promoting algal blooms:
A. Eutrophication C. Misuse
B. Irrigation D. Run off
9. The process of retaining the residues from harvested crops in the land is called:
A. Contour Plowing C. Crop Rotation
B. Strip Cropping D. Mulching

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10.These wastes are those that pose immediate danger to humans:
A. Hazardous Waste C. Oxo-biodegradable waste
B. Solid Waste D. Agricultural Waste
MODULE 1
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you master
the nature of Earth Science. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different
learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students.
The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in
which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
The module is divided into three lessons, namely:
Lesson 1.1 – The Characteristics of Earth Necessary to Support Life
Lesson 1.2– The Subsystems of Earth
Lesson 1.3– The Rock-Forming Minerals and Their Properties
After going through this module, you are expected to:
1. describe the characteristics of Earth that are necessary to support life.
2. explain that the Earth consists of four subsystems, across whose boundaries
matter and energy flow: and
3. identify common rock-forming minerals using their physical and chemical
properties
Lesson
1.1
The Characteristics of Earth
Necessary to Support Life
Humans and all the other forms of life have thrived riding a huge rock travelling
through space which we call our planet Earth. Along with the other planets both larger and
smaller, all these moves around a star we call as our sun. Compared to the other planets,
only Earth is known to foster life. What characteristics make Earth a unique planet that is fit
for life? We will find the answer to this question in this lesson.
Characteristics that Make Earth Habitable
The Earth is the only planet in the solar system known to foster life. The following are the
characteristics of Earth that makes it fit for life.
1. The Sun is an average sized star
A massive star would require less time to consume all of its fuel. If the sun is a bigger
star, it will not stay long enough for life to flourish. On the other hand, if the sun is a smaller,
younger, and less massive one, it can be possibly unstable, thus capable of destroying the
planets. Smaller stars also mean less luminous ones which means that a planet needs to be
closer to the star to receive the right amount of energy. However, being too close to a host

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star would possibly cause tidal locking where one face of a planet faces towards it and the
other one facing the other side. This would mean that one side will be too hot and the other
will be too cold.
2. The Earth is at a right distance from the sun
Earth is the third planet from the sun. It is in the so-called habitable zone, a region
where water can exist in liquid form. Too near the sun, the water on it will boil just like in
Mercury. Too far, the water will be frozen as ice like Uranus and Neptune.
3. Earth has an atmosphere
Earth is massive enough to have a strong gravity to hold gases from escaping Earth.
This blanket of gases is called the atmosphere. The atmosphere protects the Earth from
harmful radiation from space. Meteorites moving to the earth are reduced to smaller,
harmless debris as it contacts with the atmosphere. Without the atmosphere, all the waters
on the Earth will boil and escape to space. The type of atmosphere the Earth has is composed
mainly of oxygen and nitrogen. Unlike Earth, Venus has an atmosphere of carbon dioxide
which traps heat though greenhouse effect, thus heating the planet making it the hottest in
the solar system.
4. Earth has a magnetic field
The sun gives off charged particles during solar winds which are capable of stripping
away Earth’s atmosphere. Luckily, down to the Earth’s core are currents of iron and nickel
flowing which then creates the Earth’s magnetic field. This magnetic field acts as a shield
from the harmful charged particles from the sun and other parts of space. This is evident in
the poles which manifests as bright green colors known as aurora.
5. Liquid Water
The right distance from the sun prevents water from either boiling or freezing. The
atmosphere prevents the Earth from absorbing to much sunlight which can evaporate all of
Earth’s water and eventually escape in space. The magnetic field shields the Earth from the
sun’s ionizing radiation which can strip away the Earth’s atmosphere.
The presence of water indicate life. On Earth, you can find life as long as there is
water. Also, many chemical reactions needed for life needs water to happen. The amount of
water on Earth is just enough not to cover the whole lands but not scarce to make the lands
dry. In search of life outside Earth, the presence of water is a main factor being considered.
6. Presence of necessary chemicals and compounds
Carbon is an element present in biomolecules along with other elements such as
sulfur, nitrogen, and phosphorus. The presence of this elements together with water and the
complex cycles of these chemicals by volcanic activity and tectonic plates movement gives
enough chance for life to thrive on Earth.
7. The presence of a moon
The two well-known movement of the Earth are rotation on its axis and revolution
around the sun. But there is a less noticeable movement of earth called precession where the
Earth changes its tilt by about 1 degree for about every 40, 000 years. Imagine a wobbling
top when it is spinning. It’s the same with the earth but for a much longer duration. The
Earths tilt is responsible for the seasons because one side is much exposed to the sun and
the other is less exposed. Without the moon, the Earth’s tilt will change much that it will
create extreme hot and extreme cold seasons because there will be no gravity from the moon
that pulls the Earth. Thus, our friendly little satellite has a big contribution on the possibility
of life on Earth.
Activity 1: What if?
Underline the correct word that best suits the statements regarding the characteristics of
Earth as a habitable planet.
1. Without its magnetic field, the Earth’s atmosphere would be (thicker, thinner).
2. If the Earth is closer to the sun, its temperature would be (higher, lower).
3. If Earth is farther from the sun, water would exist as (ice, liquid water, steam).
4.Without an atmosphere (more, less) amount of harmful radiation would reach Earth.
5. Without water (more, less) life can develop and flourish.

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Lesson
1.2
The Subsystems of Earth
We may think of Earth as just the soil and rocks composing the planet. However,
besides this soil and rock are the waters, living things and gases that make up the whole
planet. The interaction of these all are linked. One change on the soil for instance can cause
changes on the living things above it. Human activities can cause changes in the air and the
waters. We could think of countless ways how these all are connected. In this lesson, we will
explore the different components called subsystems that composes Earth as well as their
roles in every phenomenon and occurrences on Earth
Earth as a whole system
A system is composed of interconnected parts that has its own function which
completes a complex whole. A political system for an instance is composed of different legal
institutions that forms a government. The same is true for the Earth. The lands, waters, air,
and living things on Earth have their different functions and they are interconnected with
each other that a change in one of these would have consequences on the other. These lands,
waters, air and living things on Earth is what we called as subsystems. In thermodynamics,
there are three known systems; closed, open, and isolated system. Earth closely resembles a
closed system where there is no exchange in matter from the system and its surroundings
but an exchange in energy or heat exists. Though, however, some of the hydrogen in the
atmosphere escapes to space and foreign objects from space such as meteorites can enter
Earth. Still, this is just a small percentage compared to all the matter that stays on Earth.
Instead of separate studies in geology for the lands, biology for living things, physics
and chemistry for the air and waters, we integrate these studies as Earth systems science. In
this lesson, we will use all the related fields of study to explore the different subsystems of
Earth and how each of these are dependent on each other.
The Earth’s subsystems
1. Geosphere
The geosphere consists of all the land areas, the mountains, the soil the rocks and
many more. It consists of the outermost layer of the earth called the crust, the thick middle
layer called the mantle and the liquid outer core and the solid inner core. The formation of
different landforms such as mountains as well as the changes in the seafloor are caused by
plate tectonics or the movement of enormous slabs of the crust and upper portion of the
mantle. These different landforms have different effects on the other subsystems.
2. Atmosphere
All the gases that covered the Earth forms the atmosphere. It is composed of 78%
nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% of the other gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide. As
discussed on the previous lesson, the atmosphere serves as a protection from harmful
radiation from the outside of Earth. The ozone layer of the atmosphere serves as this shield.
Furthermore, the atmosphere has the oxygen for humans and animals. Aside from that, it
keeps water on the Earth surface to be liquid.
The cycle of air in the atmosphere is also responsible for the weather. When sun heats
the Earth, the warm air rises creating a low-pressure area while the cold air sink creating a
high-pressure area. Regions with low pressure area can have unstable weather while those
with high pressure have fair and stable weather.
3. Hydrosphere
The presence of the atmosphere makes it possible for liquid water to exist. These liquid
water deposit on the surface and hollows of the earth which created the oceans. These and
all the waters constitute the hydrosphere including the ice frozen on the poles of the Earth.
The Earth’s surface is 70% covered in water, vastly from ocean waters. Only 3% of these are
freshwaters are from lakes, streams, and groundwater. The presence of water was the start
of the earliest lifeforms. It also absorbs and distributes the heat from the sun to the Earth
surface.

