Chapter 4Social Structure and Process TheoriesSocial

Chapter 4
Social Structure and Process Theories
Social Factors
All Social Delinquency theories are based on the belief that
crime is caused by a person’s interaction with conflicts in
society. What can cause conflict?
Poor relations with school, family and the government
Poor Community conditions
Exposure to Violence
Social Change (divorce, immigration, religion)
Poverty and perceived economic disparity
Racial Inequality
Two Classes
The concept of social conflict has been developed into two
distinct theories of juvenile delinquency. They are:
Social Structure Theories
Delinquency is caused by a person’s place in the
economic structure of society.
Social Process Theories
Delinquency is caused by a person’s interaction with
corrupt or
disturbed members of society

Social Structure
All Social Structure Theories are based on the concept that
modern capitalist society is divided (stratified) based on
economic levels
Crime is most likely to form in the underclasses of society,
where a culture of poverty changes the civic values and ethics
of children, from generation to generation.
As children are more formative and fragile, they are more prone
to the negative effects of poverty.
Racial inequality also fuels the cycle of poverty, as certain
classes in society have less opportunities.
The Three forms of Structure
1) Social Disorganization
Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay first developed the social
disorganization theory. The premise of this theory is that the
breakdown of the sense of community creates social unrest.
The connection of a person to their community is the single
greatest deterrent to criminal behavior.
People are less likely to participate in crime, if there is a social
stigma or shame, to being identified as a criminal against the
community.
Modern Disorganization
Shaw and McKay based their theories on the concept that as a
city expanded, neighborhoods would break down, and the city
as a whole would lose it’s sense of continuity.

As American society has become more mobile and transient,
cities have radically changed. The modern Disorganization
Theory is Social Ecological Theory.
Social Ecology
Social Ecology states that criminal behavior is directly linked to
breakdowns in a community structure. These breakdowns come
from:
Seeing physically abandoned buildings and decay
Poverty
Fear of crime or corrupt law enforcement
Siege Mentality
Loss of a community identity (race, religion, ethnicity)
Loss of social controls (family, peers, mentors, role models)
A Strain on us all
2) Strain Theory
Strain Theory holds that while most people have the same
goals and desires out of life, the feeling of being locked out, or
not having the opportunity to achieve those same goals, is the
impetus for criminal behavior.
While some children will continue to seek to overcome their
limitations, and others will simply accept their place in society,
the delinquent portion of disaffected children will turn to
criminal behavior to achieve what they want.

Three types of Strain Theory
Merton’s Anomie Theory
Robert Merton created this version of Strain Theory. This
theory holds that crime is the result of conflict between the
goals of a person in society, and how society has stated a person
can achieve those goals. Capitalism urges all persons to desire
wealth. Conflict, according to Merton, occurs when a person
does not share the values of society (wealth is not important) or
a person does not accept the approved means of achieving those
goals (murder, robbery, etc).
Merton’s Anomie
Merton argues that crime occurs in places where people have
limited means to achieve the goals of society. Immigrant
groups, ghettos and the like, are full of people who cannot
achieve what society tells them equates to success. As a result,
people are forced to make decisions:
Conform values to society or Rebel (make your own)
Retreat from society or become an Innovator
Join a Ritualistic group, to avoid facing the inequalities of
society (Church, Fraternity, etc).
Last two Strains
Institutional Anomie
This theory is more aimed at the American nature of Social
Strain. It claims that in America, the concept of success (the
American Dream) has become so solidified, that is has replaced
any alternate definitions of success. Thus, any person who
cannot achieve the American Dream of success has the constant

influence to achieve success by any means necessary
Final Strain
General Strain Theory
This theory holds that there are multiple strains placed on
any person at a given time, that can cause criminal behavior in
the right circumstance. Strain can come from:
Failure to achieve goals set by a person or family
Having unrealistic expectations in life that cannot be met
through traditional means
The los or removal of positive stimulus for goals
The introduction to negative stimulus to achieve goals
Last Social Structure Theory
3) Cultural Deviance Theory
This theory focuses on the culture of deviance that develops
in lower class neighborhoods. According to this theory,
disorganized impoverished communities develop their own
unique set of values and beliefs, that put themin conflict with
social norms.
How Deviance Forms
Under cultural deviance theories, people in lower class
neighborhoods are initially set apart form society, due to
middle-class measuring rods. Communities that do not measure

up to middle class standards, are given a stigma of being “lesser
places” to live.
Children in these neighbors suffer from status frustration. Their
lack of opportunities prevents them form achieving what society
tells them is “success”.
The result of this feeling of rejection, is called reaction
formation. People who cannot meet the goals of society, rebel
and make their own.
Last Aspect
One form of deviance theory involves the formation of gangs.
The primary reaction formation of young children who cannot
meet the goals of society, is to form organizations where they
can meet their own definition of success. These are what
sociologists call gangs. Three types of gangs are identified:
Criminal Gangs – Gangs formed to achieve success by violating
law, and rebelling against the rules of society
Conflict Gangs – Gangs created to create a new society, where
the disorganization of society has left them with no peer support
Retreatist Gangs – Groups of people that have failed at
achieving the goals of society or criminal elements. These
groups retreat into organizations on the fringe of society (drugs,
sexual, odd views)
Social Process
Social Process theories hold that a child’s propensity to commit
criminal acts, or conform to society, is largely dependent on
their connection and bond to elements in their lives.
This theory was created in opposition to Social Structure
theories. Proponents of this theory claim that Social Structure

does not explain why so many children in impoverished areas do
not turn to crime, and why so many kids with the means and
opportunity to achieve the goals of society become criminals.
More Process
Social Process identifies four main areas of connection and
bond in society, that influence the delinquency of a child:
The influence of family, and stability of home life
The socialization and acceptance of a child at school
The influence on a child of peers and other adolescents
The presence (or lack there of) of religion and morality in a
child’s life.
There are two models of Social Process Theory. Each model
has different theories in it’s sub-category:
Social Learning Theories
These theories hold that delinquenc y is generally learned,
when there are poor influences at the any of the four critical
bonds between child and society.
Social Control Theories
These theories hold that anyone can chose to become a
criminal. What prevents criminal behavior are a child’s four
critical bonds. If any of these are weakened, a child has more
temptations to be involved in criminal behavior.
Social Process
Social Learning

Differential Association Theory
This theory holds that all criminal behavior is learned.
Delinquency is generally learned from negative contacts within
the four intimate bonds. The likelihood of criminal behavior is
determined by the strength of the bond, the intimacy of the
relationship where the child is exposed to delinquency, the
extent the child shares the needs and values of the delinquent
peer, and the level of conflict between the delinquent influence
and all other influences.
Neutralization Theory
This theory attempts to explain deviant behavior through the
breakdown in the taking of responsibility in society. Children
are reinforced with a concept of right and wrong, but then given
opportunities to neutralize or justify deviant behavior. The
proponents of this theory paint the blame on adult society, to
which children emulate. They point out the lack of
accountability of adults, creates a double standard of
subterranean values. This can be best summarized as, “Doing
the best you can, and denying responsibility if you cannot.”
Excuses, Excuses
Definition
The techniques of Neutralization are defined as:
Denying responsibility
Denying that what was done was harmful
Rationalizing that the victim deserved it
Rationalizing that the behavior was necessary
Rationalizing that the the behavior could not be helped, because
the offender was a victim of circumstances

Last Area
Social Control
Social Control envisions all people as wild and selfish by
nature. What restrains a person from acting and behaving as
they wish, are their bonds and connections to the four primary
clusters, mentioned earlier in the lecture. When those bonds are
weakened, any person can feel compelled to commit crimes.
The theory focuses on the “social stigma” of crime, and the
shame from one’s peers, and the primary indicator of criminal
behavior.
One Main Area
The Primary Social Control Theory was developed by a man
named Travis Hirschi. Hirschi went back to the four primary
bonds of a child (Family, School, Peers, Religion) and sought to
analyze the strength of those bonds in four main areas:
The child’s level of attachment to the bond
The child’s personal commitment to the bond
The child’s frequency in involvement to the bond
The child’s ability to relate and believe in the values espoused
by that social bond
My Personal Favorite!
Hirschi stated that it is impossible to “predict” criminal
behavior among children. Instead, society should be focusing

on ways to strengthen and integrate the four social bonds in a
child. In this way society can reduce the likelihood of criminal
behavior, rather than predict it.
Of all the theories looked at today, this is the only theory that
looks forward to preventing criminal behavior, rather than
preventing it.
This theory is the most practical for parents, as it seeks to
influence children in the four primary bonds. Parents are taught
to harmonize the frequency, values and integrations of all four
bonds.
Conflict versus Empathy
Chapter 5
Juvenile Delinquency
Case Study in Crime
Sam Houston High School is located in inner-city Houston,
Texas. The school’s demographics are as follows:
68% of Student families receive government economic
assistance
18% of students have been identified as having a gang
affiliation
Four Year Graduation Rate – 18%
56% of students have an immediate family member incarcerated
87% of students live in a single parent household
Racial 22% Caucasian
54% African American

26% Hispanic
2% Other
The Analysis
Sam Houston High School has been plagued by significant
numbers of teen crimes. The school is most concerned with
four specific crimes:
The possession of weapons on campus
The presence of narcotics on campus
Sexual assaults between students
Violent confrontations between students
The Assignment
Looking at these four criminal activities, identify:
What do you believe are the primary sources for these specific
crimes?
What can the school do to prevent each criminal behavior?
What can the local government do to prevent each criminal
behavior?
What can the community do to prevent each criminal behavior?

The Competing Theories
Social Reaction Theory
Social Reaction Theory holds the viewpoint that human
interaction is defined by labels. People strive to either avoid
labels, or embrace them, as part of establishing their identity.
When a person embraces a label, whether it be positive or
negative, they instinctively begin to mold the expectation of the
label.
The Interaction
Social Reaction Theory begins with the identification of
Symbolic Interactions.
For a label to attach, there must be a way this label is
communicated. This communication is the Symbolic
Interaction.
Symbols can be material (such as jewelry or clothing), an
organization, gestures, status symbols, or anything else that
distinguishes someone form another.
What makes a label
Labels are completely subjective. They can change from
generation to generation, while others remain a societal
constant.
Positive labels are defined as those which the majority of
society finds acceptable. Adherence to these labels reinforces a
sense of contribution to society
Negative labels are those which society has deemed deviant.

