1. University of Houston-Clear Lake
Fabrication Shop
Ergonomics
INDH 4231 - Ergonomics, Human Factors, and Workplace Design
William Bell, Teresa Long, and Dustin Triplett
12/5/2012

2. Table of Contents
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ 2
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................. 3
Ergonomics of Awkward Body Positioning and Injury Statistics for Fabrication Shops..... ............. 4
Mitigation Measures to Prevent Awkward Body Positioning Injuries............................... ..................9
Cost-Benefit Analysis for Implementing Engineering Controls in Fabrication Shops .................... 11
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................. 16
Work Cited. ........................................................................................................................................17
List of Figures
Figure 1 - Description of Neutral Posture for Various Body Joints........................................................5
Figure 2 - Chart of Various Awkward Body Positions.............................................................................6
Figure 3 - OSHA Hierarchy of Controls...................................................................................................10
Figure 4 - Table of Cost-Benefit Analysis of Engineering Controls for Fabrication Shop
Operations.......................................................................................................................15
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3. ABSTRACT
Fabrication Shop Ergonomics
Fabrication shop workers have numerous dangerous hazards to deal with every day. The most
obvious fabrication shop hazard risks are fire, burns, lacerations, combustible materials, working
at heights, inhalation exposures, and burns to the retina of the eye. These are the hazards that get
the most attention from management, supervision, and the employees actually doing the work.
When making a visit to a fabrication shop, these hazards are very evident, but upon closer
observation, there are just as many, if not more, ergonomic hazards as those which seem more
obvious. Workers often assume awkward and uncomfortable positions to do things like grinding
or cutting, gouging, and welding. Welders commonly complain of back and neck pain from
standing slumped over a pipe or another piece of material for as long as twelve to sixteen hours a
day. Grinding a piece of material might require kneeling for an entire day. These activities
being performed in awkward positions are continuously repeated over time, often leading to
serious worker injuries. Worker body positions can also cause potential harm from the other
hazards present in fabrication shops because the human body can't react fast enough to prevent
an incident or injury when the reflexes are needed to react. The awkward body positioning
requires the worker to return to normal posture or stature first, and then react to the new hazard,
slowing the reaction time. Ergonomically correct body positioning can significantly decrease
cumulative trauma disorder (CTD) aches and pain effects, prevent injuries from other fabrication
shop hazards, and prevent debilitating and often disabling musculoskeletal disorders (MSD)
workplace injuries. Achieving an ergonomically correct body position can be accomplished with
several different measures. Some of the mitigations can be as simple as giving a welder a chair
or stool to use, but others require capital investment in expensive engineering controls ranging in
cost expenditures of $200,000 to over $1,000,000. This study will examine the ergonomics of
awkward body positioning and injury statistics associated with fabrication shops, identification
of some mitigation measures to prevent future injuries, provide a cost-benefit analysis of those
mitigation measures, and enable management and supervisory readers to conclude that
implementing an ergonomics program at their fabrication shop or company can actually provide
tremendous benefits and provide a huge cost savings.