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4. Biosphere
All the life forms and living organisms on Earth constitutes the biosphere. It covers
even the largest or the smallest life forms in the deepest parts of the oceans, or the ones
underground, as well as the small organisms on the extreme environments.
The interaction of the biosphere with the other subsystems is essential for its survival.
Example of this interaction is photosynthesis where plants use sunlight and carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere and releasing oxygen as by-product.
The Interactions of the Subsystems
In every phenomenon on Earth, the four subsystems are involved in one way or
another. A change on one subsystem has its effect on the others. Since Earth also resembles
a closed system, matter from one subsystem is transferred to the others by different means.
These creates a cycle of matter on Earth.
One of the commonly observed cycle is the water cycle or hydrologic cycle. It starts by
the water evaporation when being heated by the sun. Then, it condenses in the clouds in the
atmosphere and falls during precipitation or rain. It is then collected in the oceans, in the
land areas and taken also by the plants and animals.
Another cycle is the carbon cycle. Carbon is abundant on Earth. It may be present in
the rocks, in living organisms, in the sediments in the ocean. During rain, some of the carbon
in the atmosphere are carried out forming carbonic acid, which then dissolves the rocks,
releasing different minerals and ions such as calcium. The calcium is then carried by the
rivers to the ocean, which combines with bicarbonate to form calcium bicarbonate forming
the shells of aquatic animals.
Some of the carbon embedded in the rocks together with the remains of living things forms
fossil fuels. When humans burn these fuels, the carbon are transferred back to the
atmosphere. The ideal thing is that carbon is dispersed in all the subsystems. Too much
carbon in the atmosphere will create greenhouse effect. If all the carbons will be stored in the
rocks, living organisms will have no supply of carbon needed for the sustainability of life.
In every phenomenon observed, all the subsystems may be affected or may be the one
that caused it. For example, during a bad weather, the rains from the atmosphere may soften
the land and cause landslide. Then, it may affect the plants and animals living nearby. In
this example, the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, and biosphere are all involved.
Human activities also affect the other subsystems. The rapid emission of carbon due
to human activities and industrialization warms the earth and in turn causes the lowest level
of ice in the poles which increases the ocean level. The oil spills affect the ocean waters which
in turn harms the aquatic animals and birds feeding on them. The conversion of farmlands
to subdivisions alters the lands which displaces the animals from their natural habitat. The
four subsystems are interconnected. One causes changes to the other and every observable
phenomenon on Earth, the subsystems are involved in one way or another.
Activity 1: Label the Subsystem
Determine the subsystem in which the following belongs. Write your answer on the space
provided before the number. Write G for Geosphere, H for hydrosphere, A for atmosphere,
and B for biosphere.
1. The glaciers in Alaska 6. Corals
2. Earthworms in the soil 7. Southwest Monsoon
3. The ozone layer 8. Salt from the Himalayas
4. Magma from volcanoes 9. Groundwaters
5. Deserts 10. Rainforest in Amazon

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Lesson
1.3
Rock-forming Minerals
Most of the geosphere is composed of rocks. These rocks, when examined are
composed of chemical compounds called minerals. There are thousands of minerals that
make up different kinds of rocks. These minerals also played a great part in human history.
The basic food additive and preservative, salt, or rock salt (halite), has been a key part
of shaping civilizations. Likewise, extracting iron from the mineral hematite gave people an
edge to people using bronze tools, thus ending the bronze age. In this lesson, we will explore
the different rock forming minerals as well as their physical and chemical properties.
Characteristics of a Mineral
Minerals are the building blocks of rocks. To study these rocks, it is important to
understand the nature of these minerals. First, let us explore how can a particular matter be
called a mineral. These are the characteristics exhibited by minerals:
1. Solid at normal conditions on Earth
Solid substances only are the ones considered as minerals. For example, snowflake can be
considered a mineral, but rainwater is not. The exception to this is mercury due to historical
reasons even though it is liquid at normal conditions on Earth.
2. Naturally occurring
Materials formed from natural Earth processes are the ones considered as minerals. Thus,
man-made materials are not considered as minerals.
3. Inorganic
Inorganic materials are materials that don’t came from or composed of living
organisms. Corals for example, though solid and naturally occurring are not considered as
minerals because they are formed by living things. Thus, only non-living things are
considered as minerals.
4. Has definite chemical composition
A compound is composed of two or more elements combined. These compounds can
be expressed in terms of chemical formula. A common mineral called halite, also known as
rock salt, has a chemical formula of sodium chloride (NaCl). Even a pinch of salt or a huge
block of salt still has the same chemical formula. Same goes for all minerals. At any size, the
same chemical composition should be observed all throughout.
5. Has a crystal structure
A crystalline structure is a structure of
compounds whose components are arranged in orderly
and repetitive manner. When they grow bigger, they form
regularly shaped materials called crystals. For example,
take the simple compound sodium chloride shown in
Figure 1. When may NaCl combine, they form cubic lattice.
When many of this cubic lattice are combined, they form
the salt crystal. Different minerals have different
crystalline structure.
Physical and Chemical Properties of Minerals
Different minerals are classified through the various physical and chemical properties.
Their different physical and chemical properties should be studied to identify them. The
following are the common physical properties used to identify minerals.
1. Crystal Shape or Habit
Crystal shape or habit is the distinct crystal shape of minerals. Some minerals can be
easily identified by their crystal shape alone. Halite or salt has a cubic shape. Other crystals
are pointed ones such as quartz.
Figure 1. (a) Simplified NaCl
chemical structure (b) Simplified
NaCl cubic lattice

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2. Color
Some minerals have unique colors in
which it can be used to identify them. The
color of the mineral depends on its internal
atomic structure as well as the impurities that
is in them. However, many minerals have
identical colors while other minerals exhibit
different colors depending on different
conditions. This makes color a less reliable
way in identifying minerals. For example,
during the gold rush, some amateur miners
have mistaken pyrite as gold as shown in
figure 4 hence it was named as fool’s gold.
3. Luster
Some minerals reflect light while others barely
do. This property is called luster. Some
minerals have a metallic luster where they look
like polished metals while others have non-
metallic luster. Non-metallic luster includes
glassy, resinous, silky, pearly, earthy, and
greasy luster. Figure 4 shows two minerals,
galena, and gypsum. Galena has a metallic
luster while gypsum has a pearly one.
4. Streak
As mentioned above, color can be an unreliable
identification of minerals. A more reliable one is streak.
Streak is the color exhibited by a mineral in powdered
form. To do this, a mineral is scratched across a streak
plate which is a piece of porcelain. Commonly, non-metallic
minerals have white streak. Metallic minerals on the other
hand can have a streak different from their perceived color.
Minerals harder than porcelain does not have a streak
since they can scratch the porcelain. Streak is good in
determining gold and pyrite since pyrite has a greenish
black streak while gold still has a golden streak. Figure 6
shows that the streaks of hematite are the same even if the
two samples have different luster.
Figure 2: Different crystal habits of minerals
Figure 3: (a) Gold nugget from Australia. (Public
display, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago,
Illinois, USA) (b) Pyrite or Fool’s Gold
Source:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/47445767@N05/168
48647509
Figure 4: (a) Galena (b) Gypsum
Sources:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/31
274280814
843705365
Figure 5. Streak of two hematite
samples with different luster
Source:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki
/File:Hematite_streak_plate.jpg

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5. Hardness
Hardness of a mineral is characterized by its
resistance against scratching. A scale called
Moh’s scale of mineral hardness shown in
figure 6 is designed to compare the hardness
of different minerals. A scale of 1 is the softest
while the scale of 10 is the hardest. Talc is the
softest mineral while diamond is the hardest.
Evidently, harder minerals can scratch softer
ones. Common materials with known
hardness are used to scratch different
materials to determine or estimate their
hardness. Example of these materials are
fingernail with a hardness of 2-2.5, copper
coin (3-3.5), nail (5-5.5), Glass (5.5) and steel
knife (6.5-7). The Moh’s scale, however, is not
an accurate way of measuring hardness
because it is qualitative and based only on
relative hardness of other materials.
6. Cleavage
Minerals are crystal solids. Their different
properties and characteristics can be traced
down to their atomic structures. In these
structures, there can be strong and weak bonds
between atoms. When a force or pressure is
applied on the minerals, some of these may
break into plane surfaces. This property is
called cleavage. From figure 7, when a pressure
from a cutting tool is applied, it breaks the
weak bonds thus creating plane sheets of the
minerals.
Minerals can be identified by the number of cleavage directions and the angle between their
cleavage. Example of a one-directional cleavage is muscovite or mica indicated in figure 8. On
figure 9, a two-directional cleavage of feldspar is shown. On figure 10, a three-directional
cleavage is shown.
7. Fracture
Some minerals don’t create plane surfaces when force is applied on them. Instead,
irregular patterns called fractures are formed. Minerals can have both cleavage and fractures
depending on the weaknesses on the atomic bonds of that mineral. Shown in the images
below are the different fractures in minerals.
Figure 6: Moh’s Hardness Scale
Source: By National Park Service - nature.nps.gov
(file), Public Domain,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curi
d=53666965
Figure 7. Simplified atomic structure of
minerals forming cleavage
Figure 8. One directional Cleavage
on Muscovite
Source:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjge
ology/31304209033/in/photostream
Figure 9. Two directional Cleavage
on Feldspar
Source:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjge
ology/32499528651/in/photostream
Figure 10. Three directional
Cubic Cleavage on Halite
Source:
https://www.flickr.com/ph
otos/jsjgeology/494222555
98

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8. Specific gravity
Specific gravity is the ratio of an object’s density and the density of water. In other
words, it is the numerical value of the density of a material without the units. Minerals with
specific gravity less than 1 will float in water while minerals with specific gravity of more than
1 will sink. This is an accurate way to compare minerals. For example, pyrite (fool’s gold) and
real gold have different specific gravity. If a pyrite and gold have the same size, the gold would
be heavier.
9. Other Properties
There are other properties that are exhibited by minerals. For example, halite has a
salty taste.
Magnetite has magnetic properties, sulfur has a rotten egg smell, talc has a soapy
texture while graphite has a greasy one. Some minerals have special optical properties.
Fluorite and calcite exhibit fluorescence where they can glow in the dark. Calcite reacts with
hydrochloric acid (HCl) which produces fizz or bubbles like carbonated drinks.
Activity 1: Mineral or Not?
Determine if the following can be considered as a mineral. Base your answers on the
discussed characteristics of minerals. Write M if it is a mineral and N if not.
1. Wood 6. Petroleum
2. Bone 7. Asbestos
3. Clay 8. Glass
4. Ice 9. Zinc
5. Coal 10. Plastic
Build your planet: You are to lead mankind on the search for other habitable planets. Of all
the planets in the solar system, you are going to do some changes on a specific planet for it
to be livable like Earth. What planet will it be? What are you going to do to make it habitable?
How will you build its subsystems? Write an essay on how you will do it. Be imaginative as
you want but incline your answers on scientific principles and the concepts and consider the
previously discussed information.
Figure 11: Different Fractures in minerals (a) Conchoidal fractures in Obsidian
(b) Fibrous fractures in crocidolite (c) Hackly or sharp fracture in copper
Sources: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Conchoidal.JPG
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Krokydolith_Mineralogisches_Museum_Bonn_
(7385).jpg | https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/16673037964/in/photostream/