Adherence to these labels stigmatizes people, and pushes them
as outcasts to society
Consequences of Negative Labeling
Labeling does not necessarily attach to a criminal act. When a
person commits an isolated crime, but does not identify with the
act ( by socialization, personal accountability or being caught
by society), there is little long-term effect on the individual.
This is called primary deviance, and is considered the bes t hope
for rehabilitation.
Labeling attaches when a person begins to identify themselves
by their actions. This is called secondary deviance. Secondary
deviance is much harder to break, as it involves a stigma.
Those Outside the Norm
People who commit deviant acts but are never socialized, are
certainly criminals. However, because they have never accepted
a label, their criminal behavior is purely for personal gain or
enjoyment.
Some people are falsely accused of a label, when they do not
identify with it. This conflict may cause someone to begin to
identify with the label, or adopt an opposite label, to fight the
identification.

Effects of Labeling
So what happens when a person accepts a negative label? Here
are some of the examples:
Self-Fulfilling Actions
Destruction of the personal identity
Outcast Ceremonies
Retrospective Reading and obliteration of the past
Social Conflict Theory
This theory follows the following principles:
Those in control of the economic power in society control the
laws and law enforcement.
The law is administered in unequal ways to different members
of society, based on their wealth or social class
The rebellious nature of youth is controlled by the government,
and is a natural response to capitalism.
People not willing to conform are reduced to the role of menial
labor in society
Having a suppressed economic class is necessary in a service
based economy, and generates criminals.
The Outcome
While this theory may seem to be an indictment of modern
society, there are two competing political outcomes of this
theory:
1) Social Justice – This approach says the redistribution of

wealth is the best way to reduce social conflict
2) Restorative Justice – This approach does not deal with
wealth. Rather, as a means of reducing conflict, empathy is
proposed between criminal and victim.
Our Focus
We will be analyzing the issue of Restorative Justice.
So how does Restorative Justice work? By creating empathy.
The presumption is that all people are good, and want to do
good in society. By removing conflict between people and
society, crime can be reduced and mitigated.
Restorative Justice also relies on the presumption that every
person is connected to a community of some sort, and those
connections can be used as leverage to prevent crime.
The Models
Restorative Justice can be implemented in many forms. Some
include:
Reintegrative Shaming – Every person in every society has
peers to which they feel responsible. By utilizing those peers
that have a positive influence on individuals, shame can be used
to change behavior. However, shame cannot be permanent.
There must be an avenue for re-integration

More Models
Offender apologies to the community
Making the justice system into a healing process with the
community
Removing labels of “criminal” and “victim”, and instead
resolving conflict between people
Giving people a vested interest in their community
Using community assistance programs
Yet More
Sentencing Circles (Teen Court as an example) – where
sentencing is committed by peers
Victim Impact Panels – where offenders are asked to empathize
with the people they have disaffected.
Community Service – as a method the offender making
restitution for their actions and being reaccepted into the
community.
Back to our Case Study
We will now break into small groups
The object of your group is to formulate an approach to the
crime problem at Sam Houston High School
You are to formulate two proposals, which must address all four
target crimes. One proposal must focus on the concept of
Restorative Justice, and the second must utilize Social Conflict.

Can a balanced approach using both methods work? Which
proposal do you believe would be most effective?
Finally, how does your approach mesh with the delinquency
theory you prefer from last chapter?
Assignment
There is no class next week. The assignments due on D2L and
through the discussion boards have been extended two weeks.
In two weeks, in ADDITION to your regular assignment, your
group is required to present a 5-7 minute presentation on
Restorative Justice and Social Conflict.
All members of the group must participate, and the assignment
will count the same as one week’s worth of scores.
Chapter 6
The Psychological Theories

The second category of delinquency theories are those in the
Psychological category. Before we discuss these theories, we
need to understand what psychological theories are NOT:
A replacement for sociology. Psychology does not deny there
are social factors that influence criminal behavior. Rather, they
claim that psychological issues give people the propensity to
commit crime.
Psychology is not necessary biological. Psychological problems
may arise from genetic factors, but are more often a result of
impacts on life, which create personality disorders.
Psychology does not hold that all problems may be corrected
with behavioral therapy or prescription. Many issues are
ingrained at too early an age to change.
Psychological
IF we know that Psychology is NOT, we also need to understand
what psychology is:
While Sociology focuses on negative factors influencing a
person from the outside, psychology addresses how a person
deals with their problems internally (in their thought process)
Psychology holds that all behavior is quantifiable and
purposeful. The theories are based on specific thinking
disorders.
Psychology is seen as significantly more effective in treating
juveniles than adults, as the rigid thinking patterns of adulthood

have not manifested themselves in the child’s mind.
Psychology
Latent Trait Theory
This theory holds that people are born with certain propensities
that will cause them be more likely to conform or conflict with
the society they are raised in. These dispositions are called
latent traits. Examples include:
- level of intelligence
- impulse control
- artistic ability
- predisposition for chemical dependency
- Anger control and emotional insecurity
The Biological Theories
The key to a latent trait, is that it is not alterable. Meaning, it
is an inherent part of the person. Latent traits are developed
from two specific sources:
Genetics
Characteristics developed during early formative years (0-3
years of age, generally)
Latent traits may are not criminal. Rather, if the traits manifest

behavior that society has identified as deviant, conflict arises.
Latent traits are best dealt with by teaching people coping
mechanisms, to make their traits into productive mechanisms.
Crime is more prevalent in juveniles, as they have more
opportunities to conflict with authority and control
What does latent mean?
The General Theory of Crime
If you remember two weeks ago, we discussed the Social
Control Theory of Crime. This theory held that criminal
behavior could be predicted from a person’s bond and
connection to the four pillars of society.
The General Theory of crime combines the Social Control
Theory with the Latent Theory, to attempt to propose a
combined sociological and psychological theory of crime
Working with Sociology
This theory starts with the premise that some people are raised
with behavioral deficiencies that limit their ability to perform
self control. They are impulsive by nature.
Low self control can be genetic, a result of parenting, or

damage done to the psyche during the formative years.
When a person with these propensities is exposed to a
weakening or disruption of social bonds, and negative or
criminal opportunities are present, the result is deviant
behavior.
General Crime
Analyzing the Theory
Proponents of the Theory
Effective Parenting studies show their effect on the
impulsiveness of a child
Strong social bonds can be shown to overcome impulses
Everyone has impulses. Society determines what is deviant.
Opportunity for crime is influenced by economics.
People in lower economic classes usually live in situations with
poor social bonds.
Criticisms
Self Control is not a constant in a person’s life
People can change
Why do crime rates differ by race, gender, and economics
There is no such thing as moral truth
Not all crimes are the result of impulse
Some delinquents are not impulsive

Life Course Theory
This theory runs counter to the General Crime Theory.
People have three basic traits that contribute to the personality:
social, psychological and economic
A person’s propensity to crime centers around major events in
our growth. These are called “life-course” experiences.
Negative disruptions in life-growth experiences, affecting the
three basic traits of a person, are the primary causes of crime.
An Alternative
So what are the major life-changing milestones in a person’s
life?
The formative years
Initial Peer Exposure
Entering Adolescence
Graduation
Career choice
Marriage (and divorce)
Having Children
Death of immediate friends and family
Major Incidents

Life Course Theory ascribes to the theory of Tabula Rasa.
People are born as a blank slate.
This theory also holds that people can change over the course of
their life, if positive or negative events impact their basic traits,
in one of eight areas listed on the previous slide.
Not everyone has the same life-changing milestones. Some
people may be impacted by different things. However, the key
is that we ALL have life-changing milestones that impact out
basic personality traits.
Not a constant
The key to Life-Course Theory is the concept of Problem
Behavior Syndrome.
Helping to correct delinquent behavior requires therapy, to held
a child (or adult) identify the negative influences situations had
on life-changing incidents, and form a different response.
The earlier the onset of negative life influences, the more
difficult it is to correct the behavior
Gender has no impact on deviance. Society simply places
different expectations on gender.
Problem Behavior

Life Course Theory also attempts to integrate with sociological
theories.
Life Course Theory is also commonly paired with Social
Learning Theory.
Social Learning Theory holds that a person’s behavior is
learned from critical elements in the community.
When combined together, these theories would hold that when a
person experiences a life-changing event, they react to it in a
way that is learned from their peers.
Deviance is learned by repeating negative reactions to life-
events.
Integration
Age Grading and Life Course
Because personality is solely attributed to life-changing events,
personality cannot change without either:
New life-chaining events and a different response
Psycho-Therapy
People who continue in a rut without change, will follow the
same behaviors, until a new event occurs
Because life-events can always occur, people’s personalities are
apt to change many times over the course of their life.
Conclusion

Trajectory Theory
The last theory we analyze is Trajectory Theory
Trajectory Theory holds that there are multiple paths to crime.
All children are different and all children are affected
differently by life changing events.
Social influences can influence a person just as easily as genetic
and formative ones.
All theorists can do is identify the general paths that deviants
take, and respond to them by changing their social influences
and applying proper labeling.
Last Theory
All offenders are first classified as either
Adolescent-limited offenders, or
Life-Course Persistent Offenders
Adolescent-limited offenders are considered “typical kids”,
simply testing the boundaries of society and their life.
Life-Course Offenders are children that have committed
themselves to a type of behavior that runs deeper than simple
deviance. A neurological shift has occurred in these children,
which creates criminal behavior that will extend into adulthood
The definitions

