1. WilliamJordan
Prof Montrie
The Civil RightsMovement:FromPacifisttoMilitant
Through the 1950s and 60s there were many contributing factors that effected the evolution of
civil rights movement, from pacifism to the rise of black militancy. In this tumultuous period of American
history there were many individuals, organizations as well as global and national events; all of which had
both negative and positive effects on the movement. The civil rights movement—asit advanced through
the 1950s and 60s—demonstrates a profound social progression in American history: whereas the 1950s
were a time when activists vied for non violent measures to create change, the 1960s differed as
activistsbecame more militant andaggressive intheircontributions tothe movement.
Initially, to understand the origins of the civil rights movement, one should take into
consideration the history of the US during the 1950s. After WW2, the national ethos of the 1950s was
supportive of right wing dominance over American culture and opposition to the influence of the Soviet
Union. More often than not, US politicians sought to maintain a strong right wing political structure.
Both U.S. politicians and citizens expressed stark opposition towards racial integration and social
equality in the south. Nonetheless, amidst a hostile world teeming with racism, civil rights activists chose
not to use violent methods; their ideal path to attain civil rights was non-violent protest and civil
disobedience. For activists this method was more effective than violent aggression or the pursuit of
litigation in court, because it displayed the inequalities on a national platform was they actually were in
American society. Through the 1950s activists were well aware of the racism that existed in the south,
and maintained tokeepnon-violence astheirprimaryapproachtoattain civil rights.
The main detractors of the civil rights movement were white supremacists. Hate groups such as
the Ku Klux Klan and the White Citizens’ Council acted against the civil rights movement with violent
behavior and racist ideology. To the white supremacist, ideas such as social equality and integration
were not only disruptive towards their ideals, but also something which threatened the future of white
America. Many white racists spread the notion that an integration of white and black culture would

2. result in the existence of a “mongrel race.” They feared that through social interaction, the future would
usher in racially mixed people. Beatings and assaults on African Americans were very frequent in the
1950s. What greatly instigated these racial assaults was the taboo of black men intermingling with white
women. One such example was the Kissing Case, when two African American children violated the “Anti-
miscegenation law” of North Carolina by playing a kissing game with a white girl. Such cases gave a
motive forwhite supremaciststo fulfill theircause.
As a reaction to such hatred, the civil rights movement brought forth many organizations which
espoused non-violent methods. For one, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People (NAACP) is a civil rights group which uses the courts as a means to achieve racial equality--one
such instance of this being Thurgood Marshall’s challenge to reverse the landmark decision Plessy v
Fergusson. By the 1950s, activist groups had little influence on a local level especially in rural areas of
the south; thus NAACP members used their connections with the media to depict their struggle
nationwide. The media till this day is an effective tool for minority leaders to bring national awareness
to their plight. On a nationally recognized level they could gain more sway, which is why the media was
and still is to this day so vital for their cause. Daisy Bates, a leading civil rights activist who mentored the
‘Little Rock Nine,’ used her influence as a NAACP member and writer for the Arkansas State Press to
publicize abuses of the supreme courts’ desegregation rulings of Brown v Board of Education. As an
NAACP member, Bates helped draw national attention to the issue of desegregation in Arkansas’ school
system. This led to a mass media gathering in Little Rock, to cover the event and portray in real life how
governor Orval Faubus, crassly used the National Guard to prevent black students from entering Little
Rock Central HighSchool.
For the NAACP and other activists, there was the challenge of facing the manner of how
mainstream America would react to integration. Frequently, the reactions were harsh; many African
Americans were ostracized for merely being members of the NAACP. For instance, local white leaders in
Monroe, North Carolina petitioned for civil rights leader Robert F. Williams and a colleague of his, Dr.
A.E. Perry to leave town because they led a local chapter of the NAACP. As the NAACP became more
influential many people even labeled it as communist to subvert its appeal and influence amongst
Americans.
The non-violent phase of the civil rights movement demonstrates how African Americans, under
the overwhelming circumstances of racism, insisted on pursuing change through non-coercive means—
whether it be by using the media, challenging court decisions or civil disobedience such as sit ins or