10
MODULE 2
the different types of rocks and mineral resources. The scope of this module permits it to be
used in many different learning situations. The language used recognizes the diverse
vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the standard sequence of the
course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to correspond with the textbook
you are now using.
Lesson 2.1 – Types of Rocks
Lesson 2.2 – Mineral Resources
1. classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
2. understand how rock materials are recycled in the rock cycle.
3. identify the minerals that are important to society; and
4. understand how mineral deposits are formed
Lesson
2.1
Types of Rocks
Rocks are almost everywhere. They come in different colors, shapes, and sizes.
Information on Earth’s history is imprinted in the rocks. Mankind makes use of rocks in
countless of ways. Early humans made their tools with rocks. Great structures such as
pyramids and dams are built using these rocks. Today, rocks have served different purposes
in technology and industry. In this lesson, we will discuss the different classification of rocks
and how these rocks are formed.
The Types of Rocks
Rocks are commonly a combination of minerals, though some are composed of single
mineral only. Rocks can be classified according on how they are formed. There are three types
according to this classification.
Igneous Rocks
At the Earth’s interior, immense heat causes rocks to be molten which is called
magma. When volcanic eruption spews out lava (molten rocks but on the Earth’s surface),
these rocks can cool down and solidify to form new rocks. These rocks which came from
cooled and solidified magma or lava are called igneous rocks.

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There are two types of igneous rocks. These types are based on where and how fast
these rocks cool. The first classification is intrusive or plutonic rocks. These rocks cooled
below the Earth’s surface. Since it cools below, its temperature will drop slowly since it is
hotter below the Earth’s surface. The slow cooling process allows the atomic structure of the
minerals in the rocks to form crystals. Thus, intrusive rocks have visible crystals in them.
The second classification is
extrusive rocks. These are
rocks that cooled above the
Earth’s surface. Being above
the Earth’s surface, the lava
cools quickly leaving no time
for the atoms of the rocks to
arrange themselves and form
crystals. Thus, extrusive
rocks have no visible crystal
structures. Extrusive rocks
can also be vesicular which
means that there are air
bubbles trapped in the rocks.
Sedimentary Rocks
The second type of rocks are sedimentary rocks. These are the rocks that are formed
from compacted or cemented sediments. In other words, these rocks are formed from
sediments put together.
Sediments are the bits of rocks that are stripped away from the rock due to different
agents such as water, wind, or gravity. This process of stripping away bits of rocks is called
weathering. These is the start of the formation of sedimentary rocks. Upon weathering, these
rocks can be transported by the same agents in a process called erosion. On high hills and
mountains, water and gravity carry the sediments downhill. Wind can also scatter these
sediments. After erosion, these sediments will be deposited on the ground or underwater.
This process is called deposition. Sediments will pile up on top of another, thus increasing
the pressure to the sediments at the bottom. After being deposited, these sediments undergo
lithification. This is the process in which sediments are turned into a rock. The two
processes that allows lithification are compaction and cementation.
Compaction happens when the pressure from the sediments on top forces the buried
sediments to be squeezed together. Thus, any water content is forced out. The remains of
living things can also be caught in the compaction which, given enough time, forms fossils.
Sedimentary rocks are the only one who can preserve fossils. Some rocks have big
grains that when squeezed together, some holes or spaces are left. When the sediments are
squeezed together, some materials such as silica (SiO2) and calcite (CaCO3) glue the
sediments together by filling the microscopic spaces between the sediments. This process is
called cementation. When this happens, the sediments harden to form rocks. If you ever
washed rice and squeezed one in your palms, you can see that the grains of rice somehow
harden. It is like the compaction and cementation of sediments but on a greater degree.
There are three types of sedimentary rocks. These are clastic, chemical, and
biochemical sedimentary rocks. Clastic sedimentary rocks are the most common
sedimentary rocks. These are the ones that were formed from compacted and cemented loose
sediments.
Figure 2: Coarse grained clastic rocks
(a)Conglomerate (b) Breccia.
Conglomerate has rounded sediments
while breccia has pointed ones
Photo By: James St. John
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeolo
gy/
41073011382/in/photostream/
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeolo
gy/16789926815/in/photostream/
Figure 1: (a) Granite (b) Basalt
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/16540710327/in/photost
ream/

12
These rocks can be formed from different sizes of sediments. The biggest sediments
are coarse grained rocks. They are formed by sediments larger than 2mm. These rocks are
from fragments of any rocks. The examples of these rocks are conglomerate, and breccia
shown in figure 2. Medium sized sediments have grain size of ¹⁄₁₆ mm to 2mm. These are
formed from quartz and rock fragments. Example of this is sandstone shown in figure 3. Fine
grained ones range from ¹⁄₂₅₆ mm to ¹⁄₁₆ mm which is commonly made of silt. Example of this
is siltstone shown in figure 4. Lastly, very fine grained one has grain size less than ¹⁄₂₅₆ mm.
These rocks are made of quartz and clay. Example of this rock is shale shown in figure 5.
Chemical sedimentary rocks on the other hand are formed slightly different from
clastic rocks. This type of rocks is formed when dissolved minerals in waters precipitate at
the bottom. This can happen when the water evaporates leaving the minerals behind. A great
example of this is rock salt, shown in figure 6. When saltwater evaporates, the salts are
gathered at the bottom forming rock salt. Another way is when water is supersaturated with
minerals, meaning it can’t dissolve minerals anymore. When this happens, chemical
sediments precipitate out of the solution and settles at the bottom. Thus, layers of these
sediments are formed. This is analogous to when you are preparing milk with lots of milk
powder in the mug. What happens is that the milk powder settles at the bottom. An example
of this is a rock gypsum (shown in figure 7) formed from oceans or waters with very high
calcium and sulfate contents.
The last type are the biochemical rocks. These are the ones formed from the remains
of former living things. For example, aquatic animals use the minerals in the water to produce
shells and bones. When they die, these shells and bones are deposited on the ocean floor. An
example of this is limestone (shown in figure 8). Limestone is composed of mainly calcite from
these remains. A special type of biochemical rock is bituminous coal. It is made from organic
materials from the remains of dead plants that undergo compaction, burial, and immense
pressure. Coal is used as a source of fuel because of its organic components.
Figure 3: Sandstone
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/j
sjgeology/16170306843/in/photo
stream/
Figure 4: Siltstone
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/j
sjgeology/8513579676
Figure 5: Shale
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/photos
/jsjgeology/16797325751
Figure 6: Rock Salt
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/photo
s/jsjgeology/33275221442
Figure 7: Rock Gypsum
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/photos
/jsjgeology/16843705365

13
Metamorphic Rocks
Before you put a bread into the oven, the dough looks different. The temperature in
the oven changes its form to create a baked bread. This is like metamorphic rocks.
Metamorphic rocks are existing igneous, sedimentary, and even metamorphic rocks that
changes its form due to immense heat, pressure, or hydrothermal solutions. The process of
rocks changing form due to these factors is called metamorphism which literally means “to
change in form”. It is important to note that these changes happen while the rock remain
solid distinguishing it from igneous rocks. During metamorphism, the crystal structure and
even the chemical composition of the rocks change. This progresses from low grade
metamorphism to high grade metamorphism. The higher the temperature and pressure, the
greater the metamorphism that occur. For an example, the sedimentary rock shale could
metamorphose into different types of rocks starting from low grade metamorphism producing
slate up to high grade metamorphism producing gneiss. Figure 9 shows the different
metamorphism of shale. The rocks look stretched and squeezed in increasing metamorphism
due to increasing pressure.
There are two common types of metamorphism. These are contact metamorphism and
regional metamorphism. Contact metamorphism occurs when rocks are heated at high
temperatures. This happens when magma intrusion heats the adjacent rocks. Regional
metamorphism on the other hand, occurs when rocks are subjected to immense pressure,
more than that of sedimentary rocks. This occurs at plate boundaries or fault lines when
continental plates are colliding or during mountain formation. Rocks are under large scale
Figure 8: Coquina: A variety of Limestone
Retrieved from:
Figure 9: Bituminous Coal
Retrieved from:
Figure 10: Low grade to High Grade metamorphism of shale starting from (a) shale (b) slate (c) phyllite (d)
schist (e) gneiss. Foliation is visible in increasing metamorphism.
Photos by: James St. John
Retrieved from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/16797325751
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/16921409712/in/photostream/