Trajectory Theory holds that there are three neurological
failings that lead children on a path to delinquency. They are:
Authority Conflict – Deviance begins at a young age with
stubborn behavior, which is based on personality defects in
trust, and established with inappropriate anger
Covert Pathway – Deviance is a pathological problem of a
person desiring pleasure without limitation. Children will
attempt to obtain what they want by any means possible, but
also avoiding the negative stigma of being labeled deviant
Overt Pathway – Deviance stems from insecurity. The child
will engage in behaviors to control, berate or subjugate others,
as a way of compensating for a lack of sense of worth
Paths to Crime
As with the other two Psychological Theories, this theory is
also paired with a sociological one.
Labeling Theory is the most common theory paired with
Trajectory.
Combining these two theories demonstrates that deviance begins
with a child being given a negative label.
The negative label causes a child to chose to either confront
authority, avoid the label, or damage the child’s self-esteem by

accepting the label.
Behavior that is not considered to be persistent is not true
deviance, and is not addressed as a major concern.
Analysis
Chapter 4
Social Structure and Process Theories
Social Factors
All Social Delinquency theories are based on the belief that
crime is caused by a person’s interaction with conflicts in
society. What can cause conflict?
Poor relations with school, family and the government
Poor Community conditions
Exposure to Violence
Social Change (divorce, immigration, religion)
Poverty and perceived economic disparity
Racial Inequality
Two Classes
The concept of social conflict has been developed into two

distinct theories of juvenile delinquency. They are:
Social Structure Theories
Delinquency is caused by a person’s place in the
economic structure of society.
Social Process Theories
Delinquency is caused by a person’s interaction with
corrupt or
disturbed members of society
Social Structure
All Social Structure Theories are based on the concept that
modern capitalist society is divided (stratified) based on
economic levels
Crime is most likely to form in the underclasses of society,
where a culture of poverty changes the civic values and ethics
of children, from generation to generation.
As children are more formative and fragile, they are more prone
to the negative effects of poverty.
Racial inequality also fuels the cycle of poverty, as certain
classes in society have less opportunities.
The Three forms of Structure
1) Social Disorganization
Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay first developed the social
disorganization theory. The premise of this theory is that the
breakdown of the sense of community creates social unrest.
The connection of a person to their community is the single
greatest deterrent to criminal behavior.

People are less likely to participate in crime, if there is a social
stigma or shame, to being identified as a criminal against the
community.
Modern Disorganization
Shaw and McKay based their theories on the concept that as a
city expanded, neighborhoods would break down, and the city
as a whole would lose it’s sense of continuity.
As American society has become more mobile and transient,
cities have radically changed. The modern Disorganization
Theory is Social Ecological Theory.
Social Ecology
Social Ecology states that criminal behavior is directly linked to
breakdowns in a community structure. These breakdowns come
from:
Seeing physically abandoned buildings and decay
Poverty
Fear of crime or corrupt law enforcement
Siege Mentality
Loss of a community identity (race, religion, ethnicity)
Loss of social controls (family, peers, mentors, role models)
A Strain on us all
2) Strain Theory
Strain Theory holds that while most people have the same

goals and desires out of life, the feeling of being locked out, or
not having the opportunity to achieve those same goals, is the
impetus for criminal behavior.
While some children will continue to seek to overcome their
limitations, and others will simply accept their place in society,
the delinquent portion of disaffected children will turn to
criminal behavior to achieve what they want.
Three types of Strain Theory
Merton’s Anomie Theory
Robert Merton created this version of Strain Theory. This
theory holds that crime is the result of conflict between the
goals of a person in society, and how society has stated a person
can achieve those goals. Capitalism urges all persons to desire
wealth. Conflict, according to Merton, occurs when a person
does not share the values of society (wealth is not important) or
a person does not accept the approved means of achieving those
goals (murder, robbery, etc).
Merton’s Anomie
Merton argues that crime occurs in places where people have
limited means to achieve the goals of society. Immigrant
groups, ghettos and the like, are full of people who cannot
achieve what society tells them equates to success. As a result,
people are forced to make decisions:
Conform values to society or Rebel (make your own)
Retreat from society or become an Innovator
Join a Ritualistic group, to avoid facing the inequalities of
society (Church, Fraternity, etc).

Last two Strains
Institutional Anomie
This theory is more aimed at the American nature of Social
Strain. It claims that in America, the concept of success (the
American Dream) has become so solidified, that is has replaced
any alternate definitions of success. Thus, any person who
cannot achieve the American Dream of success has the constant
influence to achieve success by any means necessary
Final Strain
General Strain Theory
This theory holds that there are multiple strains placed on
any person at a given time, that can cause criminal behavior in
the right circumstance. Strain can come from:
Failure to achieve goals set by a person or family
Having unrealistic expectations in life that cannot be met
through traditional means
The los or removal of positive stimulus for goals
The introduction to negative stimulus to achieve goals
Last Social Structure Theory
3) Cultural Deviance Theory
This theory focuses on the culture of deviance that develops
in lower class neighborhoods. According to this theory,
disorganized impoverished communities develop their own

unique set of values and beliefs, that put themin conflict with
social norms.
How Deviance Forms
Under cultural deviance theories, people in lower class
neighborhoods are initially set apart form society, due to
middle-class measuring rods. Communities that do not measure
up to middle class standards, are given a stigma of being “lesser
places” to live.
Children in these neighbors suffer from status frustration. Their
lack of opportunities prevents them form achieving what society
tells them is “success”.
The result of this feeling of rejection, is called reaction
formation. People who cannot meet the goals of society, rebel
and make their own.
Last Aspect
One form of deviance theory involves the formation of gangs.
The primary reaction formation of young children who cannot
meet the goals of society, is to form organizations where they
can meet their own definition of success. These are what
sociologists call gangs. Three types of gangs are identified:
Criminal Gangs – Gangs formed to achieve success by violating
law, and rebelling against the rules of society
Conflict Gangs – Gangs created to create a new society, where
the disorganization of society has left them with no peer support
Retreatist Gangs – Groups of people that have failed at
achieving the goals of society or criminal elements. These
groups retreat into organizations on the fringe of society (drugs,

sexual, odd views)
Social Process
Social Process theories hold that a child’s propensity to commit
criminal acts, or conform to society, is largely dependent on
their connection and bond to elements in their lives.
This theory was created in opposition to Social Structure
theories. Proponents of this theory claim that Social Structure
does not explain why so many children in impoverished areas do
not turn to crime, and why so many kids with the means and
opportunity to achieve the goals of society become criminals.
More Process
Social Process identifies four main areas of connection and
bond in society, that influence the delinquency of a child:
The influence of family, and stability of home life
The socialization and acceptance of a child at school
The influence on a child of peers and other adolescents
The presence (or lack there of) of religion and morality in a
child’s life.
There are two models of Social Process Theory. Each model
has different theories in it’s sub-category:
Social Learning Theories
These theories hold that delinquency is generally learned,
when there are poor influences at the any of the four critical
bonds between child and society.

Social Control Theories
These theories hold that anyone can chose to become a
criminal. What prevents criminal behavior are a child’s four
critical bonds. If any of these are weakened, a child has more
temptations to be involved in criminal behavior.
Social Process
Social Learning
Differential Association Theory
This theory holds that all criminal behavior is learned.
Delinquency is generally learned from negative contacts within
the four intimate bonds. The likelihood of criminal behavior is
determined by the strength of the bond, the intimacy of the
relationship where the child is exposed to delinquency, the
extent the child shares the needs and values of the delinquent
peer, and the level of conflict between the delinquent influence
and all other influences.
Neutralization Theory
This theory attempts to explain deviant behavior through the
breakdown in the taking of responsibility in society. Children
are reinforced with a concept of right and wrong, but then given
opportunities to neutralize or justify deviant behavior. The
proponents of this theory paint the blame on adult society, to
which children emulate. They point out the lack of
accountability of adults, creates a double standard of
subterranean values. This can be best summarized as, “Doing
the best you can, and denying responsibility if you cannot.”
Excuses, Excuses

Definition
The techniques of Neutralization are defined as:
Denying responsibility
Denying that what was done was harmful
Rationalizing that the victim deserved it
Rationalizing that the behavior was necessary
Rationalizing that the the behavior could not be helped, because
the offender was a victim of circumstances
Last Area
Social Control
Social Control envisions all people as wild and selfish by
nature. What restrains a person from acting and behaving as
they wish, are their bonds and connections to the four primary
clusters, mentioned earlier in the lecture. When those bonds are
weakened, any person can feel compelled to commit crimes.
The theory focuses on the “social stigma” of crime, and the
shame from one’s peers, and the primary indicator of criminal
behavior.
One Main Area
The Primary Social Control Theory was developed by a man
named Travis Hirschi. Hirschi went back to the four primary
bonds of a child (Family, School, Peers, Religion) and sought to
analyze the strength of those bonds in four main areas:
The child’s level of attachment to the bond

The child’s personal commitment to the bond
The child’s frequency in involvement to the bond
The child’s ability to relate and believe in the values espoused
by that social bond
My Personal Favorite!
Hirschi stated that it is impossible to “predict” criminal
behavior among children. Instead, society should be focusing
on ways to strengthen and integrate the four social bonds in a
child. In this way society can reduce the likelihood of criminal
behavior, rather than predict it.
Of all the theories looked at today, this is the only theory that
looks forward to preventing criminal behavior, rather than
preventing it.
This theory is the most practical for parents, as it seeks to
influence children in the four primary bonds. Parents are taught
to harmonize the frequency, values and integrations of all four
bonds.
Legal issues in JUVENILE JUSTICE:
criminal procedure in
the juvenile courts
part ii and iii
Department of Criminal Justice
Pike’s Peak Community College
Colorado Springs, Colorado

What we’ll cover in these two sections:
Differences in terminology
Review the juvenile court process
Review dispositions for juveniles
Review and understand the history behind the juv. system

Why focus on Juvenile Procedure?
Juvenile Crime increase between 1988 - 2008
the juvenile population has increased
thus, crime will increase
3 million arrested each yr
the crimes are more serious

serious Assault --- up 64%
Poss . of Weapon --- up 50%
Murder --- up 40%
Robbery --- up 50%
The Juvenile Justice Process has several objectives:
Rehabilitation
Help offenders live a productive life
Prevention