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4. Introduction
"Musculoskeletal disorders account for 70 million doctor’s visits and approximately 130
million visits to outpatient facilities, hospitals, and emergency rooms in the United States
annually. Direct costs attributed to musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) total $50 Billion
annually"1. A musculoskeletal disorder is defined by the National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH), as: "Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are injuries or disorders of
the muscles, nerves, tendons, joints, cartilage, and disorders of the nerves, tendons, muscles and
supporting structures of the upper and lower limbs, neck, and lower back that are caused,
precipitated or exacerbated by sudden exertion or prolonged exposure to physical factors such as
repetition, force, vibration, or awkward posture"2. Employers incur extremely high costs
associated with MSDs. "An estimated 600,000 MSDs reduce worker productivity, increase
healthcare costs and require employee time away from work. MSDs are responsible for 34% of
all lost work-day injuries and illnesses. One of every three worker’s compensation dollars, $15
Billion to $20 billion, are paid to workers experiencing MSDs each year"3. Disorders caused by
slips, trips, or falls are not considered MSDs. Effects of these types of injuries develop slowly
over time and more attention is paid to other types of workplace injuries. Fabrication shops
where welding and grinding operations take place, have many hazard risks that employers and
workers must guard against. The most obvious fabrication shop hazard risks and injuries include
fire, lacerations, burns, working at heights, combustible materials, inhalation exposures, and
burns to the retina of the eye. These types of hazards and injuries require constant vigilance by
management, supervisors, and the workers themselves. An ergonomic hazard with significant
injury risk that is often overlooked is body positioning, with work tasks being performed in
awkward positions for prolonged periods of time. "Ergonomic injuries aren’t as high profile as
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5. other types of workplaces issues although MSDs are more severe than average nonfatal injuries
or illnesses such as hearing loss, and occupational skin diseases"4. Every muscular workplace
injury does not start out as an MSD, however, because of the repetitive nature of welding and
grinding operations in fabrication shops, they do result in a significant number of MSDs costing
these companies millions of dollars annually. This study will examine the ergonomics of
awkward body positioning and injury statistics associated with fabrication shops, identification
of some mitigation measures to prevent future injuries, provide a cost-benefit analysis of those
mitigation measures, and enable management and supervisory readers to conclude that
implementing an ergonomics program at their fabrication shop or company can actually provide
tremendous benefits and provide a huge cost savings.
Ergonomics of Awkward Body Positioning and Injury
Statistics
"Ergonomics - is the science of designing the job and the workplace to suit the
capabilities of the workers. Simply stated, ergonomics means "fitting the task to the worker."
The aim of ergonomics is the evaluation and design of facilities, workstations, jobs, training
methods, and equipment to match the capabilities of users and workers, and thereby reduce stress
and eliminate injuries and disorders associated with the overuse of muscles, bad posture, and
repeated tasks"5.
Posture refers to the position of the body during an activity. Neutral positions are
typically where joints are used close to the middle of their range of motion, such as when the
head and trunk are upright, arms are by the sides of the body with forearms hanging so that
hands are in the handshake position, as described in Figure 16.
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6. Figure 1 - Description of Neutral Posture for Various Body
Joints. DHHS, NIOSH Publication No. 2009-107,
Information Circular 95-09, Ergonomics Processes:
Implementation Guide and Tools for the Mining
Industry7.
Awkward postures are positions of the body that are well beyond the neutral position that
occur when job tasks are being performed. Awkward postures require additional muscular effort
to maintain. Muscle efficiency is reduced when joint angles are at their extremes. Friction and
compression, such as leaning on the elbow or gripping a tool with the hand, exposes soft tissue
structures to reduced blood flow and leads to ergonomic injuries. The more awkward the
posture, the more strain on muscles, tendons, and ligaments and likelihood of injury.
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7. Some awkward positions that workers in fabrication shops regularly experience for long periods
of time are shown below in Figure 3.
Bending at
the Back
Kneeling or
Squatting
More than 2
hrs per Day
AWKWARD
BODY
POSTURES
Bending the
Wrists >30°
More than 2
hrs per Day
Bending at
the Neck
>30° More
than 2 hrs
per Day
Standing or
Laying
More than 2
hrs per Day
Reaching
and
Twisting
the body
Figure 2 - Chart of Various Awkward Body Positions.
Another body position capable of causing an ergonomically based injury is static body
postures. Static body positions occur when a part of the body is held in a position for an
extended period of time with little or no movement to allow soft tissues to relax, such as standing
or kneeling. Loads or forces on the muscles and tendons are increased, which contributes to
muscular fatigue. Static postures add to the amount of muscular effort required to perform a job
task. Not moving impedes blood flow needed to bring nutrients to muscles and carry away waste
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8. products, and muscles will fatigue very quickly. The longer or more frequently static loading
occurs, the greater the risk of injury from overuse of muscles.8
Conducting a site survey of a fabrication shop yields the astute observer to notice
ergonomic workplace hazards contributing to muscular injuries almost instantly. Fabrication
shops perform functions where metal fabricators fit parts together, usually by welding, grinding,
and cutting. Job tasks associated with metal fabrication often require awkward postures.