14
deformation and folding during regional metamorphism. Rocks produced in this type are
found in huge sizes and layered structures. Different textures of rocks are formed due to
these types of metamorphism. These rocks are classified as foliated or non-foliated.
Foliation is the parallel arrangement of the minerals in the rocks. This gives foliated
rocks a stripy structure. Foliated rocks are mostly formed from regional metamorphism
because the huge amount of stress squeezes the minerals of the rocks making them parallel.
The metamorphic rocks in figure 10 are foliated rocks. The foliation is most visible in gneiss.
Non-foliated rocks are rocks formed by contact metamorphism. These rocks have
grains that does not align, thus, having no sheet-like or stripy structure. These rocks are
formed when the minerals of the pre-existing rocks are changed due to the heat from magma
intrusions. Examples of these are marble and quartzite.
The Rock Cycle
As discussed above, rocks can change in form
through metamorphism. Rocks does not always stay the
same. The materials making up these rocks are always
recycled that can span millions or billions of years. These
rocks can be transformed into igneous, sedimentary, or
metamorphic rocks. These continuous recycling of
materials to form rocks is called the rock cycle. An
idealized model of the rock cycle is shown below in figure
14. Let us start with molten rocks or magma. When these
magma cools down, they create igneous rocks. When
these igneous rocks are subjected to high temperature, it
can melt back to magma. However, if it does not melt and
subjected to immense pressure, they can change form
and become metamorphic. Metamorphic rocks can go
back to being igneous if it melts and becomes magma.
When both igneous and metamorphic rocks undergo
weathering and erosion, they can be stripped off to sediments. These sediments can undergo
deposition, burial, compaction, and cementing forming sedimentary rocks. These
sedimentary rocks can go back to being sediments if they are weathered and eroded. If these
are subjected to heat and pressure, they can change in form and become metamorphic rocks.
These processes can happen in a short period or even in very long duration of time.
Figure 12: Regional metamorphism due to
immense pressure between colliding plates
during mountain formation
Figure 11: Contact metamorphism where magma
intrusion heats up the surrounding rocks
Figure 13: Non-foliated rocks (a)
Quartzite (b) Marble
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeol
ogy/16266638314
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeol
ogy/16268833583

15
There are some instances that sedimentary rocks change to igneous rocks without
changing to metamorphic rocks. These requires a sudden increase in temperature which can
be provided by lightning or meteorites hitting the rocks.
Activity 1: Guess the rock!
Determine which rock is described or associated in the following statements. Write I for
igneous, S for sedimentary and M for metamorphic rocks. Write your answers in capital
letters.
1. Rocks that came from cooled magma or lava
2. Foliated rocks are textures of these rocks
3. Rocks that are formed from fragments of other rocks that are compacted
4. Intrusive rocks are examples of this type
5. Old rocks that are changed in form due to heat and pressure
6. The only rocks capable of preserving fossils
7. Rocks that has little to no crystal structures due to fast cooling
8. Rocks that are formed at the boundaries of continental plates during
collision or mountain building
9. Rocks that are formed from the remains of living organisms
10. Rocks that came into contact to magma intrusion
11. Examples of this rock are clastic rocks
12. Rocks that came from cooled lava during volcanic eruptions
13. Rocks formed when minerals are left when water evaporates
14. The two common ways to produce these rocks are called contact and
regional
15. Rocks that undergo lithification of grains or bits of other rocks
Lesson
2.2
Mineral Resources
It may not be noticeable but a lot of the things that we use in our daily lives are
minerals or composed of minerals. Take the mobile phones for example. Tiny amounts of gold
are used in the circuit boards of mobile phones due to its good conductivity and resistance
to corrosion. Lithium and cobalt are used in its batteries. Aluminum and other metals are
Figure 14: Simplified and idealized rock cycle diagram
Photo by: Vincent L. Dublin

16
used in the casing. The same goes with many appliances in our houses. These are composed
of minerals. In this lesson, we will explore what mineral resources are and how these are
formed.
Minerals in Everyday Life
When we trace the very source of the things that we use in everyday life, it is either
grown from agriculture or mined from the Earth. Minerals are used in mostly everything. For
example, the usefulness of iron had been around for ages and shaped civilizations. Today,
every structure and machinery use iron. Phosphate rock, potash and lime are used as
fertilizers. Salt was used by the Roman Empire as payment to soldiers. Today, we use it to
make tasty dishes. Sand, gravel, clay, and other aggregates are used in construction.
Computers and smartphones use a variety of minerals such as gold, lithium, aluminum,
copper, silver, lead, and zinc which are used in the circuitry, microchips, or casing. Even our
bodies need minerals to grow and be healthy. We cannot live the way we do today without
these minerals.
Types of Mineral Resources
We say that a mineral is present in a place, in other words, that a site has a mineral
occurrence if there is a concentration of a mineral deemed valuable. If an abundance and
concentration of mineral occurrence, is present, enough to compensate the extraction costs
of the mineral, it is called a mineral deposit.
Mineral resources are commonly classified as metallic and non-metallic mineral
resources.
a. Metallic Mineral Resources
Metals such as gold, silver, iron, and copper have been used for ages by different
civilizations. These metals can occur as native metals. These native metals are composed
of metal atoms; thus, they look like metal at a simple glance. However, not all metals can
be seen easily. Some of these are bonded to non-metallic minerals or rocks which makes
the metal initially indistinguishable. Through different processes such as smelting, where
rocks are heated to separate the metals to the non-metals, the metallic mineral resources
are obtained. However, not all rocks contain large number of metals. Rocks that contain
a significant concentration of a metal is called an ore.
The concentration of a valuable metal in a rock determines the grade of an ore.
High grade ores have concentrated metals on them. Different metals have their
corresponding ores. Also, a metal can have more than one ore. In comparison, consider
a chocolate chip cookie in figure 1 (a). For a kid that only wants the chocolate chip, the
whole chocolate chip cookie can be considered its ore. Figure 1 (b) shows a quartz-gold
vein which is a gold ore. The bits of gold are visible in the rock.
Other ores of common metals are the following. Hematite and magnetite are ores of iron.
Galena is an ore for lead. Bauxite is a known ore of aluminum.

17
In the Earth’s crust, there are more than a hundred naturally occurring elements. The
most abundant elements are oxygen and silicon. However, these resources are not economical
to mine in the rocks of the crust because these are not concentrated. Thus, places with
mineral deposits are more economical to mine. Due to this, it is important to know how
mineral and ore deposits form.
Processes in the Formation of Mineral or Ore Deposit
There are several ways that minerals deposits or ore deposits are formed. These are
the following:
• Magmatic Ore Deposits
Minerals that were formed from cooled magma
form magmatic deposits. Magma may contain
minerals that crystallize during cooling during
igneous rocks formation. Rocks that contain this
deposit are usually in large crystals called
pegmatites.
• Hydrothermal Deposits
Figure 1: Comparison of (a) chocolate chip cookie and (b) gold ore
Photo By: (a) Evan-Amos (b) James St. John
Retrieved from:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Choc-Chip-Cookie.png
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/14532992888/in/photostream/
Figure 2: Ores of Iron (a) Hematite and (b)
magnetite
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/
15219263022
https://www.flickr.com/photos/jsjgeology/
34667073365
Figure 3: Bauxite: An ore
of Aluminum
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/p
hotos/jsjgeology/232029
37099
Figure 4: Galena: An ore
of Lead
Photo By: James St.
John
https://www.flickr.com
/photos/jsjgeology/312
74280814
Figure 5: Simplified Diagram of a Magmatic
Deposit
Illustration by: Vincent L. Dublin

18
When water encounter the hot magma, it can dissolve some of the ions of the minerals.
The water can then move into cracks on the Earth where the temperature or pressure is
different. The dissolved minerals can precipitate
or remain in the cracks creating veins (long lines
of minerals embedded in the rocks). These are
called hydrothermal veins deposits. Another
example is seafloor massive sulfide deposits.
Heated ocean water above magma chambers that
is erupted from hydrothermal vents carry
dissolved sulfide minerals. When this heated
water cooled due to mixing with seawater, the
dissolved minerals will precipitate out of the
solution and will deposit around the
hydrothermal vents.
• Secondary enrichment deposits
This type of deposit results from
groundwater passing through an existing ore
deposit, carrying some of these minerals to
other places and deposit it there.
• Sedimentary ore deposits
Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed when concentrated
minerals precipitate out of the water in a solution. Examples
of these are evaporite deposits of rock salt and gypsum as
discussed in Lesson 1 of this module. Another example are
rocks such as chert with banded iron formation shown in
figure 8. This type of rocks is formed more than 2 billion
years ago when ocean water evaporates leaving the iron
containing minerals deposited. This also gives hint that the
conditions of the oceans before are different.
• Placer Deposits
When veins of ore deposits are eroded, some of the bits of the minerals in these ores
are carried away by moving water on streams or rivers. However, light metals can be
carried away easily, but larger or heavier ones can’t. These heavier metals are
concentrated in the gravels of the river usually in areas along the stream that were
relatively deeper. Figure 9 shows how a placer deposit is formed. Gold can be found in
nuggets in these placer deposits.
Figure 6: Simplified Diagram of a
Formation of Hydrothermal Vein Deposits
Figure 7: Simplified diagram of a formation of
seafloor massive sulfide deposits
Figure 8: Banded iron formation
Retrieved from:
https://www.flickr.com/photos/
jsjgeology/18603285114