Discourage offenders
Discourage others
discourage recidivism
Incapacitation
Separate from Society
Protect the community
In the early history of the U.S.A.
Juveniles appeared in adult court
Were tried in adult court
Received sentences similar to adults
Were ‘adults’ in every way but age!
Yet had no constitutional rights
=====================

TERMINOLOGY differences
ADULT JUVENILE
crime
ARREST
booking
BAIL HEARING
CRIMINAL COMPLAINT
JAIL
TRIAL
SENTENCE
PLEAD GUILTY
Delinquent act
DETENTION
Intake screening
DETENTION HRNG.
Juvenile PETITION
JUV. HALL/SHELTER
ADJUDICATION
DISPOSITION
AGREE TO FINDING

INITIAL STAGES OF THE JUVENILE PROCESS
CRIME OCCURS & is reported
POLICE INVESTIGATE
JUVENILE IS IDENTIFIED/DETAINED
OPTIONS for police:
COUNSEL/RELEASE TO PARENTS
REFER/DIVERT TO COUNSELING
CITE TO INTAKE/RELEASE TO PARENTS
TRANSPORT TO detention center

DECISION MAKING IN JUVENILE LAW
On Initial Contact: POLICE MUST DETERMINE
FOLLOWING FACTORS:
SERIOUSNESS OF OFFENSE
2 WISHES OF COMPLAINANT
3 DEMEANOR OF YOUTH
PAST HISTORY OF YOUTH
IF detained….
1st STEP IS “INTAKE SCREENING”
purpose: determine fitness to release
1st contact: INTAKE OFFICER
OPTIONS:
DETAIN PRIOR TO APPEARance
RELEASE OR REFER TO COMMUNITY RESOURCES (Foster
Home?)
RELEASE TO PARENTS PENDING APPEARANCE IN JUV.

COURT
Factors which may sway the intake officer
The minor's attitude.
minor has family or community support.
if the minor has an attorney. (less likely to dispose of
informally).
The attitude of the parents

IF DETAINED ……
DETENTION HEARING IS HELD
OPTIONS:
RELEASE TO PARENTS
Remain in detention status
RELEASE, re-arrest, AND TRANSFER TO ADULT CRIMINAL
COURT (SERIOUS CRIME)
“Tracking” of Juvenile Offenders
A release ‘option’
for less serious offenders
Juvenile is on ‘house arrest’
Must report all plans and travel
“Tracking Officer” may check @ home anytime
Violation of release = detention

“JUVENILE DIVERSION”
An alternative to prosecution
Typically for 1st time offenders
Refers the minor to counseling or other social services
Applies to about 50% of all cases.
DIVERSION is an option to PROSECUTION
For serious offenders

Incarceration (5-10% of juvenile offenses are for violent
crimes)
Boot camp
Work release programs
Camps and ranches
Wilderness camps
Mental health (Sex offenders)
Drug treatment
The M’Naghten Rule and Juvenile Sex Offenders:
Some juveniles are classified as ‘Mentally Disordered Sex
Offenders”
The legal rule of ‘Diminished Capacity’may apply
Insanity may be a reason for not filing charges
Serious offenders would be confined in institutions

Terms for Juvenile Detention Facilities:
Correct terms include:
Reform School
Training School
Youth authority
Never:
Juvenile prison
Juvenile penitentiary
video: “Caged Kids”

The History, Evolution and current status of juvenile
institutions:
DEVELOPMENT OF JUVENILE COURTS IN THE USA
FIRST COURT IN CHICAGO – 1899
grantedAUTHORITY OVER:
PERSONS UNDER 16
WHO WERE DELINQUENT
or WERE DEPENDAN t (wards of court)
Or WHO WERE NEGLECTED (“ “)
2nd state to begin juv. Courts – colo.

Development in the USA
By 1945, all states had separate juvenile courts
In the 1960’s serious juvenile crime had risen drastically
In 1974, Congress passed the “Delinquency Prevention Act”
Only youths guilty of serious offenses could be committed to
secure facilities
.
The first juvenile courts:
Operated on the principle of ‘Parens Patriae’
Were considered ‘civil’ court
Juveniles were not charged with crimes
Courts could impose controls without ‘proof beyond a
reasonable doubt’

Sentencing focused on treatment
PROVISIONS, RULES AND REQUIREMENTS
COURT OVERSEEN BY SPECIAL JUDGE
HEARINGS IN SEPARATE COURTROOM
SEPARATE RECORDS kept
HEARINGS CLOSED TO PUBLIC

Criteria to be tried as an adult
Crime of violence
Other serious crime(s)
Lengthy record
Waivers of Jurisdiction
The process :
Prosecutor requests a ‘waiver of jurisdiction’
Juvenile petition is dismissed
Juvenile is re-arrested on a criminal complaint
All records are transferred from juvenile to adult court.

Options after a PETITION is FILED in JUVENILE COURT:
disposition agreed to (‘agree to finding’)
ADJUDICATION (TRIAL)
IF ADJUDICATED GUILTY:
DISPOSITIONS AFTER ADJUDICATION
THREE GENERAL CATEGORIES
“NOMINAL”

“CONDITIONAL”
CUSTODIAL
‘NOMINAL DISPOSITION’ Means
WARN AND RELEASE
informal probation
ANOTHER type of REPRIMAND ISSUED
community
service?

CONDITIONAL DISPO.
THE OPTIONS:
RESTITUTION ORDERED
FINE IMPOSED
COMMUNITY SERVICE IMPOSED
COMMUNITY SUPERVISION
SUSPENDED DISPO (A FORM OF INFORMAL COURT
PROBATION)
CUSTODIAL DISPO
OPTIONS
TO A SECURE FACILITY
NON-SECURE FACILITY (such as)
FOSTER HOME
GROUP HOME
CAMP (Job corps)
RANCH

Alternative SCHOOL
The Five Early Detention Options for juvenile offenders:
House of Refuge
“Placing Out”
Reform schools
Cottage Reformatory
Institutional Reformatory

THE ROUTINE OF A HOUSE OF REFUGE IN THE EARLY
1900’S
For the minor offenders
WORK ethic….LEARN A TRADE
MILITARY RULES & DRILLS
RELIGIOUS & ACADEMIC TRAINING
WORK IN SHOPS to learn a useful trade

“PLACING OUT” – Some Non-violent offenders sent to:
FARMS and ranches
TO LEARN “IDEAL” VALUES IN A GOOD ENVIRONMENT
HARDWORK
DISCIPLINE
RELIGIOUS VALUES
REFORM, INDUSTRIAL OR TRADE SCHOOLS
For more serious offenders
DEVELOPED IN THE LATE 1800’S
THREE SEPARATE TYPES
“COTTAGE” REFORMATORIES
INSTITUTIONAL REFORMATORIES
FACILITIES FOR GIRLS

“COTTAGE” REFORMATORY
IN RURAL AREA OUTSIDE BIG CITY
USUALLY 20-40 YOUTHS
SUPERVISION BY “COTTAGE PARENTs”
PURPOSE: OVERSEE EDUCATION, CARE AND TRAINING

INSTITUTIONAL
REFORMATORY
LARGER, custodial FACILITIES
OFTEN IN RURAL AREAS
Higher levels of security/confinement
AWAY FROM “NEGATIVE” CITY INFLUENCES
FREQUENT OVERCROWDING
CLIQUES, GANGS, FIGHTS
PRODUCED “BETTER” CRIMINALS
video: Colo. Boot camp
Slides End: Video “Boot Camp” in Colorado

Teen court: what is it?
a ‘diversion’ option
Or a ‘deferred’ sentence
not used with chronic offenders
a legally binding ‘alternative’ system of justice
young offenders are given an opportunity to make restitution
for their offenses through:
community service
educational classes
and jury service
allows them to avoid fines and sentences
used in minor offenses and misdemeanors
.

Options to incarceration
Probation
Teen Court
Restorative Justice
The last two are ‘diversionary’ dispositions

Options after detention:
Release to parents
Release on ‘Tracking’
Detain in Juvenile Facility
Chapter 10
Schools and Delinquency
American Schools
In 1890 only 7% of children in the US attended school. Today
that number is 90%
Globally, school has become the primary determining factor of
social and economic factors
Schools, especially for children after the age of 12, are the
primary social interaction environment

The medium income for a child who drops out of school in the
US (K-12) - $23,000 That is almost 50% less than a high school
graduate, and 75% less than a college graduate.
More on schools
The US high school graduation rate in 2012 was 75% Despite
increases in funding, the rate has only risen 5% in the past 20
years.
While the US is the wealthiest nation in the world, we rank 24th
in per capita spending on students.
Overall, US students scored 23rd in the world in median skills
testing
While overall scores for US students have improved in the past
ten years, so has the rest of the world! We still lag behind most
industrialized nations in educational scores and spending.
Demographics
Students scoring Proficient at 4th Grade
Caucasian – 42%
Hispanic – 20%
Black – 15%
At the 8th Grade –
Caucasian – 33%
Hispanic – 15%
Black – 11%
Drop Out Rates
Nationwide – 8.5%
Caucasian – 4.9%
Black – 9.4%
Hispanic – 18.8%
Asian – 4.4%
Indian – 17.5%
Mixed Racial – 4.2%

Why drop out?
Wile jobs and expulsion are certainly factors in children
dropping out of school, there are other factors to consider:
Education through graduation is not compulsory in may states
(Colorado it is until 16 years of age)
Nearly 90% of all dropouts come from single parent homes
Nearly 80% of all dropouts come from families living near the
poverty line
The overall effect
Why do we care about high school drop outs? Some interesting
factors:
A high school dropout will cost society, on average, $243,000
to $388,000 in welfare and social program benefits
A high school dropout who is arrested before their 21st
birthday, will cost society $1.3 million to $1.5 million in legal
cost attributed to the criminal justice system.
School failure and delinquency
Children who underachieve in school are considered to be at
greatest risk for delinquency. There are three theories for how
poor performance at school is related to greater rates of
delinquency:
School failure is a direct cause of delinquency, as poor students
associate with other failing individuals in anti-social groups
School failure leads to social and psychological problems,
which in turn lead to anti-social behavior
School failure is not a cause of delinquency, but rather shares
the same underlying causes of delinquency.
Delinquency and education