Employees don’t always use the tools or safety aids provided by their employer to enable the
task to be performed in an ergonomically correct fashion. Performing job tasks requiring long
reaches exposes workers to awkward positions of their shoulders, elbows, and back that deviate
significantly from neutral positions. Performing job tasks at surfaces which are too high can
affect the neck, head, shoulders, elbows, arms, hands, and wrists. Performing job tasks at
surfaces that are too low can cause workers to hunch over, bending their backs and necks. If the
surfaces are extremely low, worker are required to kneel or squat to perform their job tasks.
These positions affect the knees, lower back, and neck. This type of work also involves frequent
handling of heavy loads. The risks aren’t perceived by supervisors and workers because
symptoms take long periods of time and repetition to develop, unlike cuts, inhalation exposures,
and burns. Metal fabricators, like many other workers, become "victims" of back trouble and
cannot tell how it started. In most cases a worker cannot point to sudden pain related to a certain
action, but rather the problem developed slowly until it was strong enough to disable".9 Workers
typically will complain of aches and pains from their knees, back, neck, legs, arms, hands or feet
in the evening when they go home to their wife or girlfriend. The "macho" psychological makeup of most fabrication workers will prevent them from complaining to management, supervisors,
or co-workers in the work environment much like the "blue code of silence" in police
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9. departments. As the body continues to be strained by heavy loads, repetitive motions, and
awkward body positions, the aches and pains become to much to bear and an injury is finally
identified. Hopefully, the injury is only a minor problem or a cumulative trauma disorder (CTD)
that can be treated and corrected. However, just like workers in other construction trades, it
often is too late and ends up with a musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) diagnosis.
Risk of developing an MSD increases with repetitive motions that are performed without
frequent breaks. Workers performing job tasks that include highly repetitive motions suffer
fatigue and tissue damage, which eventually results in pain, discomfort and reduced productivity
or total disability. Risk occurs when level of force exerted is low, and postures are not very far
away from the neutral position. If higher force is required to perform the task, the number
actions or speed they are performed at increases, and if awkward postures are endured the risk of
developing an MSD is even greater. As a result, of the ergonomic factors from awkward
positions, repetitive motions, and failure to take steps to mitigate or eliminate the hazards,
significant numbers of injuries occur in fabrication shops each year.
Examination of 2010 workplace non-fatal injury data from the United States Bureau of
Labor Statistics yields the following statistics:10
In 2010, non-fatal injuries in fabrication departments consisted of:
2,670 cuts, lacerations, or punctures
1,820 breaks or fractures
310 amputations of limbs or fingers280 heat burns from cutting, welding, or grinding
In 2010, ergonomic-related non-fatal injury cases in fabrication departments in the U.S.
consisted of:
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10. 3,550 overexertion cases (i.e. lifting heavy items)
1,270 soreness pain (i.e. lower back, neck)
790 repetitive motion injuries
280 cases of carpal tunnel syndrome
Evaluation of these statistics with the ever increasing cost of medical care, workman's
compensation and difference in lost wages costs, loss of productivity, and disability
compensation costs, it is very easy to visualize the annual costs to fabrication companies totaling
in the millions of dollars. Therefore, fabrication companies need to evaluate the ergonomic risks
and hazards of ergonomic injuries resulting from awkward positions and develop an ergonomic
plan of action to minimize the hazards through engineering and administrative controls.
Mitigation Measures to Prevent Awkward Body Positioning
Injuries
Ergonomics, unlike other workplace hazards can only be corrected primarily through
engineering and administrative controls. OSHA illustrates the hierarchy of controls as depicted
in Figure 3. The inherent tasks being performed in a metal fabrication shop do not readily allow
the elimination or substitution of the task. Welding, cutting, grinding, and gouging tasks still
must be performed to continue production and enable the metal items to be fabricated. Personal
protective equipment (PPE) does not really apply to ergonomic hazards in this situation.