19
• Residual Deposits
Residual deposits are formed when a valuable metal is left behind when non-valuable
materials originally present in the rock is weathered out due to rainfall. This can happen
if the non-valuable materials are water soluble while the valuable metals are insoluble.
The ore of aluminum, bauxite, is an example of ore from residual deposits. In analogy,
consider a box full of rusty coins. If a certain rust-dissolving solution is poured in the
box, the ones left will be clean, unrusty coins.
b. Non-Metallic Mineral Resources
As much as metals are important mineral resources, there are various non-metallic
mineral resources that were used in everyday lives. Common examples of the things
found at home that are produced from non-metallic mineral resources are the
following:
• Dimension stone
Dimension stone is the term mostly used by architects for ordinary rock that were
cut and polished to be used in various application such as facades, roofs, floors, and
kitchen countertops. Figure 10 shows a sample of dimension rock and its use as a
kitchen countertop.
• Crushed Stone and Concrete
No building or roads can be made without crushed stone and concrete. Crushed
stone came from quarries where explosives are used to crush the bedrock into rubbles
and then crushed into smaller pieces by a crusher to usable pieces. Concrete, on the
other hand, is produced when cement, sand and/or gravels which are also called
aggregate, and water are mixed to form a slurry mixture. When this mixture set, it
crystallizes to form concrete, just like how chemical sedimentary rocks form. Cement is
Figure 9: High density minerals forming placer deposits
Photo from: ManuRoquette
Modified by: Vincent L. Dublin
Retrieved from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:PlacerEN-
01.png
Figure 10: (a) Granite dimension stone (b) Dimension stone used in kitchen countertop
Retrieved from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Slabs_of_granite_(Berlin_2008).jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Natural_Quartz_kitchen_Countertops_stonetopgran
ite_2.jpg

20
a powder mixture of lime (CaO), silica (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and iron oxide (Fe2
and iron oxide (Fe2O3). This is produced when limestone and small amounts of quartz
and clay are heated at intense temperatures.
• Bricks, glass, and drywall
Aside from concrete, bricks are also an essential part in houses. These bricks are
used in creating the walls. Bricks are made of clay that is baked at high temperature to
change into a rigid object. Glass on the other hand is used in the windows. Glass is made
of silica. Glass is made by melting quartz sand and quickly lowering its temperature to
prevent the formation of crystal, just like how intrusive igneous rocks form. Drywall is
the light and white interior walls. These are made from powdered gypsum mixed with
water. The mixture is then spread into a sheet and when it dries, it creates the solid
board that can be used as drywall.
Metallic and non-metallic mineral resources on Earth are non-renewable. After they
are mined and exhausted, those places won’t regenerate minerals as it requires geological
processes for the minerals to form. Thus, it is important to conserve the mineral resources.
Also, mining these resources can have serious environmental effects especially if irresponsible
mining is practiced. Some minerals are also abundant in specific regions on Earth only.
Responsible use of these minerals is necessary to ensure a sustainable present and future.
Activity 1: Modified TRUE or FALSE
Write TRUE if the statement states a factual statement. Otherwise, change the underlined
word to complete the statement and make it true.
Activity 6: Kitchen Rocks!
Choose which of the activity below are more convenient to you. Choose only two of these.
Then answer the questions that follows.
a. Chocolate igneous “rock”
To simulate the formation of igneous rock, melt a chocolate bar (you can use heat but with
caution. Ask help from adults if needed). Then, cool the melted chocolate bar in the

21
refrigerator or just let it stay at room temperature. Observe the chocolate. What happened to
the chocolate bar? How is it related to igneous rock?
b. Rice-stone: A sedimentary “rock”
Volunteer to cook the rice for your family. On the first wash, take a handful of rice on
your hand. Then, firmly squeeze the rice to remove as much water as possible. Observe what
happen to the rice. What happened to the squeezed handful of rice? How is it related to
sedimentary rocks?
c. Metamorphic Egg-rock
Prepare two eggs. Break one egg to observe its texture and appearance. Then, hard-boil the
other one. After, observe the texture and appearance of the hardboiled egg. Observe the
difference of the two eggs. How does the texture and appearance of the egg changed when
subjected to heat? How is it related to metamorphic rock?
MODULE 3
the concepts of extracting mineral resources and formation of fossil fuels. The scope of this
module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The language used
recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged to follow the
standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be changed to
correspond with the textbook you are now using.
The module is divided into two lessons, namely:
• Lesson 3.1 – Mining Minerals Resources
• Lesson 3.2 – Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels
1. describe how ore mineral are found, mined, and processed for human use;
2. understand the different methods of mining;
3. describe how fossil fuels are formed; and
4. understand the formation of fossil fuel reserves.
Lesson
3.1
Mining Mineral Resources
Mineral deposits are located deep down the Earth. Thus, it is not easily known, seen,
collected, and transported. Mining is the primary method to extract these valuable mineral
resources. These involved delicate processes starting from the planning, exploration,
development and even closing the mine. It is important to understand how intricate extracting
these mineral resources is to appreciate and conserve the mineral resources.
The Stages of Mining Mineral Resources
Mining involves digging large and deep areas. This kind of activity is very delicate.
There is no room for error as it can cause destruction of lands and mountains, loss of money
and may even cost lives.

22
Therefore, each process in mining starting from planning, actual extraction and closing the
mine requires rigorous efforts. These are the stages in mining mineral resources.
1. Mineral Exploration
It is inefficient and costly to just set up a mine without knowing where the mineral
deposit and how much mineral deposit is there. Without answers to these questions, no
mining company or investors would risk their money on a mining project. Aside from that,
several factors must also be considered such as legalities, community, and environmental
effects. These are the steps done in mineral exploration.
a. Project design
In this stage, the question, “Where could a mineral deposit be found?” is ought to be
answered. All the historical and geological data of places that is put into consideration for
mining. Commonly, the choice is between places near known deposits because mineral
deposits tend to cluster outward known minerals deposits and places that were uncovered
but is promising based on available historical and geological data.
b. Prospecting and Early-Stage Exploration
When the target area is decided, prospectors conduct several tests to detect any clues of a
mineral deposit. Aerial photography and remote sensing are done in the prospect site.
Satellite imagery is used in remote sensing to uncover possible geological structures.
Geologist also map outcrops, portions of bedrock that are visible. They go to the field and
collect samples of rocks to be studied. Geophysicists use a range of methods to collect more
information about the site. These methods include using magnetism to detect anomalies in
the ground especially for metallic resources, electrical conductivity, test for gravitational
anomalies, radiometric test, and even seismic test. In these tests, anomalies would mean a
good clue because it means there is something down there that causes it. Geochemistry is
also employed especially in the sampling of the chemical composition of the rock samples and
even the vegetation on the area. It is also used to determine the possible concentration of the
desired mineral in the area.
c. Core Sampling
When all the surface tests were done and the
data yielded promising results, it is time to do a
core sampling. Core sampling is done with drills.
Diamond-tipped, hollow drill bits are used to cut
through any rock and get a cylindrical sample of
the rocks below. An example of the drill is shown
in figure 1. The core sample will show the
amount of mineral deposit and how deep these
deposits are.
The drilling is not just on one place but on
several locations and the collected data will be
used for creating a 3D map of the deposit
underground.
2. Mining
After ensuring that indeed a valuable, economical, and concentrated is present as well as
all the regulations and environmental considerations are addressed, the next step is the
mining process. Different types of mining methods are operated depending on the type of
mineral to be mined as well as how deep and how rich the ores are. Mining methods are
broadly defined as surface and underground mining.
Surface Mining
When the ores are located relatively near the surface, the appropriate method is surface
mining. There are different surface mining methods for different kind of deposits or ores.
Figure 1: A core drill for mineral exploration
Retrieved from:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Core_Drill_Atlas_Copco_CS1000P4.png

23
These are as follows:
a. Open-Pit mining
Open-pit mines are basically large holes dug up to extract the ores buried
underground especially at deposits concentrated in an area. Spiral steps are created
at the sides to give way for vehicles and people to go down and mine the ores as well
as to keep the structure stable. Figure 2 shows a diagram of an open pit mine while
figure 3 shows a real open pit mine.
b. Strip mining
As the name suggests, strip mining is
done by removing strips of earth, called
overburden, to expose and mine valuable
ores. This is commonly used in mining
coal. The removed overburden is then
dumped back after all the coals are
mined.
Figure 3: Open pit mines
Retrieved from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open-pit.jpg
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_Mir_mine_in_Yakutia.JPG
Figure 2: Simplified diagram of an open pit mine
Figure 4: Simplified diagram of a strip mine
Figure 5: Gold Panning
Retrieved from:
https://commons.wikimedia.or
g/wiki/File:Gold_panning_at_B
onanza_Creek.JPG
Figure 6: Gold Panning using
sluice box
Retrieved from:
https://commons.wikimedia.org
/wiki/File:Goldwaschrinne.jpg