Regardless of the causes, several correlations have been made
between school failure and delinquency:
Personal and psychological problems in the home follow the
child to the classroom, and are made worse
Children in lower social classes are traditionally the poorest
performers in school
While tracking student may help those with high skill sets, it
creates labels for those who are remedial
Students who feel alienated from the social structure of school,
are most likely to develop delinquent tendencies.
Violence in the schools
While there has been much made in the media about school
violence, the statistics tell a different story:
The overall threat of violence against teachers is very low.
Less than 3% of all teachers will be attacked in their entire
CAREER, while approximately 7% will receive a threat during
their career.
More statistics
As illustrated in the text, actual criminal acts performed on
school grounds have decreased dramatically over the past
twenty years:
Overall crime rates for students away from school is nearly
identical to the number of acts on school grounds
The overall rates of violent crimes have dropped by nearly 70%
Violent crime affects less than 1% of all students at school , and
less than 3% of all students will be a victim of any crime at
school (including thefts)
The real problems
Bullying – Bullying, by it’s definition, is a form of harassment.
It can include teasing, threats of violence, or repeated negative

denouncement. Nearly 64% of all students report being the
victim of bullying in a school year, and nearly 75% report being
victims of cyber-bullying.
School shootings – While close to 10% of all students have
reported bringing a weapon of some type to school, the overall
number of firearms attacks are relatively rare. Where a weapon
is discharged or used at a school the overwhelming percentage
of attacks are NOT mass shootings.
Where violence occurs
Regardless of it’s causes, school place violence does follow
certain characteristics:
Large schools breed violence – 89% of schools with enrollment
over 2,000 students reported crimes of violence, while only 38%
of smaller schools did (in a given year)
Schools in urban areas reported nearly four times as much crime
as rural ones
Schools with poor aesthetics ( pollution, graffiti, need of repair)
reported crime at nearly three times the national rate.
More on violence
Schools in neighborhoods that are socially disorganized also
experience a higher proportion of crime.
Most perpetrators of school violence were once victim
themselves
Students that attack other students on school grounds with a
weapon, almost always transmit their intentions to other
students before the attacks.
Reducing school violence
The overall reduction in school violence has been attributed to
many initiatives:

Creating school security
Zero Tolerance policy on certain behaviors
Employing law enforcement at schools (SRO’s)
Embracing the Broken Windows Theory in regards to facilities
Merging social outreach programs with schools to reach
troubled youth
Privacy Based Initiatives
Schools have also sought to influence the behavior of children
through initiative prevention programs. These programs
generally are divided into the following sections:
Cognitive Awareness and Education
Affective Self-image
Behavior response to peer-pressure
Environmental searches
Therapy through school counselors
Legal Rights in the schools
While this is a social theory class, there are some interesting
cases in regards to student liberties:
Safford v. Redding – Strip searches of students for contraband
can be legal, if circumstances require it. (they did not in this
case)
Board of Education v. Earls – Any student can be subjected to
drug testing and discipline, at any time on school property
More rights
Tinker v. Des Moines - Both active and passive speech may be
regulated on a school campus, if such speech interferes with the
operation of the school.
Off-campus speech may be prohibited if it affects the ability of
other students to learn

Cyber speech made off-campus may be regulated by a school, if
it affects the ability of the school to function and other students
to learn.
Last issues
School Prayer – While a school cannot lead prayers at
mandatory functions or require prayer, it can set aside moments
of silence and reflection for students.
Using the term “God” is not an endorsement of a specific
religion (whether in a pledge or otherwise)
Corporal punishment by teachers or administrators IS legal
under the US Constitution, so long as the school has made this
policy known to parents. This is true even if the parent objects
to corporal punishment. There is concern though, that mentally
challenged students are disproportionately subjected to physical
punishment.
Chapter 11
Drug Usage and Delinquency
Drug Abuse
What this class will NOT cover:
Your personal opinion on adult substance abuse and controlled
substance usage
The technical definition of illicit drugs, alcohol and stimulants
(the book summarizes these on pages 404-408.
The effects of any given drug on youth (the effects are the same
from adults to children)
The obvious need for treatment for abusers. We will focus
instead on delinquency and prevention.

Basic facts about usage
Illegal drug usage (non-marijuana) among youths peaked in
1980 (58% of youth ages 12-18 reported usage in a calendar
year)
Illicit drug usage hit it’s lowest point in 1993 (18% of youth 12-
18 reporting usage)
Between 1993 and 2001, usage rates doubled to 36%
Between 2001 and 2012, rates have remained relatively the
same. There was a brief decrease in usage from 2001-2009, and
a marked increase in the past four years.
Conclusion: Drug usage goes up when there is a Democrat in
the White House…. LOL Just Kidding… sort of.
Yearly Usage Reports for 12-18 year olds (2003-2013)
Substance
Abuse Rate (10 yr rate)
Alcohol
Cigarettes
Class 1 Narcotics
Marijuana
Prescription Drugs
42% (Down 22%)
19% (Down 38%)
13% (Unchanged)
8% (Up 22%)
8% (Up 240%)
More on Statistics
7% of youth report heavy drinking
Heavy drinking is defined as 5 or more alcoholic beverages
consumed on five or more day in a 30 day period.
9% of youth report binge drinking
Binge drinking is defined as 5 or more alcoholic beverages

consumed on one to four days in a 20 day period.
Girls are more likely to abuse illegal prescription medication,
while boys are more likely to abuse narcotics and marijuana.
Drug Abuse and Delinquency
82% of all juveniles who commit a major crime report alcohol
use in the past 30 days.
34% of all juveniles suspended from school report alcohol use
in the past 30 days
92% of all juveniles who commit a major crime report
marijuana use in the past 30 days
51% of all juveniles who are suspended from school report
marijuana use in the past 30 days
48% of all juveniles who have been arrested for a crime, have
sold drugs at least once in their life.
While not a correlation to adult usage, marijuana usage among
juveniles is the single greatest predictor of delinquent behavior.
Effect of Usage
Does usage cause delinquency? As with gang affiliation, there
are three theories:
Drug and Alcohol usage cause delinquency
Delinquency leads to drug and alcohol abuse
Drug / Alcohol abuse and delinquency are caused by the same
underlying factors and social/psychological problems.
Abuse Pathways
While there are no definitive guidelines to predict juvenile
substance abuse, there are some concepts that have universal
acceptance:
Gateway substances such as alcohol and marijuana lead to
greater potential of abuse
Juveniles who deal in illegal substances generally become

victims of their own business
Dealing in drugs as a juvenile is generally not profitable, when
compared to other venues. The access to substances for
personal use is more likely the lure, than pure profit.
Realities of Crime
May juveniles are led to believe that dealing in narcotics is
lucrative. Multiple DEA and University studies into actual
profit from dealing and gang banging are startling:
Average actual hourly income of a juvenile street dealer: Year 1
- $2.50 / Year 4 - $7.10
Average actual hourly income of a member of a major gang:
Year 1 - $5.90 / Year 4 - $11.10
Average actual hourly income of a Gang/Set leader: Year 1 -
$32.50 / Year 4 - $97.20
Theories on Initial Usage
Everyone agrees that a juvenile that is addicted to a substance i s
at high risk for delinquency. The more interesting question is
“WHY” does a child abuse a substance in the first place? There
are SEVEN competing theories as to why juveniles will take
their first hit/drink/get high.
Social Disorganization
This theory works from the theory that substance abuse is a
natural happenstance of neighborhoods and communities where
there are high degrees of disorganization, poverty,
hopelessness and lack of continuity.
Evaluations of this theory have been mixed. While there is
certainly a correlation between poverty and crime, abuse has
been shown across all socio-economic classes.
Studies of communities in disorganization have shown greater
substance abuse, even outside of urban areas. The focus on

many studies has been abuse in rural areas and Indian
Reservations.
Peer Pressure
Peer Pressure is based on the social bond theory
Studies have shown that individuals NOT suffering from mental
illness rarely abuse substances, unless there is a social
influence, and parental influence is week.
Association with drug abusers, will increase an individual’s
likelihood of initial usage
Shared feelings of intimacy among users is seen as a leading
factor in long term usage
Family Factors
We have talked at length about the effect of a criminal parental
influence on a child. What about children exposed to parental
self-medication?
Children learn coping mechanisms from parents, more than any
other influence in their lives.
Children in homes where substances are abused are given the
moral affirmation of usage in coping, regardless of any rules set
forth my the parent.
Poor family life can also lead a child to mental illness.
Children may attempt to use an illicit substance to self-medicate
from family problems as well.
Genetics
Genetics holds that certain types of psychologically dependent
behaviors, as well as predispositions to abuse of certain
substances is genetic in nature.
Traits of children who are likely to develop substance abuse
problems can be observed as young as 6 years of age,
independent of peer influences.