Engineering controls to prevent fabrication shop ergonomic hazards are the best control
method and do require significant capital expenditures for purchasing equipment necessary to
eliminate or significantly reduce the intended target hazard risk. Engineered controls require
little or no employee actions other than training on operating the machinery that has been
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11. purchased. Some machinery will save time and increase profits by elimination of the worker
performing the actual welding or cutting, and also reducing human error on the production.
Figure 3 - OSHA Illustration of Hierarchy of Controls.
OSHA.11
Engineering controls which can be applied to fabrication shops and help to prevent
ergonomic and other injury hazards are numerous:
Installation of overhead cranes to aid in the lifting and movement of the inherent
heavy metal objects present in the workplace. Only way to move extremely heavy
objects, lifting capacities can reach as high as 250 tons.
Installation of jib overhead cranes that can slide down the jib and swing up to 180
degrees with a load capacity of up to 4,000 lbs to bring the work to the worker.
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12. Installation and use of computerized cutting-burn tables to save time, raw materials,
reduce production costs, and increase profits during operations requiring the cutting
of metal materials and provides less ergonomic and other hazard exposure to workers.
Used for metal fabrication of products from large flat sheets of metal with thicknesses
of up to 1 inch. Machine performs cutting, saving time, reducing worker exposures
and saves costs by eliminating worker error during fabrication process.
Purchase and use of forklifts to aid in the lifting and movement of the numerous and
oddly-shaped heavy metal items being fabricated. Carrying capacities of 7,000 lbs to
50 tons, depending on needed requirements.
Installation of maneuverable sub-arc welding machines mounted on tracks to save
time, provide for ease of movement of heavy metal items being fabricated, reduce
production costs, and the machine performs the required welding thereby reducing
ergonomic and other hazard exposure of workers.
Installation of sub-arc welding machines to save time, eliminate ergonomic and other
hazard exposures. Worker operates a turntable and the sub-arc welding machine
performs the welding providing increased profitability.
Installation of large turntables equipped with grips and teeth to hold large, heavy,
square, round, or oddly-shaped metal production pieces in place affording vertical
and horizontal movement and affording 360-degree positioning of the product where
it can be accessed by the worker, limiting ergonomic injuries.
Installation of medium and small turntables with grips and teeth affording vertical and
horizontal movement with 360-degree positioning of heavy, oddly-shaped production
pieces such as valves, allowing the work to be brought to the worker. Capable of
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13. locking metal objects weighing up to 10,000 lbs, depending on turntable size and
limits ergonomic awkward positioning work injuries.
Purchase and use of ergonomically designed power hand tools to maintain hand-wrist
neutral positioning while performing grinding, welding, cutting, and gouging tasks.
Tools also equipped with padded grips and trigger mechanisms to prevent contact
stress injuries while performing repetitive, or long-term exposure tasks.
Purchase and use of adjustable jack stands and tables to bring the task to the worker.
These items can be height-adjusted from 3 to 5½ feet to raise and lower the
production material to a height that allows the worker to perform the task and avoid
awkward body positioning. Load capacities of up to 2500 lbs and reduces cumulative
trauma disorders (CTDs), and pain in neck, back, arms and shoulders while
performing repetitive motion welding and grinding tasks.
Purchase and use of ergonomically designed chairs and stools to allow for breaks
from static standing positions and avoid squatting and kneeling when performing
fabrication shop tasks.
Fabrication and use of stands and sawhorses made from scrap materials and
subsequently evaluated by company or external engineer to rate load capacity and
ensure they are safe to use. The stands and sawhorses require zero capital
expenditure dollars and make use of materials that normally would be recycled as
metal scrap waste.