24
c. Placer or alluvial mining
Placer deposits are deposits of valuable minerals, usually gold, on lower parts of
moving streams or rivers and they settle with the gravel and sand. If a miner wants
to retrieve that gold, they will need to separate the gravel and dirt from the gold bits
and nuggets. This process is called placer mining. Placer mining can be done simply
by panning where miners will manually separate gravel and dirt in a pan or any flat
container with the use of water. Since gold is denser, its tendency is to settle down
while the dirt will be washed away by water. A more efficient method than panning
is the use of sluice boxes where dense gold is caught at the bottom while gravel and
dirt is washed away by water. Newer technology features a more advance placer
mining like using floating dredges where it separates the gravel from the gold
nuggets.
Underground Mining
When a concentrated and abundant ore deposit is
present it is usually located way deeper and surface mining
is not suitable to extract all the ores. Then, underground
mining is the other option. In underground mining, portions
of the mountain are blown up by explosives to create a way
for tunnels called shafts and drifts to be placed. Shafts go
way down the mineral deposit site while the drifts go
horizontally to have access to the ores. Underground
mine is more expensive to operate since lighting,
ventilation, transportation, and additional safety need
to be considered. Also, underground water needs to be
pumped to avoid flooding the tunnels. Figure 7 shows a diagram of an underground mine.
3. Milling and Separation
In the previous module, we compared the ore to a chocolate chip cookie. To get all the precious
chocolate chips, the cookies can be crushed to expose the chocolate chips. The same process
is needed for minerals. The metals in the ores need to be separated from the rocks and dirt.
The first step in doing this is by crushing the big chunks
of rocks into powder. This is sometimes done near the
vicinity of the mining site. Figure 8 shows a rock crusher,
a machine that crushes stones as the jaws move back and
forth.
After the milling process, the next procedure is the
separation of the valuable metals from the crushed rock.
The following are the different methods of separation:
a. Heavy Media Separation/ Density Separation
Heavy media separation is done by submerging crushed
rocks into a liquid. Denser valuable minerals will sink at
the bottom while the non-valuable and less dense
materials called tailings will rise and easily be removed.
b. Flotation
Flotation is done by adding chemicals in a liquid that
creates a froth (foamy texture like in coffee or alcoholic
beverage). When the crushed ore is put in the liquid, the minerals in the liquid will adhere to
the foam and the unwanted dirt will sink at the bottom thus easily separating the mineral.
Figure 7: Simplified diagram of an underground mine
Figure 8: Rock crusher jaws
Photo By: Steve Ford Elliott
Retrieved from:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File: Rock_crusher_jaws.jpg

25
c. Magnetic Separation
A magnetic mineral will easily be separated from the dirt using
magnetism. A magnetic roller separates the magnetic valuable
minerals from the non-magnetic ones as shown in figure 9.
d. Cyanide heap leaching
This method is commonly used in extracting gold from the ore.
Cyanide can dissolve gold and mixing it to the cyanide
solution. Cyanide is sprayed on top of the crushed ore and as
it moves its way down, it brings the gold with it. Then the gold
is removed from the cyanide solution while the unwanted
materials are left.
4. Restoration, Reclamation and Closing
Laws were passed to ensure that miners will be held
responsible for the environment that were affected by the
mine. A responsible miner should make sure that mining
waste called tailings are kept in secured tailings ponds and not dumped in nearby rivers.
Eroded or removed parts of the lands are restored or backfilled. Destroyed vegetations (plants
and trees) should be replaced. Some miners convert open-pit mines into dams. Of course, the
original structure of mountains will not be restored after being mined but doing the best
measures to lessen the damages to the minimum will balance the need for the valuable
minerals as well as protecting the environment.
Activity 1: Answer these questions of Mine
Directions: Provide answers for the following questions regarding the stages of mining. One
or two sentences will be sufficient.
1. Why do you think extensive prospecting methods are done before proceeding to a mining
operation?
2. If you are a geophysicist and you detect an anomaly on the magnetic field in an area,
would it be reasonable to continue the mineral exploration process? Why do you think
so?
3. Upon drilling for a core underground, it was found out that a mineral deposit is
concentrated on a certain spot and relatively not so deep. What mining method do you
think is suitable? Why do you think so?
4. How is density as an intrinsic property of matter taken advantage in the separation
process of the valuable minerals from the ores?
5. Mining provides the necessary minerals for mankind’s progress. However, this also have
environmental effects and since it is non-renewable, future generations may not have
enough minerals to be mined. How would you address this dilemma? Should mining be
continued or stopped?
Figure 9: Simplified diagram of
magnetic separation of minerals
from ore

26
Lesson
3.2
Energy Resources: Fossil Fuels
During the industrial revolution, the use of energy resources increased dramatically.
The use of machines reduced and replaced the use of animal and human power. These
machines are powered by burning fossil fuels such as coal. Today, the demand for energy
resources grew even more. Every developing country needs more of these fossil fuels.
Knowledge about how these fossil fuels form is essential in locating and extracting them. In
this lesson, we will explore how fossil fuels are formed and how is it use in power generation.
The demand in energy in this age of industries, technology, and transportation is very
high. Every major city uses great amount of energy to power different establishments. The
use of fossil fuels is the main option to meet this demand. Fossil fuels are the ones producing
electricity in homes and industries. These are the ones running your automobiles and
motorcycles. It is even used in cooking food. Fossil fuels are ideal energy source because of
their high energy density which means more energy is stored for every kilogram of the fuel.
If we trace the very source of the energy used by living things on Earth, almost all of
them can be traced back to the sun, even fossil fuels. What are fossil fuels anyway? Fossil
fuels are fuels that came from the remains of once living things millions of years ago. Plants
primarily get their energy from the sun and process it through photosynthesis while animals
eat plants, thus getting portions of that energy. When these plants or animals died and they
are buried deep underground, the energy is carried with them given that they don’t undergo
normal decomposition process. Given that these processes take place in millions of years,
fossil fuels are considered as non-renewable energy resources.
There are three types of fossil fuels. These are coal, oil or petroleum and natural gas. Coal is
a solid, petroleum can exist as liquid and natural gas is of course a gas.
Types of Fossil Fuels
a. Coal
Coal is the cheapest, most abundant and one of the most used fossil fuels. It is a
shiny, black rock that usually occur in layers. It is composed of mostly carbon and some
impurities. When combusted, it releases huge amount of heat for a relatively long duration
making it a great source of energy.
Coal is formed from the remains of ancient plants that were buried underground at
high pressure and temperature changing its structure. This is how coals are formed.
Figure 1: Coal, a sedimentary
rock from the remains of
plants millions of years ago
Retrieved from:
https://www.scienceimage.c
siro.au/image/10945

27
The formation of coal starts from swampy areas where the waters are stagnant and
there is less oxygen. With abundant amount of oxygen, dead plants can undergo aerobic
decomposition (decomposition involving oxygen), thus, returning the energy they
captured through photosynthesis back to the atmosphere.
For plants to turn into coal, it should undergo anaerobic decomposition so that the plants
could carry the energy when they were buried. A swamp is a perfect condition for this.
Vegetations (plants and trees), usually giant ferns grow in these swamps. When the
swamps are flooded due to natural causes such as tectonic activities, the vegetations are
killed and buried by the water and dirt. When the water subsides another vegetations
can grow. Flooding can come again and bury those plants and trees. The process can
repeat and over time, due to heat and pressure underground, the buried plant remains
turns into coal.
Figure 2. Process on the formation of coal

28
There are different stages before plant remains turns into coal. This is categorized on
the amount of carbon present. The first stage in the coal development is peat. Peat is
composed of densely packed and unconsolidated plant materials. The plant components
can sometimes still be visible in peat. Peat can be used as fuel when dried out, but it
burns relatively fast. When peat is more compacted, it turns into lignite or brown coal.
Further compaction turns into subbituminous or bituminous coal, a sedimentary rock.
This is the commonly used coal. When burnt, it releases smoke which can pose
environmental risk. When subjected to even higher pressure and temperature, it turns
into a metamorphic rock called anthracite. This is also called clean coal as it is composed
of mostly carbon, thus releasing very little impurities when burnt. The table below shows
the different characteristics of these stages of coal development.
b. Oil/Petroleum and Natural Gas
Oil and natural gas are composed of hydrocarbons, strands of molecules containing
hydrogen and carbon atoms. These hydrocarbons came from the remains of organic
materials. However, these are not formed from plants but from microscopic organisms
such as planktons thriving in calm, oxygen-poor oceans or lakes that are well lit by
sunlight and has abundant nutrients. Also, the waters should
contain enough number of sediments that can
help bury the organic remains.
When the planktons die, they
accumulate together with the
sediments such as clay. It is
important that there is less
oxygen in the water to prevent
the planktons from
decomposing or being eaten by
another organism.
Through time, the
accumulated organic remains as well as sediments
are buried and compacted further by other sediments. Due to
higher pressure and temperature
from being buried and
compacted, the organic remains
can undergo lithification and
form organic shale. Organic
shale is called as source rock
because this rock will be the
source of the oil when it is
subjected at higher temperature
and pressure. At even higher
pressure of compaction and
higher temperature, the organic
shale can be broken down in a
form of waxy molecules called
kerogen. Buried deeper and
subjected to higher temperatures
between 90 OC to 160 OC, the kerogen
Figure 3. Process on the formation of oil and
natural gas
Table 1: Properties of Coal at Different Stages
Type Color
Water
Content
(%)
Other
Volatiles
(%)
Fixed
Carbon
(%)
Peat Brown 75 10 15
Lignite Brown to Brownish Black 45 25 30
Subbituminous coal Black 25 35 40
Bituminous coal (soft coal) Black 5 to 15 20 to 30 45 to 86
Anthracite (hard coal) Black 5 to 10 5 86 to 98