Identical Twins have shown a rate of shared substance abuse
dependence at twice the rate of fraternal twins.
Children of adopted alcoholic parents, adopted by non-alcoholic
parents, show a rate of alcohol addiction at 6 times the national
average.
Problem Behavior Syndrome
This theory seeks to work backwards, looking at common traits
among children that abuse substances. More specifically, the
focus is on pre-abuse behavior.
Youth that decide to use drugs are traditionally maladjusted,
emotionally distressed and have many social problems.
The correlation is that youth who embrace a deviant lifestyle,
assume other deviant behaviors to justify their alienation.
Yes, this is all about the Labeling Theory!
Rational Choice
This theory holds that substance abuse is a rational choice.
Children chose to abuse a substance because the benefit is seen
as outweighing the harm. Why would a person WANT to abuse
a substance?
Social Acceptance
Improve Creativity
Relax
Enjoy the high
Increase Sexual Stimulation (Ecstacy)
How to Combat Youth Abuse
There are many strategies employed to combat drug usage
among youth and adults. You are probably familiar with many
of these:
1) Source Control – This method focuses on eliminating the
individuals trafficing in substances. Local users and pushers

are seen as irrelevant. Removing the supply lines and large
scale distributers is seen as the best way to combat
accessibility.
More Strategies
Border Control – As it reads, this approach works from the
premise that most illegal substances are imported form abroad.
Securing reduces the importation of drugs.
Dealer Targeting – This approach holds that while there will
always be cartels and users, products cannot move without the
“middle-man”. Law enforcement efforts are focused on
discouraging the dealer.
More Strategies
Education – This strategy focuses on informing a youth of the
negative effect of abuse. This theory is a by-product of the
Rational Choice Theory. If a child can be educated to see that
the harm of usage outweighs the perceived benefit, a child will
chose not to use or abuse.
Community Strategies – As the name implies, this theory
focuses on strengthening a child’s social bonds, in order to
combat the lifestyle of use and abuse, on multiple levels.
Two more!
Drug Treatment – This approach holds that children will abuse
substances, and addiction is an inevitability. Proper treatment
after addiction is seen as key to social healing. There is little
empirical data this approach works, as the recidivism rate of
children and adults who abuse is very high. In fact, residential
treatment programs are shown to have almost the same relapse
rate of a person who did not receive treatment and simply quit
on their own!

Last one…
Harm Reduction
This is the multi-prong approach. The focus of this
strategy encompasses:
Education of the harm of usage and community safety programs
(like needle exchange programs)
Usage of lesser controlled narcotics to reduce the effects of
addiction (ie, methadone)
Special diversion programs in the criminal justice system for
offenders (drug court and mandatory treatment programs)
Availability for treatment at little or no cost, for all who wish to
seek help.
Conflict versus Empathy
Chapter 5
Juvenile Delinquency
Case Study in Crime
Sam Houston High School is located in inner-city Houston,
Texas. The school’s demographics are as follows:
68% of Student families receive government economic
assistance
18% of students have been identified as having a gang

affiliation
Four Year Graduation Rate – 18%
56% of students have an immediate family member incarcerated
87% of students live in a single parent household
Racial 22% Caucasian
54% African American
26% Hispanic
2% Other
The Analysis
Sam Houston High School has been plagued by significant
numbers of teen crimes. The school is most concerned with
four specific crimes:
The possession of weapons on campus
The presence of narcotics on campus
Sexual assaults between students
Violent confrontations between students
The Assignment
Looking at these four criminal activities, identify:
What do you believe are the primary sources for these specific
crimes?
What can the school do to prevent each criminal behavior?
What can the local government do to prevent each criminal
behavior?

What can the community do to prevent each criminal behavior?
The Competing Theories
Social Reaction Theory
Social Reaction Theory holds the viewpoint that human
interaction is defined by labels. People strive to either avoid
labels, or embrace them, as part of establishing their identity.
When a person embraces a label, whether it be positive or
negative, they instinctively begin to mold the expectation of the
label.
The Interaction
Social Reaction Theory begins with the identification of
Symbolic Interactions.
For a label to attach, there must be a way this label is
communicated. This communication is the Symbolic
Interaction.
Symbols can be material (such as jewelry or clothing), an
organization, gestures, status symbols, or anything else that
distinguishes someone form another.
What makes a label
Labels are completely subjective. They can change from

generation to generation, while others remain a societal
constant.
Positive labels are defined as those which the majority of
society finds acceptable. Adherence to these labels reinforces a
sense of contribution to society
Negative labels are those which society has deemed deviant.
Adherence to these labels stigmatizes people, and pushes them
as outcasts to society
Consequences of Negative Labeling
Labeling does not necessarily attach to a criminal act. When a
person commits an isolated crime, but does not identify with the
act ( by socialization, personal accountability or being caught
by society), there is little long-term effect on the individual.
This is called primary deviance, and is considered the best hope
for rehabilitation.
Labeling attaches when a person begins to identify themselves
by their actions. This is called secondary deviance. Secondary
deviance is much harder to break, as it involves a stigma.
Those Outside the Norm
People who commit deviant acts but are never socialized, are
certainly criminals. However, because they have never accepted
a label, their criminal behavior is purely for personal gain or
enjoyment.
Some people are falsely accused of a label, when they do not
identify with it. This conflict may cause someone to begin to

identify with the label, or adopt an opposite label, to fight the
identification.
Effects of Labeling
So what happens when a person accepts a negative label? Here
are some of the examples:
Self-Fulfilling Actions
Destruction of the personal identity
Outcast Ceremonies
Retrospective Reading and obliteration of the past
Social Conflict Theory
This theory follows the following principles:
Those in control of the economic power in society control the
laws and law enforcement.
The law is administered in unequal ways to different members
of society, based on their wealth or social class
The rebellious nature of youth is controlled by the government,
and is a natural response to capitalism.
People not willing to conform are reduced to the role of menial
labor in society
Having a suppressed economic class is necessary in a service
based economy, and generates criminals.

The Outcome
While this theory may seem to be an indictment of modern
society, there are two competing political outcomes of this
theory:
1) Social Justice – This approach says the redistribution of
wealth is the best way to reduce social conflict
2) Restorative Justice – This approach does not deal with
wealth. Rather, as a means of reducing conflict, empathy is
proposed between criminal and victim.
Our Focus
We will be analyzing the issue of Restorative Justice.
So how does Restorative Justice work? By creating empathy.
The presumption is that all people are good, and want to do
good in society. By removing conflict between people and
society, crime can be reduced and mitigated.
Restorative Justice also relies on the presumption that every
person is connected to a community of some sort, and those
connections can be used as leverage to prevent crime.
The Models
Restorative Justice can be implemented in many forms. Some
include:
Reintegrative Shaming – Every person in every society has
peers to which they feel responsible. By utilizing those peers
that have a positive influence on individuals, shame can be used
to change behavior. However, shame cannot be permanent.

There must be an avenue for re-integration
More Models
Offender apologies to the community
Making the justice system into a healing process with the
community
Removing labels of “criminal” and “victim”, and instead
resolving conflict between people
Giving people a vested interest in their community
Using community assistance programs
Yet More
Sentencing Circles (Teen Court as an example) – where
sentencing is committed by peers
Victim Impact Panels – where offenders are asked to empathize
with the people they have disaffected.
Community Service – as a method the offender making
restitution for their actions and being reaccepted into the
community.
Back to our Case Study

We will now break into small groups
The object of your group is to formulate an approach to the
crime problem at Sam Houston High School
You are to formulate two proposals, which must address all four
target crimes. One proposal must focus on the concept of
Restorative Justice, and the second must utilize Social Conflict.
Can a balanced approach using both methods work? Which
proposal do you believe would be most effective?
Finally, how does your approach mesh with the delinquency
theory you prefer from last chapter?
Assignment
There is no class next week. The assignments due on D2L and
through the discussion boards have been extended two weeks.
In two weeks, in ADDITION to your regular assignment, your
group is required to present a 5-7 minute presentation on
Restorative Justice and Social Conflict.
All members of the group must participate, and the assignment
will count the same as one week’s worth of scores.
Chapter 6
The Psychological Theories

The second category of delinquency theories are those in the
Psychological category. Before we discuss these theories, w e
need to understand what psychological theories are NOT:
A replacement for sociology. Psychology does not deny there
are social factors that influence criminal behavior. Rather, they
claim that psychological issues give people the propensity to
commit crime.
Psychology is not necessary biological. Psychological problems
may arise from genetic factors, but are more often a result of
impacts on life, which create personality disorders.
Psychology does not hold that all problems may be corrected
with behavioral therapy or prescription. Many issues are
ingrained at too early an age to change.
Psychological
IF we know that Psychology is NOT, we also need to understand
what psychology is:
While Sociology focuses on negative factors influencing a
person from the outside, psychology addresses how a person

deals with their problems internally (in their thought process)
Psychology holds that all behavior is quantifiable and
purposeful. The theories are based on specific thinking
disorders.
Psychology is seen as significantly more effective in treating
juveniles than adults, as the rigid thinking patterns of adulthood
have not manifested themselves in the child’s mind.
Psychology
Latent Trait Theory
This theory holds that people are born with certain propensities
that will cause them be more likely to conform or conflict with
the society they are raised in. These dispositions are called
latent traits. Examples include:
- level of intelligence
- impulse control
- artistic ability
- predisposition for chemical dependency
- Anger control and emotional insecurity
The Biological Theories
The key to a latent trait, is that it is not alterable. Meaning, it

is an inherent part of the person. Latent traits are developed
from two specific sources:
Genetics
Characteristics developed during early formative years (0-3
years of age, generally)
Latent traits may are not criminal. Rather, if the traits manifest
behavior that society has identified as deviant, conflict arises.
Latent traits are best dealt with by teaching people coping
mechanisms, to make their traits into productive mechanisms.
Crime is more prevalent in juveniles, as they have more
opportunities to conflict with authority and control
What does latent mean?
The General Theory of Crime
If you remember two weeks ago, we discussed the Social
Control Theory of Crime. This theory held that criminal
behavior could be predicted from a person’s bond and
connection to the four pillars of society.
The General Theory of crime combines the Social Control
Theory with the Latent Theory, to attempt to propose a
combined sociological and psychological theory of crime
Working with Sociology

This theory starts with the premise that some people are raised
with behavioral deficiencies that limit their ability to perform
self control. They are impulsive by nature.
Low self control can be genetic, a result of parenting, or
damage done to the psyche during the formative years.
When a person with these propensities is exposed to a
weakening or disruption of social bonds, and negative or
criminal opportunities are present, the result is deviant
behavior.
General Crime
Analyzing the Theory
Proponents of the Theory
Effective Parenting studies show their effect on the
impulsiveness of a child
Strong social bonds can be shown to overcome impulses
Everyone has impulses. Society determines what is deviant.
Opportunity for crime is influenced by economics.
People in lower economic classes usually live in situations with
poor social bonds.
Criticisms
Self Control is not a constant in a person’s life
People can change
Why do crime rates differ by race, gender, and economics
There is no such thing as moral truth
Not all crimes are the result of impulse
Some delinquents are not impulsive

Life Course Theory
This theory runs counter to the General Crime Theory.
People have three basic traits that contribute to the personality:
social, psychological and economic
A person’s propensity to crime centers around major events in
our growth. These are called “life-course” experiences.
Negative disruptions in life-growth experiences, affecting the
three basic traits of a person, are the primary causes of crime.
An Alternative
So what are the major life-changing milestones in a person’s
life?
The formative years
Initial Peer Exposure
Entering Adolescence
Graduation
Career choice
Marriage (and divorce)
Having Children
Death of immediate friends and family

Major Incidents
Life Course Theory ascribes to the theory of Tabula Rasa.
People are born as a blank slate.
This theory also holds that people can change over the course of
their life, if positive or negative events impact their basic traits,
in one of eight areas listed on the previous slide.
Not everyone has the same life-changing milestones. Some
people may be impacted by different things. However, the key
is that we ALL have life-changing milestones that impact out
basic personality traits.
Not a constant
The key to Life-Course Theory is the concept of Problem
Behavior Syndrome.
Helping to correct delinquent behavior requires therapy, to held
a child (or adult) identify the negative influences situations had
on life-changing incidents, and form a different response.
The earlier the onset of negative life influences, the more
difficult it is to correct the behavior
Gender has no impact on deviance. Society simply places
different expectations on gender.