3. peaceful protests. In the eyes of many activists such as Bayard Rustin and Dr. Martin Luther King,
violence would only “begets more violence.” Such leaders supported pacifism as interpreted in
Christianity; these men were proponents of Afro-Christianity. Many African Americans felt they could
only achieve social, political and economic liberation through the tenets of Jesus Christ as applied to
American society. The purpose of non-violent resistance was to not only create change in the social
order, but to also demonstrate a lifestyle that entirely revolved around peace. Christianity served as a
model for many activists including Martin Luther King, who before his assassination urged Americans to
form a “beloved community”; a community that would live through such religious principles as “love
your enemy.” Dr King told his followers to even “love the unlovable” and that there is a social gospel to
act upon—not as a way to merely attain racial equality, but to form a way of life that would contribute
to a worldwithoutviolence.
Other civil rights groups which espoused the principles of non-violent resistance were those
such as the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), in which Dr. King was the first president.
Another group was the Fellowship of Reconciliation (FOR). FOR was a group that opposed not only
domestic issues such as racial segregation but also issues including “nuclear arms and war.” The leaders
of FOR used the example of the Montgomery Bus Boycott as a symbol of progress for the civil rights
movement. It was the aim of such groups to bring forth change in a judicial way—namely a Supreme
Court decision to end racial segregation and enable voter registration for African Americans. The group
‘Student Non Violent Coordinating Committee’ (SNCC) and the ‘Congress of Racial Equality’ (CORE) were
other organizations which strongly endorsed non-violence. The SNCC was an organization that began in
the 1960s to integrate students into the civil rights movements. Students from northern universities
became a crucial part to the movement as their knowledge and social status gave more credibility to the
cause. Another reason why white students especially were called to join the movement was to gather
the attention of the media; particularly in the event that a white student got hurt or killed, which would
quickly attract national media coverage whereas an African American death would hardly reach local
newspapers. Student organized committees not only served as heralds of peace against white racism:
they drewinattentionfromall cornersof the US.
As white racist violence against African Americans increased, non-violent resistance continued
to persist through the civil rights movement. Adherents to the cause like Bayard Rustin struggled for
absolute pacifism. Rustin even admonished Dr. Martin Luther King when the leader of the SCLC armed
himself with bodyguards to prepare against impending white supremacist attacks. King’s decision to arm

4. himself—although necessary—created an image of hypocrisy to many adamant followers of non-violent
resistance. Although proponents of non-violent resistance were against aggression, their principles did
not encourage one to remain complacent or inactive. The non-violence movement supported civil
disobedience through such events as sit-ins and boycotts. Boycotts like the ‘Montogomery Bus Boycott’
were instrumental for the civil rights movement. By this event alone, activists such as Rosa Parks and Jo
AnnRobinsonwere able toputpressure onthe governmenttochange the lawsof segregation.
What also inspired the civil rights movement with respect to non-violent resistance was the
global influence of Mohandas Ghandi. Ghandi’s ideas served not only as a model for India, but also any
place where civil rights were marginal. Through his concept of ‘ahimsa’—the Hindu term for non-violent
resistance—Ghandi was able to liberate his people from the perils of British colonialism. Activists in
America viewed his work with much respect. Dr. Martin Luther King considered Ghandi to be so
important as to even equate him with Jesus, saying “Christ gave us the goals, Ghandi gave us the tactics.”
Ghandi’s stance towards peaceful resistance was so profound that without even “raising a fist” he was
able to reshape anentire nation.
In similarity to the civil rights movement, Ghandi aimed his philosophies toward the lower class
members of society; whether they were the ‘untouchables’ or the men and women who worked in the
fields and lived on the unpaved streets of India. Likewise, in America there was also a grassroots
element within the civil rights movement. In the 1950s the first activists were mainly teachers, scholars
and preachers, but as the movement progressed it expanded towards local working class people in poor
black communities. Activism also began to reach out to people through schools, creating an inspiration
for many future intellectuals who would continue the civil rights movement in the decades to come. The
civil rights movement greatly appealed to African Americans of lower and middle class status since it
was those people whomostlyrequiredit.
Moreover, global events such as the rise of communism were very important to the civil rights
movement. As communism was appealing to the proletariat of Russia, it also appealed to many poor
African Americans. The tenets of communism, whether it was social and economic equality, collectivism
or the denial of the power of one person to exploit another for profit, enchanted a great number of
Americans during the 1950s and 60s. However, a growing fear spread throughout the US as many
people labeled civil rights groups as communist usurpers simply because many of their constituents
identified with socialist principles. Many Americans blamed the NAACP as being sympathetic to
communist agendas. Additionally, Americans viewed certain court decisions such as Brown v. Board of

5. Education as a mark of “socialist infiltration.” To many white supremacists the pursuit of racial equality
and integration was nothing short of a socialist attempt to undermine capitalism. In many events
throughout US history, protestors and activists were accused of being communist. One particular protest
event in the mills of Union Country North Carolina, demonstrates how Americans labeled civil rights
advocatesas communists, accusingthemof “race mixing”and“social overthrow.”
At the height of the cold war, many Americans believed much of the social disorder of the time
was an orchestration of communist figures; namely people who were attempting to subvert the United
State’s position in the cold war. To combat against communism the government began the inquisition
known as McCarthyism. This inquisition granted the government the legal basis to inquire about
suspect people, specifically those who fit the communist stereotype: vocal people who urged to support
social equality were a prime target; even white people who were “polite amongst African Americans.”
The FBI launched many investigations against supporters of racial equality. The anti-communists of
Congress were the architects behind these investigations. Representatives such as Martin Dies of Texas
and John Rankin and James Eastland of Mississippi were both staunch anticommunists and ferocious
opponentsof the civil rightsmovement.
The anti communism shaped by the government shows how political leaders in the 1950s and
60s merged their struggle against communism with their obstruction towards civil rights. The
government was at the same time an overseer in the cold war and detractor to the civil rights
movement. Its use of the FBI to weaken the movement is evidence that certain political figures acted
directly against any progress of civil rights. Even FBI director J. Edgar Hoover was racist when he said
that white women were “threatened by black men” at home during World War Two (referring to white
men leaving their families behind to fight abroad.) The FBI proved to be obstructive to the civil rights
movement by targeting the Social Workers Party: the FBI branded the group as communist. Other
instances include the time when the FBI accused Robert F. Williams of kidnapping when he kept a white
couple inhisneighborhoodinordertosave themfrompotential mobviolence.
In addition to how the cold war affected communism, the cold war wasintegral to the civil rights
movement as well. The visitation of Fidel Castro in Harlem in 1960 was a big turning point because it
brought forth the notion of cold war politics directly into the heart of black America. In a time when the
racism of the south differed from the liberal idealism of the urbanized north, Castro’s visit—although it
was before his official alignment with the Soviet Union-- did very much to bifurcate American politics
into left and right; especially with regards to the movement as mainstream Americans already believed