29
breaks down into hydrocarbons forming oil. This temperature is called the oil window.
When temperatures increase until 250 OC, the oil molecules form natural gas which is
essentially methane. Exceeding this temperature would break down the hydrocarbon
leaving behind the pure carbon forming graphite.
Formation of Oil and Natural Gas Reserves
Oil and gas reserves are places that contain enough oil that is profitable to be
extracted. In simple terms, these are places that has huge amount of oil or gas underneath.
There are two kids of reserves, conventional and unconventional reserves. Conventional
reserves are places where oil can be drilled and pumped easily while unconventional
reserves are those that are much different from the conventional ones in terms of form and
extraction method.
a. Conventional Reserves
For conventional reserves of oil and gas to form, it follows additional stages. After oil
are formed, they undergo migration where they rise to reservoir rocks. These rocks
should be porous and permeable. This means that these rocks should have tiny holes
making it porous. These holes should also be connected, making it permeable, so that
oil and gas could pass through it. Example of these porous and permeable rock is
sandstone which is formed from compacted sands.
If these oil and gas
continue to rise without something
preventing them, they can reach the
surface. However, underground
reserves are formed when there is a
cap rock or seal rock that prevents
the oil from moving upward. These
rocks should not be porous and
permeable unlike the reservoir rocks.
If cap rocks and reservoir rocks
encloses a significant amount of oil or
gas, it now forms a trap. These traps
are then drilled and pumped to
extract the oil and gas. Briefly, oil and
gas reserves from source rock rises
and settles in reservoir rocks and is trapped by cap or seal rock. It is also important to
note that these whole process takes millions of years to happen. When extracted, oil is
then refined to obtain different distillates such as gasoline, diesel, and kerosene.
b. Unconventional Reserves
• Oil Shale and Shale Oil
It may be confusing, but these terms do not mean the same thing.
Oil shale is composed of a source rock that formed kerogen but did not reach enough
temperature for it to turn into oil. Meaning, it has oil components, but it is still attached to a
rock. On the other hand, shale oil is a source rock that turned into oil. However, this oil did
not migrate and remain trapped in the rocks. These sources undergo processing first before
they can be refined like the conventional oil.
• Oil sands/ Tar sands
These are asphalt-cemented sand or sandstones where the pores of the sandstone are filled
with very viscous oil hence making it unable to flow. This also needs to be processed before
it can be refined.
• Shale gas
Shale gas are hydrocarbons that reached the gas stage but are trapped in the pores of shale.
These are examples of unconventional reserve. These are unconventional because these
are either too viscous to flow or trapped in the rocks. The additional process in extraction
Figure 4. Simplified diagram of an oil and gas trap

30
makes it less economical than conventional oil or gas. However, with the rising of the price
of conventional oil, these reserves can compete with the conventional reserves.
Activity 1: Let’s go back in time!
Arrange the following according to the correct order of events. Write 1 for the first event and
5 for the last.
1. Formation of Coal
(a) Plants and ferns thrive in the swampy areas with stagnant water
(b) The remains of plants settle at the bottom of the swamps and were not
decomposed by oxygen.
(c) Flooding due to rising of sea levels and other tectonic activities kill vegetations.
(d) The remains are buried down by dirt from the floods.
(e) The buried remains turn into coal after millions of years.
2. Formation of Oil and Natural Gas
(a) Organic remains of planktons accumulate at the bottom of the ocean floor
together with sediments.
(b) Planktons and other tiny organisms thrive in waters well-lit by sunlight.
(c) The source rock is buried even deeper for the source rock to form kerogen.
(d) The kerogen turns to oil and gas when reaching higher temperature due to even
deeper burial.
(e) The organic remains mixed with sediments are buried and compacted forming a
source rock
Making a concept map
Create an advocacy towards responsible mining and use of fossil fuels. You can express your
advocacy in a form of slogan, drawing, meme, or other similar ways.
MODULE 4
This module was designed and written with you in mind. It is here to help you master the
different sources of water, and how it is used in hydropower and geothermal applications.
The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The
language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged
to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be
changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
The module is divided into two lessons, namely:
• Lesson 4.1 – Hydropower and Geothermal Energy
• Lesson 4.2 – Various Water Sources

31
1. explain how heat from inside the Earth (geothermal) and from flowing water
(hydroelectric) is tapped as a source of energy for human use;
2. identify the advantages and disadvantages of hydropower and geothermal; and
3. identify the various water resources on Earth.
Lesson
4.1
Hydroelectric and Geothermal
Energy
The use of renewable energy is highly encouraged for the world not to solely rely on
fossil fuels given the environmental effects of these. The challenge however in using
renewables is that many of these are inefficient compared to fossil fuels. In all these
renewables, hydropower and geothermal energy shows great promise as these two has the
most contribution in power generation among the renewable energy resources. In this lesson,
we will explore how energy is generated by hydropower and geothermal energy.
Hydroelectric Power Generation
Hydropower is the most efficient and has the greatest percentage of power generated of
all the renewable sources at 17% according to the International Energy Agency.
Hydroelectric power generation is about the conversion of kinetic energy of moving water
to electricity. To do these, hydroelectric powerplants are installed along rivers or waterfalls or
other water reservoirs.
1. Working mechanism of a hydroelectric powerplant
Hydroelectric powerplants require huge amount of water and high elevation. Falls are
perfect locations for these. Example of these is the Ma. Cristina Falls hydropower plant in
Iligan City, Lanao del Norte. However, falls are not found everywhere. The rivers that supply
the waters from these falls are the most used site in making hydroelectric powerplant. Figure
1 shows a simplified model of a hydroelectric powerplant.
In most powerplants, the goal is to have something to rotate a turbine that is connected
to a generator. In hydroelectric powerplants, moving water is the one spinning the turbine.
Water from rivers is kept in reservoirs by forming a dam. This allows storage of huge amount
of water. These waters can be released when the sluice gate is opened. A penstock pipe is
installed to move the water from the reservoirs to a lower elevation where the turbine is
located. The turbine is connected to a generator in a powerhouse. When water moves through
the penstock, it spins the turbine, which in turn spins the generator, hence producing
electricity. The voltage produced is stepped-up by a transformer and the electricity is
distributed to residences and industries. The water that ran the turbine flows out to the river.
Figure 1: A simplified diagram of a hydroelectric powerplant

32
Another type of hydroelectric powerplants is pumped storage hydropower. During times
where the demand in electricity is low such as at night, water is pumped up back to the
reservoir. The pumped and stored water in the reservoir can be released again in times with
peak demand in electricity where the price is much higher. This is analogous to charging a
battery when it was already used up by flowing current back to the battery.
2. Advantages and Disadvantages
One of the advantages of hydropower is that no significant amounts of carbon dioxide
are emitted on its operations. Water is also readily available and replenished by rainfall
making it a renewable energy source. Hydropower is also the most efficient energy source
converting 90% of the energy of moving water to electricity. Its ability to store water makes it
suitable in responding to fluctuating demands in electricity. For instance, water collected
during the rainy seasons can be stored and be used during the dry seasons. Lastly, water
used in generating electricity can still be used in other forms.
The disadvantages of hydropower include its costly construction. It also needs a large
space for building dams. Some local communities may need to be relocated when this
powerplants are constructed. The damming of rivers may disrupt natural habitat of animals
living in the rivers.
Geothermal Energy
Beneath the Earth’s crust, the temperature increases as it goes deeper. The source of
this heat comes from the original heat from the formation of the Earth and from the decay of
radioactive matter on Earth. This heat underground is called geothermal energy. However,
not all places are suitable for tapping geothermal energy. Those places with high tectonic
activities such as Mexico, Indonesia and Philippines are suitable for tapping geothermal
energy. Geothermal energy heats underground water. Some of these waters produce hot
springs or geysers. In geothermal powerplants, steam or hot water from underground are the
ones used and manipulated to run turbines.
1. Types and working mechanism of geothermal powerplants
There are three main types of geothermal powerplants. The design and mechanisms of
these powerplants depend on how hot the water underground can be. The different types of
geothermal powerplants are the following:
a. Dry Steam Geothermal Powerplant
Dry steam powerplants directly uses steam generated underground that passes through a
production well which extends underground. The steam is used to run a turbine connected
to a generator. The produced electricity is stepped up by a transformer and ready to be
distributed through the powerlines. The used steam passes through a condenser, hence
turning it to liquid. The liquid water is injected back to the ground to be reheated. These type
of powerplant requires that the water is heated at very high temperatures.
Figure 2: A simplified diagram of a dry steam geothermal powerplant

33
b. Flash Steam Powerplant
Flash steam powerplants are used when the heated waters underground does not
completely turn to steam. Thus, it is flashed into steam when it is pumped out to the surface.
The hot water passes to a production well and into a flash tank. The flash tank is kept at a
low pressure which makes it easy for hot water to turn into steam. Then, the steam created
in the flash tanks spins the turbine, moving the generator and producing electricity. The used
steam is converted back to liquid in a condenser and is injected back underground to be
reheated. In some powerplants called double flash steam powerplants, the water that didn’t
turn to steam are again put in another flash tank at even lower pressure to turn it into steam.
c. Binary Cycle Powerplant
What if the water is hot enough to heat another liquid but not hot enough to turn into steam?
Binary cycle powerplant exploits the property of other liquid to boil faster than water. In a
binary cycle powerplant, the heat of hot water is transferred to another liquid with high
boiling point via a heat exchanger. Example of these liquid is isobutane. The steam from the
heated isobutane spins the turbine connected to a generator and thus producing electricity.
The hot water is injected back to the ground to be reheated while the other liquid condenses
and returns to the heat exchanger ready to be used again.
2. Advantages and Disadvantages
The major advantage in the use of geothermal energy is it being renewable. This is also
environment friendly as it does not emit carbon-dioxide into the atmosphere. Geothermal
energy is also reliable as it can supply electricity at most circumstances unlike solar and
wind. It uses no fuel, requires minimal land area, and operates with less noise compared to
other powerplants.
Figure 3: A simplified diagram of a flash steam geothermal powerplant
Figure 4: A simplified diagram of a binary cycle geothermal powerplant