Problem Behavior
Life Course Theory also attempts to integrate with sociological
theories.
Life Course Theory is also commonly paired with Social
Learning Theory.
Social Learning Theory holds that a person’s behavior is
learned from critical elements in the community.
When combined together, these theories would hold that when a
person experiences a life-changing event, they react to it in a
way that is learned from their peers.
Deviance is learned by repeating negative reactions to life-
events.
Integration
Age Grading and Life Course
Because personality is solely attributed to life-changing events,
personality cannot change without either:
New life-chaining events and a different response
Psycho-Therapy
People who continue in a rut without change, will follow the
same behaviors, until a new event occurs

Because life-events can always occur, people’s personalities are
apt to change many times over the course of their life.
Conclusion
Trajectory Theory
The last theory we analyze is Trajectory Theory
Trajectory Theory holds that there are multiple paths to crime.
All children are different and all children are affected
differently by life changing events.
Social influences can influence a person just as easily as genetic
and formative ones.
All theorists can do is identify the general paths that deviants
take, and respond to them by changing their social influences
and applying proper labeling.
Last Theory
All offenders are first classified as either
Adolescent-limited offenders, or
Life-Course Persistent Offenders
Adolescent-limited offenders are considered “typical kids”,
simply testing the boundaries of society and their life.

Life-Course Offenders are children that have committed
themselves to a type of behavior that runs deeper than simple
deviance. A neurological shift has occurred in these children,
which creates criminal behavior that will extend into adulthood
The definitions
Trajectory Theory holds that there are three neurological
failings that lead children on a path to delinquency. They are:
Authority Conflict – Deviance begins at a young age with
stubborn behavior, which is based on personality defects in
trust, and established with inappropriate anger
Covert Pathway – Deviance is a pathological problem of a
person desiring pleasure without limitation. Children will
attempt to obtain what they want by any means possible, but
also avoiding the negative stigma of being labeled deviant
Overt Pathway – Deviance stems from insecurity. The child
will engage in behaviors to control, berate or subjugate others,
as a way of compensating for a lack of sense of worth
Paths to Crime
As with the other two Psychological Theories, this theory is
also paired with a sociological one.

Labeling Theory is the most common theory paired with
Trajectory.
Combining these two theories demonstrates that deviance begins
with a child being given a negative label.
The negative label causes a child to chose to either confront
authority, avoid the label, or damage the child’s self-esteem by
accepting the label.
Behavior that is not considered to be persistent is not true
deviance, and is not addressed as a major concern.
Analysis
Chapter 8
Delinquency and the Family

Basic Facts
26% of all children live in a single parent household
25% of all children born today are to single teen parents
By 2020, it is estimated that 38% of all children will live in
single parent homes
85% Female, 15% Male
While this number is down, the divorce rate is now over 50%
The percentage of single parent kids in 1960 – 4%, 1980 – 14%,
2000 – 20%
The family Concept
From 1880 to 1990, a family was identified by it’s “extended”
nature. Even in 1980, nearly 96% of all single parent families
involved child rearing responsibilities of a non-parental family
figure
After 1990, the extended family gave way to the “nuclear
family” concept. For the first time in American history, the
majority of single parent families involved a single parent
raising children without the assistance of non-parental family
figure.
As of 2012, only 3% of single parent households utilize non-
parental family figures in child rearing.
More Facts

As of 2012, 60% of all U.S. children are enrolled in pre-K
licensed child care facilities.
20% of all U.S. children are enrolled in “underground”
unlicensed child care facilities involving a non-parent
15% of all children live in households that earn below the U.S.
poverty line
63% of all children, living with a single mother, are in poverty.
73% of all single mothers work, though 87% earn minimum
wage
While children in single parent homes make up just over one
quarter of the population, they commit over 75% of all juvenile
crime.
Five Family Influences
Generally, social-psychologists have identified five area of
family conflict that directly influence the mental health of
children:
1) Economic Stress
As discussed on earlier sociology theories, there has long
been a correlation between economic hardship and crime.
Children that live in poverty, as shown to have a much greater
chance of being delinquent. Considering the high level of
poverty in single parent households, crime can be seen to
correlate to the functioning family structure.

More influences
The breakup of the family
Divorce (or separation in the case of no marriage) has long
been seen as a precursor of delinquent behavior. Studies have
generally concluded that:
Secure marriages produce the lowest percentage of juvenile
crime, followed by blended families, and finally single parent
families.
Divorce causes feelings of anger insecurity in children. How
children react to this depends on the financial health of the
single parent, the age of the children at separation, and the
security of the home after divorce.
More on Divorce
Most studies on divorce deal with the impact of a child not
having a father present in their life.
Boys are shown to be most affected by the absence of a father in
their lives, especially in the areas of discipline.
Girls are more negatively affected by negative parenting skills
of a mother. Girls tend to be more accepting of the limitations
of parenting skills of a father.
Cultural acceptance of divorce can affect a child in their
attempts as re-socialization
Children are more affected by negative parenting and marital
skills of a parent, than by their absence. The concept of
“staying married for the benefit of the children” has largely
been debunked.

More categories
Family Conflict
A child’s perception of the overall happiness and
satisfaction of a parent has been found to be a major precursor
of delinquency. Children who grow up in a household where
there is perceived conflict and unhappiness in children, has
been shown to directly lead to maladjustment.
Children who witness continual conflict between involving
their parents, have the greatest rates of emotional and
maturation problems.
Statistics on Conflict
The rate of delinquency of children who are victims of abuse, is
IDENTICAL to those who witness abuse
Children in broken homes have delinquency rates IDENTICAL
to those who are in married high conflict homes
Children growing up in single parent homes marked by the
death of a parent, have no greater rates of delinquency than
married households. Parental absence is NOT a predictor of
delinquency.
More Statistics
Remarriage does not lessen the effects of divorce on children,
who witness marital conflict

Continued contact on a non-custodial parent who was seen as a
source of conflict, has little effect on a child’s well -being
Continued conflict between parents after a divorce, has the
same negative effect on children as conflict in a married home.
Parental divorce raises the likelihood of teenage marriage. This
is seen as a child’s response to the insecurity of the home.
Competence
Family Competence
Family Competence refers parenting skill. It is clear that
some parents are more effective, engaged, and educated in their
approach to raising children. The overall ability of a parent to
competently raise their child is seen as the MOST important
factor in a child’s development.
So what makes for good parenting? Obviously, there are
many competing view here.
Good Parenting
Documented standards for effective parenting include the
following:
Parental Efficacy – Studies have shown that delinquency rates
are reduced in households that provide:
Structure
Close emotional relationships
Emotional support
Encouragement of self-regulation (versus fear)

Encouragement of Individualism
More Good Parenting
Inconsistent Discipline
Consistent studies have shown that the use of corporal
punishment does not deter delinquency. The fear of physical
punishment is not a deterrent to a child’s criminal behavior
The vast majority of juvenile delinquents come form homes
with inconsistent discipline responses to behavioral delinquency
More Parenting Skills
Inconsistent and Ineffective Supervision
Supervision by non-familial and inconsistent environments
Resource dilution (parental distractions)
To emphasize the importance of the aspect of parenting skills,
several studies have shown that strong parenting skills can
reduce the rate of delinquency of blended family single family
households, to the level of children in two parent homes.

Last One
Family Deviance
Criminal activities by parents are viewed as the most
significant precursor of deviant activities by children. Chi ldren
that witness criminal activity by a parent are likely to repeat
this behavior themselves.
8% of boys with a non-criminal father will go on to commit a
juvenile crime
37% of boys with a criminal father will go on to commit a
juvenile crime
Repeating criminal behavior of a parent can be witnessed in
nearly every type of criminal behavior, including domestic
violence, substance abuse and theft.
Why is Crime Generational
Many theories exist as to why criminal delinquency is a
generational issue. Some crime specific issues are:
Inherited Genetic Factors
Exposure to Violence begets more violence
Substance Abuse is a learned behavior and reaction
Criminal parents are lacking in parenting skills, due to their
focus on their own vices
Children who are sexually abused learn have their own sexuality
altered, making them deviants themselves.
Crime can also be passed on from Parent, to child, to sibling.
Children learn behavior from siblings, as much as they do from
parents.

Child Abuse
The lecture on child abuse is included in the online portion of
the class.
This week the online portion will focus on sexual abuse, and
next week on physical abuse
While there is NO question that child abuse severely damages
the psychology of a child, it is not really a theory as to
delinquency. Children in these circumstances are victims, and
victims of any crime may have emotional issues dealing with
victimization.
There are other classes in the CRJ program that specifically
deal with victimization. I also believe that victimization can be
included in the subcategories of Family Deviance and Family
Competence
Class Project
Looking at the five factors influencing an effective family, rank
them in the order in which you think delinquency rates are
adversely affected
Focusing on your main familial delinquency influence, list three
government sponsored initiatives that you believe could be used
to combat this issue. Be specific.
Using a unified theory of crime discussed in the last chapter,
which of the three approaches (General Theory (Social Bond
and Influences), Psychotherapy, or Labeling Theory) do you
believe would be most effective, when used in conjunction with
your initiatives?

