1. OVERVIEW
Learner differences (IDs)
• Learning styles
o Allport (1937) - Cognitive style
• Learning strategies
o L2 research
o Various models
• Pedagogy
• Affective variables
o Motivation
o Expectancy
o Self-efficacy
o Anxiety
• Conclusion
o 21st century

2. LEARNING STYLES AND
STRATEGIES
DEREK YIU, ELIZ TCHAKARIAN, TONY
KAZANJIAN
2/24/2011
LING 8630: SLA
PROFESSOR HEEKYEONG LEE

3. (BRIEF) HISTORY OF LEARNING STYLES
• Cognitive style research
o 1920s - 1930s
 Perceptual speed & flexibility
o 1940s
 Field Independence - Field
Dependence (FI-FD)
o 1950s - 1970s
 Thelen (1954) - Learning style
 Thomas & Chess (1977)
Temperament theory

4. CONT.
o 1980s - today (Personality
variables)
 McCarthy (1980)
 4-MAT
 Schmeck (1988)
 Leveling-sharpening
 Impulsivity-reflectivity
 Myers et al. (1998)
 Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI)
 Busato et al. (1999)
 Five Factor Personality
Model
 Gardner (1983, 2000)
 Multiple Intelligences
Model

5. LEARNING STRATEGIES
• Neither good nor bad
• Useful under certain conditions
o Relevance to L2 task
o Student's learning style
preference
o Effectively linking and making
connections
• Biggs (1992), Schmeck (1988)
o Purpose of learning
 Surface
 Achieving
 Deep

6. ISSUES IN L2 LEARNING STRATEGIES
RESEARCH
1. Identification of language learning strategies.
• Identified through self-report.
• How?
o Retrospective interviews
o Stimulated recall interviews
o Questionnaires (2 types)
o Diaries and Journals
o Think - aloud and individual interview.

7. ISSUES IN L2 LEARNING STRATEGIES
RESEARCH
2. Other variables must be considered:
• Gender
• L2 proficiency
3. Influence of cultural context:
• Individualist cultures vs collectivist culture
4. Explicit and integrated strategy instruction:
• Researchers agree strategies should be explicitly taught.
• Central argument: should strategies be taught
separately or integrated into the curriculum?
Pro to integrated: Allows learners to work with
authentic tasks.
Con: What do you think?

8. ISSUES IN L2 LEARNING STRATEGIES
RESEARCH
5. Language of instruction
• L1 vs L2
• Most research shows that L1 support is needed especially at
the beginners level
6. Transfer of strategies to new tasks
• Transfer of strategies to new tasks proved to be hard
in L1.
• Harris (2004): study on strategy transfer
taught in L1 to L2 learning. The higher
achieving students showed a higher rate of
transference.

9. LEARNING STYLES VS. LEARNING
STRATEGIES
• Styles are general approaches
o visual/kinesthetic/auditory
o abstract-intuitive/concrete-sequential
o synthesizer
o global/particular
o extrovert/introvert
• Strategies are specific behaviors and how we use them (i.e.
cognitive, metacognitive, affective, social)
o cognitive
o metacognitive
o affective
o social
 used in retrieving language info, rehearsing target
structures, compensating for communication gaps

10. STYLES...MEET STRATEGIES
• Ehrman and Oxford (1990) study, using SILL and MBTI,
determined which styles apply which strategies.
o extroverts -> social strategies
o concrete - sequential -> memory strategies
o abstract - intuitive -> comprehension strategies
o thinkers -> metacognitive strategies
o feelers -> social strategies
o open learners -> affective strategies
• Study by Rossi-Le (1995)
o Tactile and kinesthetic learning styles preferred
socializing and interacting in conversation with native
speakers

11. INTERACTION OF STYLES, STRATEGIES,
AND TASKS
• Task - meaningful activity designed to elicit specific
grammatical forms which has a goal to work toward.
o Primarily based in real-world, evaluated by success of the
outcome
• Learners will deal with tasks consistent with their individual
styles and strategies
o Many factors (age, proficiency, aptitude, motivation etc.)
can influence which strategies a learner applies to the task
o No single strategy can work for everyone

12. LEARNING STYLES AND RECEPTIVE
STRATEGIES
• Gallin (1999) study on the relationship of reading strategies
and learning style
o Visual learning styles tend to use more strategies overall
o Concluded that abstract-intuitive and concrete-sequential
styles are most likely to affect reading, in terms of
inferencing skill
• Similar study on learning styles and listening strategies
concluded that:
o Synthetic learners liked summarizing, planning and social
strategies
o Open and kinesthetic learners preferred social strategies
o Introverts did not like summarizing strategies
o Concrete-sequential learners used less resources
o Abstract-intuitive used more monitoring strategies

13. GENERAL IDEA, INFERENCING, AND
SUMMARIZING
• To get the general idea in a reading task, concrete-sequential
learners will sense the organization of a text first, while
abstract-intuitive will skip around, looking for key words.
• Abstract-intuitive learners rely more on their own schemata
to infer, whereas concrete-sequential learners focus more on
clues in the text.
• Synthetic and global learners were better at summarizing
• Introverted learners may want to listen or read over and
over to fully understand new vocabulary
• Extroverted learners prefer to engage instructor or peers in
the topic to understand the form, meaning, and use of
certain vocabulary

14. PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
1. Teachers must know their students and what strategies the
students are already using.
2. Students have the potential to become better language
learners if they are aware of the different types of
learning strategies.

15. MODELS OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGY
INSTRUCTION
There are many different models, but all agree:
1. Making students aware of the value of using different
learning strategies facilitated through demonstrations.
2. Practice is essential and students may use strategies
autonomously.
3. Students should evaluate how well different certain
strategies worked for them.
Current Models:
SSBI (Cohen, 1998); CALLA (Chamor, 2005;
chamot et al., 1999); and Grenfell & Harris (1999).
All three models are grounded in developing
student awareness and encouraging the adoption
of different strategies that may help them improve.

16. AFFECTIVE VARIABLES - MOTIVATION
• Gardner & Lambert (1959)
o Socio-Educational Model of Language Learning
 Integrative
 Instrumental

17. MOTIVATION CONT.
• Deci & Ryan (1985)
o Intrinsic motivation
o Extrinsic motivation
• Combination of both
o Continuum
• Context
o Types of instruction
• People
o Teachers, parents,
administrators
• Environment
o Classroom, local
community

18. EXPECTANCY MODEL
• Bandura (1993); Schunk (1991); Weiner (1986)
o Self perception of abilities to be successful

19. ATTRIBUTION THEORY
• Weiner (1986)
o Choice vs. fate

20. SELF-EFFICACY
• Bandura (1997)
o Believing in one's capability to take action
 Effort

21. CRITICISM
• Too broad
• Too simplistic
• Too ambiguous
• Other variables
o Anxiety
o Defense mechanisms
o Internal attitudes
o Self-esteem
o Activation
o Beliefs
o Affective filter

22. CONCLUSION
• Universality vs. Individuality
o Students
o Teachers
• Learning styles, learning
strategies, and affective factors
are inseparable
• Future directions
o Expansion of previous models
o Multiple methodologies