Administrative controls involve training the supervisors and workers to avoid risky
ergonomic hazard body positions, rotating worker tasks among workers to reduce hazard
exposure time, and reinforcing safe work practices. Static postures, and repetitive motions
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14. require frequent breaks from the task. By changing one's body position by lifting one leg to a
table or sawhorse support leg, or after standing, moving to a seated position to perform the task
will alleviate muscle strains. Administrative controls require heavy supervisory and worker
involvement to reinforce hazard risk and avoidance measures. Another administrative control is
to ensure personal and medical history of workers is assessed during hiring process with medical
examination and screening performed by a licensed professional medical practitioner. This will
prevent hiring workers with pre-existing cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) and ensure
workers can perform the frequent heavy lifting and body movements required for workers in
fabrication shops. Administrative controls require time away from production for workers to
receive training and medical evaluation costs, but are relatively inexpensive to implement.
Clearly the majority of controls to minimize ergonomic injury hazards will require some
type of expensive engineering control to be implemented. Cost expenditures present a challenge
and need to be analyzed prior to the expenditures. The next section will perform this analysis.
Cost-Benefit Analysis for Implementing Engineering Controls
in Fabrication Shops
Everyone has a family member or neighbor who has recently had an expensive medically
required surgical procedure and hospital stay. Surgery, hospitalization, and follow-up treatment
costs can easily start at $30,000 and skyrocket well over $100,000 are easy for an individual to
visualize for a minimal orthopedic surgical procedures to correct a physical impairment such as
those caused by ergonomic hazards at work. "On average, it takes workers 28 days recover from
carpal tunnel syndrome, longer than the time needed to recover from amputation or fractures".12
Cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) can require longer periods of time away from work, which
equal lost productivity and profits for the employer, and reduced income that impacts worker
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15. families who must get the worker to medical treatment causing lower moral for the worker.
Increased state-sponsored Worker's Compensation Insurance premiums will be levied on the
employer due to the workplace injury. "Workers with severe injuries can face permanent
disability that prevents them from returning to their jobs or handling simple, everyday tasks.
MSDs account for $1 of every $3 spent for workers’ compensation costs. MSDs each year
account for more than $15 billion to $20 billion in workers’ compensation costs. Total direct
costs add up to as much as $50 billion annually".13 Indirect costs of poor worker morale and the
company not receiving future work contracts due to a poor safety performance rating are difficult
to quantify, but do produce significant impacts on company productivity and profits.
When weighed against the costs of poor worker morale and lower productivity, impact on
worker families when permanently disabling injuries are involved, increased Worker's
Compensation medical expenses and insurance premium costs, and loss of future contracts due to
a poor safety performance record, the capital expenditure of funds for ergonomic engineering
controls becomes easier to justify. Small fabrication shops cannot easily spend one million
dollars due to capital availability, but small expenditures of $5,000 to $10,000 can increase
productivity and profits while reducing the risk of worker injury from awkward postures and
body positioning. Smaller expenditures and self-fabrication of sawhorses and stands, chairs and
stools, and adjustable jackstands and tables are easily achievable. Lifting and moving equipment
must be a priority to handle the heavy loads and irregular or oddly-shaped production pieces.
Larger companies can more easily forecast large capital expenditures in equipment. A table
providing a cost-benefit analysis of specific engineering control equipment, identifying the cost
and ergonomic risk hazard that is prevented or significantly reduced is provided at Figure 4.
Fabrication shop equipment costs can range from $0 to over one million dollars.
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16. Figure 4 - Table of Cost-Benefit Analysis of Engineering
Controls for Fabrication Shop Operations.14
Equipment
Cost
Benefits
Large Turntable (grips
and teeth)
$50,000$80,000
Medium and Small
Turntable (grips &
teeth)
$5,000$12,000
Jib Crane
$5,000$6,000
Chair / Stool
$50-$175
ErgonomicallyDesigned Power Hand
Tools
$80-350
Overhead Cranes
$50,000$1,000,000
Sub Arc Welding
Machines
$20,000$25,000
Maneuverable Sub Arc
Welding Machines
$40,000$50,000
Adjustable Jack Stands
and Tables
$150-$500
Fabricated Stands
(sawhorses made from
scrap metal)
$0
Forklift
$10,000$1,000,000
Computerized Cutting
Burn Table
$200,000
Moves the task to the person. Accommodates
very large, heavy objects. Can rotate the object
360°.