Deviant Social Associations
(GANGS)
Chapter 9
What is a Gang?
While oft romanticized by Hollywood, a gang is not:
- A car club
- A fraternity
- A social organization

- A group of people with similar interests
A gang, by definition, is a criminal organization
That means the primary purpose of the association
is the perpetration of criminal activity
Facts about American Youth Gangs
American youth gangs, like much organized crime in the world,
are primarily based on ethnicity
There are approximately 40 million children in the US between
the ages of 8 and 18
There are approximately 800,000 children in the US affiliated
with an active gang set
That means that 5% (one in 20) children in the US have an
active gang affiliation
Juvenile gangs commit more than 1,000 homicides a year. That
is approximately 10% of all homicides in the US each

Why do we care?
While juvenile gang members make up only .6% of the US
population, they commit:
10% of all homicides
22% of all assaults
18% of all property crimes
Have a high school matriculation rate of 4%
Make up 64% of the adult prison population, after they reach
the age of 18.
Why gangs form
Regardless of a child’s ethnic or social-economic background,
studies on youth of all ages have concluded the following:
- From the age of 0-8, the most important influence on a child
is their parent or guardian
- Between the ages of 8-14, children seek a stable peer group,
which temporarily becomes their primary influence
- Between the ages of 14 and 18, children revert are drawn to a
combination of peer and parental influences.

Peer Status
How a child fits into their peer structure between 8 and 14 years
of age, has a marked impact on potential criminal gang activity
Children with negative peer influences are likely to have
delinquent tendencies
Controversial Status Youth is a term used to refer to children
that are intensely liked or disliked by society and a group.
They are far more likely to be a source of anti-social and
deviant behavior.
Some ideas about gang activity
Is there a blueprint for a person who will join a gang?
Unfortunately, no. However, we DO know some common traits
of gang members:
- Gang members were exposed to negative peer influence at a
young age
- Gang members traditionally are the product of single parent
households
- Male gang members traditionally enter puberty at a much
young age than non-gang members

- Gang members have very conflicted relationships with
romantic interests
Basic Theories
Do kids that are anti-social gravitate towards gangs? OR, do
anti-social peers create gang members? There are five
competing theories:
Alienation – Anti-social children seek out like-minded
individuals to affiliate with
Peer Influence – Delinquent negative influences cause law-
abiding youth to join gangs
Deviant peers do not cause kids to go bad, but amplify children
already with this disposition
Conspirators – Children from households with poor social bonds
seek gangs for recognition
Outsiders – Children with emotional or behavioral problems at a
young age, manifest into further negative labels.

Some common traits of a gang
So what makes a gang? Well, there are some basic traits that
are common to gangs:
1) They have their own language
2) They have a hierarchy of leadership
3) They perpetuate a means of financial gain
through an underground economy
4) They have specific rites, symbols, and codes of
conduct
5) They are based on racial divisions
6) They are geographic in center, though many times
global in reach.
7) They primarily are based in urban areas, male, and center
on
youth participation between the ages of 9 and 17
8) They are gender based, and frequently exploit women
Once in a gang…
Once a child joins a gang, there is a documented and marked
increase in the violence of the child. There are three theories as
to why violence goes up when membership takes place:
1) Selection Hypothesis – Violent children gravitate towards
other violent children, who reinforce their behavior
2) Facilitation Hypothesis - Violence increases because there

exists a structured support for violence by peers
3) Enhancement Hypothesis – Selection and facilitation work
together, to develop criminal skills
The Theories
As expected, there are several competing social and
psychological theories as to why juveniles join gangs. These
are theories we have previously discussed.
Anthropology
This view holds that gang memberships is akin to a tribal
process of learned rituals and behaviors. It is both a rite of
passage, and a means of socialization.
Supporting this theory is the fact that nearly 70% of all
gang members are the product of one or more parents who are
gang members.
Also supporting this theory is the fact that gang activity
does not just appear in new areas, but is brought in by existing
members.

More theories
Social Disorganization
The sociological approach to gang membership is rooted in
the premise that gangs traditionally form in areas of lower class
economic neighborhoods.
Gang membership is seen as a means of achieving status,
where traditional means of success are denied to some children
due to their economic and educational limitations.
Gangs are seen as a natural factor in lower-class lifestyle.
Studies point to the presence of gangs in nearly every ethnic
class of society, where poverty has traditionally existed.
More…
Anomie Theory
This view holds that gang membership is both culturally
and individually based.
On the cultural level, societies that are in a state of chaos
or upheaval are more likely to produce gangs
On the individual level, gangs appeal to juveniles that are
alienated from mainstream society, and embrace the upheaval as
a means of social advancement.

Almost there
Psychological View
This theory is based on the viewpoint that children who
develop personality defects and emotional limitations early in
life (or are born with them) are predisposed to gang
membership.
Studies have shown that children who embrace these labels
of alienation early in life, are more likely to look for self-
esteem in factors outside of themselves
Gang membership is a natural product of the by-product of
dysfunctional families, emotional scarring, and other
developmental issues that are temporarily “fixed” in a group
setting.
Last one
Rational Choice View
This view holds that a gang is merely an organization with

benefits and hindrances
Children join gangs rationally, because it suits a need for
them in life. Gang membership is a means to an end, and not as
complicated as the social psychological theories. Some of those
needs may include:
1) Access to financial gain
2) Access to narcotics
3) An ability to commit justified violence
4) A calculated need for security
So we have a problem
While the problems of gangs are widespread, the approach to
dealing with them is far from unified. There are several
approaches:
The heavy-handed legal approach
This method utilizes law enforcement and laws as a means
to dissuade gang membership. Some methods include:
- Prohibiting the use of gang graffiti or symbols
- Forbidding gang affiliation or association
- Severe fines and punishment for affiliation

More interventions
The Facilitation Approach
This method seeks to use law enforcement as a tool in
dealing with gangs. Police are tasked with developing a street
level intelligence gathering mechanism to understand gang
involvement
Once intelligence is gathered, police use the data to solve
crimes, dissuade membership, prevent inter-gang violence, and
assist community resources
The premise of this approach is that gangs cannot be
prevented, but managed.
Last one
Spergel Method
This method is the most widely used and adopted method
in the US for dealing with gangs. It empl0ys a 5 pronged
approach:
Strengthen community bonds through mobilization
Provide opportunity for gang members who wish to leave the
organization
Use social workers to attempt to reach potential youth offenders

and direct them elsewhere
Surpress gang membership through negative labeling and harsh
criminal penalties
Identification and dismemberment of the organization structure
of gangs. Very much akin to the way the global war on terror is
being waged.
Evaluation
So which theory is correct? It is unclear. We do have some
data from the application of these approaches:
When punishment is dramatically increased, there is evidence of
an increase in gang cohesion
Hollywood and media endorsements of gang membership do
increase membership (movies and music are the prime
examples)
Police acting as the an intelligence gathering body does develop
tremendously useful data on the statistics of gang membership
Police acting as a mediator between gangs and the community
has not been shown to decrease criminal gang activity in any
meaningful way.

Delinquency Prevention
Chapter 12
Crime Prevention Versus Control
While there is no “right” answer to solving the problem of
crime, there are two competing models for combating it:
Prevention and Control
Crime Prevention seeks to correct the underlying sources of
criminal behavior, before they manifest themselves into an
actual crime
Crime Control seeks to dissuade crime by punishing and
reforming those who have already broken the law.
There is no right or wrong approach at play here. Clearly, as a
society, we need both. However, society does not have
unlimited resources. Decisions must be made in how to allocate
resources in each program area.
Evolution of the systems
In the United states, we have adopted a two pronged approach in
combating crime, in light of the control versus prevention
dichotomy.
The Juvenile Justice System is primarily formulated as a Crime

Prevention System. Programs are made to correct the deviance
of juveniles before they manifest themselves into adult crime.
Social Service programs are aimed at channeling resources to
the identification and prevention of potential criminal conduct.
Juveniles that commit acts that are deemed to be of adult
mentality, are tried as adults. They are deemed to be beyond
the point for effective crime prevention.
The entire adult criminal justice system is formulated on the
concept of Crime Prevention. Constitutionally, you cannot take
preemptive actions against an adult to prevent crime.
Examples
Crime Prevention
Home Visitations
Preschool
Child Skills Training
Mentoring
After-school Activities
Job Training
Crime Control
Anti-Gang Police Units
Boot Camps
Wilderness Programs
Probation
Electronic Monitoring
Confinement
Why Prevention?
The obvious answer to this question, is that it is easier to fix a
person BEFORE they have become a criminal.

Juveniles, as still in the formative stages of their lives, are
particularly easier to change in regards to their behavior, as
compared to adults. Of course, that change can be for the better
or worse, depending on the influences.
The main reason that prevention is necessary, has to do with the
goal of society to reduce harm to victims.
The estimated cost of Juvenile Crime, in regards to property
loses, lost wages, pain suffering, etc., is approximately 158
Billion dollars a year in the U.S.
The cost is particularly higher for juvenile offenders, because
their victims tend to also be juveniles, and that they commit
crime at a much higher rate than the rest of society.
These numbers do NOT include the estimated 70 Billion dollars
society spends incarcerating and processing the offenders
themselves.
The societal response
Just as there are many competing theories on the causes of
crime, there are differing approaches to the most effective way
to prevent crime. The two primary models used in the U.S. are:
The Public Health Approach
This model separates prevention activities into three
categories: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Prevention.
Primary Prevention focuses on improving the well-being of a
child through counseling and education of children and parents.
Secondary Prevention focuses on intervention techniques w ith
children who are at risk for becoming offenders.
Tertiary Prevention focuses on reducing recidivism through
treatment and confinement.

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