6. it to be undermining the status quo and peddling to the left. With the presence of Castro and other
communists also came sympathy for communist nations. Activists such as Robert F. Williams used the
Cuban revolution as a similar template to black liberation; questioning America’s role as a “beacon for
freedom.” Activists were using the volatile nature of Cuban politics as a parallel to their own dilemma.
Cuba endorsed the idea of “racial egalitarianism” at a time when blacks in the south could not even
drink from ‘white’ water fountains. When activists used Cuba as an example it hurt US legitimacy in
social politicsanditsstatusin the ColdWar.
Furthermore, in the 1960s as blacks became disillusioned towards America’s ideal claims of
liberty and equality, violence was growing more rampant in the south. Through his own experience and
upbringing in Monroe, North Carolina, Williams called for black militancy. Notably, this militancy was not
all racially motivated as Williams received much help from white liberals. In its infancy black militancy
was not entirely built on the idea of going to war with white America, as it was a tool to allow the Black
community to assert itself against white supremacists. Williams was very instrumental in the rise of
black militancy. His book Negroes with Guns portrayed his own struggle against white supremacy in
Monroe. William’s life created a template for other black youths. Negroes with Guns was so
inspirational that by the year of its distribution in 1962, critics claimed that it “laid the groundwork for
the Black Power movement.” Although this single work was not the sole contributing factor to the Black
power movement, it certainly was influential. Huey Newton of the Black Panther Party for Self defense
considereditthe “single mostimportantinfluenceof hislife.”
Black Power became one of the most compelling aspects of the civil rights movement in the
1960s and it remains relevant still to this day. Black Power was a militant reaction to the oppression and
brutality of white supremacy in America. This part of the civil rights movement existed because of the
contributions of such men as Huey Newton and other black leaders including Malcolm X and Robert F.
Williams. Whereas Williams played a key role in the conceptualization of Black Power, other leaders
such as Huey Newton created a more pragmatic approach by organizing rallies and events that themed
against white America. The US government was very weary of the rise of black power. In an attempt to
undermine its influence and respectability amongst black communities, the White House employed the
FBI and COINTELprogramsagainstkeymembers.
Underlying themes to the black power movement related to self defense, black pride, economic
equality and the protection of black women. One eventin the south that ignited fuel for the black power
movement was the Lynching of Mack Charles Parker in 1959. Parker was a twenty three year old black

7. man accused of raping a white woman in Mississippi. Three days after he was accused, Parker was
dragged out of his cell, beaten and then shot to death by an angry mob that mysteriously attained the
keys to his cell. His bodywas found ten dayslater bloated and barely identifiable. Angered by the callous
treatment of Parker, civil rights proponents began to reject pacifism and embrace militancy. Another key
event which triggered the cause was the 1959 gang rape of a black woman from Florida A&MUniversity
in Tallahassee. The woman, who survived the terrifying ordeal, was even badgered by a defense
attorney who tried to convince the jury that she derived pleasure from the crime. As a result of such
brutal events, Blacks were tired of non-violence and became more aggressive. When CORE tried to
establish a non-violent sit in at Florida A&M, very few students showed up because they felt non-
violence wouldnotsuffice;hence nonviolencewasindecline andblackmilitancy wasonthe rise.
The Civil Rights movement was a struggle on behalf of many activists to change the US for better
equality, basic human freedoms and the sovereignty of the black community. Although the non violent
phase of the movement did not effectively put a stop to the prevailing violence of white supremacy, it
did shape the overall consciousness of Americans as well as bring changes to the legal system. Through
the 1950s and 60s, as global and national events continued to mold the political and social realm of the
US, activists grew reluctant to support non-violence and thus turned to other methods of empowerment
such as militancy. Although its beginnings were pacifist, the mass violence and turmoil of the 1950s and
1960s led to a mounting rise of black militancy in the civil rights movement: A condition that still exists
inAmericatoday.