34
The disadvantage of geothermal energy is it can be installed in specific locations only.
Some areas with low tectonic activities are not suitable for geothermal plants. Also, the
operation of geothermal powerplants may cause water depletion in some areas since it utilizes
the groundwater. Costly construction of geothermal powerplant is also a disadvantage.
Though it is renewable, irresponsible operation of a geothermal powerplant may cause
exhaustion if the heat underground is used up more than it is replenished.
Activity 1: Venn Diagram
Construct a Venn Diagram to show the similarities and differences of hydroelectric and
geothermal energy.
Lesson
4.2
Water Sources
The earliest civilizations thrived near the rivers. The Mesopotamia grew near the Tigris
and Euphrates River. The Egyptians benefited from the riches of the Nile River while the
Indian Civilization grew along the Indus River. It is not surprising because rivers provide the
very necessity of mankind, water. In this chapter, we will explore the various water sources
in our planet.
Water Sources
When Earth’s photo was first captured from space, it
was called the “Blue Marble”. The immense amount of
water on Earth gives the blue appearance. In fact,
about 75% of the Earth is covered with water. This
water is circulated in the Earth through the hydrologic
cycle. If water is abundant on Earth, why do some
places have water scarcity?
The simplest answer is even though there are huge
amount of water on Earth, 97% of these waters are
saltwater in the oceans while the remaining 3% is for
freshwater. From the total freshwater, 77% percent of
these are trapped in the glaciers and ice caps in the
poles while 22% is located underground. The
remaining 1% is what we see in the surface like rivers,
lakes and wetlands. As we can see in figure 1, the amount of freshwater on Earth is of little
percentage. That is why, water is still a precious substance though we have lots of it.
Figure 1: The percentages of different water
sources on Earth
Retrieved from:
https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-earth-

35
1. Freshwater
a. Surface water
These pertains to the waters that are located to the surface. This includes the waters in
the lakes, streams, rivers and wetlands. When the ground is flat, these surface water
accumulates in puddles or wetlands. Wetlands include swamps and marshes. If the ground
is sloped, water from river basins (source of river water) moves in streams and rivers. Humans
also create dams where it can store rainwater on the surface.
b. Groundwater
When rain runs off the ground, some of these are evaporated back to the atmosphere while
some infiltrates the ground until it reached and impermeable rock underground. These
waters are called groundwater. Groundwater provides much of the drinking water and
agricultural irrigation. Figure 2 shows a groundwater system.
The porous and permeable rocks that hosts groundwater like sponge are called aquifers.
It is important to note that the ground is not floating in the water, as the diagram may falsely
show. Imagine lots of water poured on a column of sand. Aquitards on the other hand are the
impermeable rocks that acts like a barrier for water. These two are like the reservoir and cap
rocks for oil. Aquifers bounded by aquitards are confined ones while the unbounded ones are
the unconfined aquifers.
The water table is the boundary from the non-saturated ground and the water saturated
ones. To gain access to groundwater, people dig wells. Some of these wells extend deep to the
aquitards. These are deep wells which are pumped to collect the water. Some wells have
become dry when the water table lowers. When a well is located to the lower part of an inclined
ground, it may not need pumping as the weight of the water on the higher part provides the
pressure for the water to go up. These are artesian wells.
Aquifers however may become depleted when the removed water is more than the water
that infiltrate back to the ground. Thus, groundwater is a non-renewable resource. Some
places on Earth have a scarcity of water such as in Africa because the aquifers are depleted
and less rains on these continent does not give enough supply to refill the aquifers.
c. Glaciers and Icecaps
In the poles such as the Arctics and Antarctica, snow that are continuously compressed
over time form glaciers which composed much of the freshwaters. When these ices melt, it
can rose seawater levels up to 70m worldwide.
2. Seawater
Seawater comprises almost all of the waters on Earth. In countries such as the Saudi
Arabia and Singapore, there is a scarcity in freshwater. These countries implement the
desalination of seawater. Salt is removed from the seawater by distillation or reverse osmosis.
In distillation, water is evaporated to be separated from the salt. The water is then condensed
to turn into liquid. Reverse osmosis uses a membrane that allows water to pass but not the
salts. This is done to provide the water needs of the people.
Even though water is abundant on Earth, it is not equally distributed. In some places,
water is not available at all time while others have polluted waters. Water is free, but getting
this water, storing, treating, and distributing these waters cost money so water conservation
helps in providing sustainable water for everyone.
Figure 2: A groundwater system
Retrieved from:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Groundwater_(aquifer,_aquitard,_3_type_wells).PN

36
Activity 1: Solving a crossword puzzle
Supply the crossword with the appropriate words based on the lesson.
1. Making a simple waterwheel (or steam wheel)
Materials:
1 pc round Styrofoam (or any similar objects),
6 pcs plastic spoon (or large tip popsicle stick),
1 pc barbeque stick (or any similar objects),
1 pc tape
(Precautions: Be careful in cutting objects.)
Directions:
1. Cut the plastic spoon in half.
2. Then stick the spoons equally around the styroball. At the middle, pierced the
barbeque stick on the styroball and secure it with tape. Make sure that the styroball
can rotate using the BBQ stick as the axle.
3. Run water on the waterwheel using a faucet or using a cup of water.

37
2. Making a groundwater model
Pour a layer of gravel on a transparent container
(i.e., wafer stick jars). Then, pour sand about ¾ of the
container. Next put a gravel on top of the sand. After,
pour a significant amount of water. Observe how the
water behaves and where does it stay.
3. Hydropower construction Dilemma
Indigenous people communities do not approve a
construction of a hydropower plant as they say that it
will dry up their water resources and displace wildlife.
What will you do if you are in charged on the decision?
What will you do to balance the two concerns?
MODULE 5
the different ways the water and soil is affected by our actions and the ways to conserve the
soil. The scope of this module permits it to be used in many different learning situations. The
language used recognizes the diverse vocabulary level of students. The lessons are arranged
to follow the standard sequence of the course. But the order in which you read them can be
changed to correspond with the textbook you are now using.
• Lesson 5.1 – Human activities affecting the availability and quality of water
• Lesson 5.2 – Human activities affecting the quantity and quality of soil
• Lesson 5.3 – Soil Protection and Conservation Practices
1. give examples of human activities affecting the waters and soil;
2. explain how different activities affect the quality and availability of water for human
use;
3. identify human activities, such as farming, construction of structures, and waste
disposal, that affect the quality and quantity of soil; and
4. give ways of conserving and protecting the soil for future generations.
Lesson
5.1
Human activities affecting the
availability and quality of water
The percentage of freshwater on Earth is very small compared to saltwater. Even
though this is a small percentage, this amount is still quite huge. However, access to safe
and enough water are hindered by different human activities. In this lesson, we will explore
the different ways humans affect the quality and supply of water.

38
Human activities affecting water quality and availability
An average person can live for weeks without food but not for days without water.
Water is an important part in our households, industries, and agriculture.
However, human activities are also affecting the quality and supply of this precious waters.
The following are the common activities contributing to these.
1. Pollution
Pollution is arguably the biggest problem that we face with regards to our waters. This
can come from various sources and is quite challenging to solve because of the different
natures of contaminants. Pollution may come from point or non-point sources. Point source
pollution came from contaminants that directly pollutes the waters and be easily identifiable
as the source of pollution. Factories that directly dump liquid waste in the oceans are point
sources. On the other hand, non-point pollution are indirect ways that contaminants reached
and affect the waters in a wider range. The following are common contaminants in the waters.
(a) Garbage
Significant amount of litter reaches our waters. Household items, discarded materials,
plastics, and plastic containers, used tires, broken items, fast-food containers, electronic
waste and many other types of rubbish we can name can all end up in our waters. Some
households throw this rubbish to the nearest waterway. Some people are lazy enough to hold
a bag of plastic until finding a near trash bin. All these little things done by numerous people
contribute to the litters in our waters.
(b) Urban and road runoff
Imagine an asphalted road with cars dripping small amounts of oils and brake fluids as
well as teared tires and impurities from the exhaust. Also add the small sediments and litters.
When rain comes, all these will be washed off. This is called runoff. Run off is a non-point
source because its effects are not direct and easily identifiable. Runoff causes floods as it
clogs drainage because water can’t seep into the ground due to being cemented or asphalted.
Runoff pollutes the bodies of water and when it reaches there, the animals in the waters can
also be affected.
(c) Improper Disposal of Toxic Chemicals and Heavy Metals
Improper disposal of toxic chemicals such as dumping in the sink and rivers could
contaminate the waters. Factories irresponsibly dumping their waste that may contain heavy
metals and toxic chemicals directly on the waters and contaminates it. Dumping in land could
leak those chemicals to the groundwater. Leaking gasoline from gas station could also reach
the water table and contaminate it.
(d) Fertilizer, Nutrients, Pesticides and Herbicides
Fertilizers and nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates and potassium are good at
stimulating growth which makes is good for plants and crops. However, when it is washed off
during rains and it end up in the lakes or rivers, they still do their job as growth enhancers
but for algae. Eutrophication happens where excessive algae grows in the waters. Algal blooms
are the green layers on top of the waters which makes it polluted. When these algae die,
bacteria would decompose it. Bacteria need oxygen in decomposing it and the increased
number of bacteria to decompose the increased amounts of algae would reduce the oxygen
levels in the waters causing animals living in the water to die due to oxygen deprivation. To
prevent this, fertilizers and nutrients should not be used in excess so that less of it can be
washed out to the water bodies. Pesticides and herbicides used in crops may contaminate the groundwater
as it was carried by rainwater seeping into the ground.

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