Grips & teeth hold object in place.
Allows worker to maneuver an object both
vertically and horizontally. Brings the task to
the worker.
Good for irregular shaped material.
Bring the task to the worker. Swings 180
degrees and slides back & forth. Material can
be lifted & turned
Capable of carrying 4,000 lbs.
Eliminates lower back pain and CTDs caused
from bending over. Eliminates awkward
postures in shoulders & wrists.
Reduces hand, wrist, arm, back, and shoulder
stress. Reduces contact stress.
Allows worker to move heavy objects to
ergonomically correct positions to work on
them. Only way to move extremely heavy
objects produced in the fabrication shop.
Capable of lifting up to 500,000 lbs
Prevents awkward postures, Decreases time
spent bending over (worker operates turntable).
Prevents injuries to retina (arcs contained within
the machine).
Used for precision welding. Prevents awkward
postures, decreases time spent bending over
(worker operates turntable). Prevents injuries to
retina (arcs contained within the machine).
Moves the task to the person, elevates material
3-5.5 feet off the ground (adjusts height, product
is lowered onto the stands). Decreases CTDs,
strains, pain. Holds 2500 lbs of material.
Moves the task to the person, elevates material
off the ground (adjusts height, product is
lowered onto the stands). Decreases CTDs,
strains, pain. Engineer-rated to provide up to
10,000 lb capacity.
Prevents injuries from lifting (back, knees etc.).
Can lift 7-100,000 lbs, depending on model.
Nearly eliminates ergonomic hazards from
awkward postures. Worker only enters data into
a computer.
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17. The implementation of ergonomic administrative and engineering controls can provide
mitigation of awkward body positioning while performing work tasks in fabrication shops.
Conclusion
Workplace ergonomic programs should implement engineering and administrative
controls to effectively prevent, control, or eliminate injuries and illnesses in fabrication shops by
eliminating or reducing worker exposure to ergonomic risk factors. Personal protective
equipment (PPR) is not an effective control to prevent ergonomic risks, but may be useful in
protecting against the other fabrication shop workplace hazards.
Adoption of ergonomically correct postures significantly reduces frequent worker aches
and pains that can lead to cumulative trauma disorder (CTD) or musculoskeletal disorder (MSD)
effects. Reduction or elimination of ergonomic risk factors can often be accomplished without
spending a great deal of money, but some measures can be costly. Can any business afford not
to provide the appropriate administrative and engineering controls to prevent ergonomic injuries?
Page 16 of 18

18. Work Cited
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2
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3
United States. Department of Labor (DOL). Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
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4
"Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders (WMSDs) Prevention." CDC - Workplace Health - Evaluation: WorkRelated Musculoskeletal Disorder (WMSD) Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. United
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"Workplace Health Promotion - Glossary." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC). Centers for Disease
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"Risk Factors - Background Information." Health and Safety Executive (HSE). HSE, n.d. Web. 05 Dec. 2012.
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http://www.ehs.iastate.edu/occupational/ergonomics/static-postures
9
Kroemer, Etienne H., and Karl H. E. Grandjean. "Chapter 7 - Handling Loads." Fitting the Task to the Human: A
Textbook of Occupational Ergonomics. 5th ed. London: Taylor & Francis, 1997. 130. Print.
10
"Occupational Injuries/Illnesses and Non-Fatal Injuries Profiles." Occupational Injuries and Illnesses and Fatal
Injuries Profiles. United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010. Web. 02 Nov. 2012.
http://data.bls.gov/iil/
11
United States. U.S. Department of Labor (DOL). Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).
Hierarchy of Controls (PDF). Washington, D. C.: U.S. Department of Labor (DOL), N.d. www.osha.gov/dte/
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Education, OSHA, 2006. Web. 05 Dec. 2012.
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12
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http://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3125.pdf
13
ibid
14
Triplett, Dustin, Safety Manager, OHST, Oil States Industries, Inc. Engineering Control Cost in a Fabrication Shop.
07 Nov. 2012. Raw data. 6120 E. Orem Dr., Houston.
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