16. It lacks paired fins, but bears three median or unpaired fins; a dorsal, a
ventral and caudal. The dorsal fin is quite low and extends along the
dorsal border of the entire trunk. The ventral fin is a little wider and run
mid-ventrally from caudal fin up to atriopore. The caudal fin extends
round the tail vertically. It is wider than and continuous with the dorsal
and ventral fin.
The dorsal and ventral fins are supported by small rectangular fin ray
boxes. The latter are pockets of connective tissue, each containing a
central nodule. There is a single row of such boxes in the dorsal fin, but
two rows (right and left) in the ventral fin. The caudal fin is without fin
ray boxes.
The trunk has three apertures: mouth, atriopore and anus.
The mouth is very wide and leads into the oral hood. Its margin is beset
with about eleven pairs of slender but stiff processes, the oral cirri or
buccal tentacles.
The atriopore is a small mid ventral aperture situated just in front of the
ventral fin. It serves as an outlet for atrium present round the pharynx.
The anus lies at the base of caudal fin on the ventral side, but a little to
the left side of the median line.
Ventral surface of anterior two thirds of the trunk is nearly flat and is
called the epipleura. Its lateral margins are produced downwards into a
pair of thin folds, the matapleural folds. These are continuous in front
18. Peritoneum. The peritoneum covers the muscles internally. It consists of
a layer of thin cells resting on a basement membrane. In the pharyngeal
region the peritoneum is restricted to certain small tracts. The peritoneum
secretes the coelomic fluid.
Skeleton
There is no exoskeleton in Branchiostoma. Endoskeleton includes the
notochord, dense fibrous connective tissue, gelatinous rods and plates, and
fin ray boxes.
Notochord. The notochord is in the form of a rod that extends the whole
length of the body along the mid dorsal line above the gut and beneath the
nerve cord. Anteriorly, it reaches ahead of the myotomes and the brain,
quite unlike the pos.
In early developmental stage, the notochord is made of large vacuolated
cells filled with fluid like secretions. But in adult, it is composed of a linear
23. supported by two skeletal plates, beneath which is the subendostylar
coelom containing the ventral aorta.
It is important to note that similar endostyle occurs in the tunicates
(Herdmania) and in the larva of lamprey. In the larva of the lamprey the
endostyle disappears during metamorphosis, but takes part in the
formation of the thyroid gland of the adult. Further, like the thyroid of the
craniates, the endostyle concentrates iodine in itself and the extract from
the endostyle stimulates the action of the thyroid hormone.
A pair of peripharyngeal band in the prebranchial area passes upwards
and backwards from the anterior end of the mid-dorsal line, where they
approach each other and proceed to meet a dorsal epipharyngeal or hyper-
pharyngeal groove terminating in the oesophagus.
Oesophagus. The oesophagus follows the pharynx. It is a short, narrow,
ciliated tube and leads into the intestine.
Intestine. The intestine is about as long as the pharynx. It shows three
regions: anterior wide midgut, middle short ilio-colic ring, and posterior
tapering hind gut.
24. The mid gut has a lateral ciliated tract on its right wall. The cilia of this
tract beat downward towards a groove that starts just within the mid gut
diverticulum. The groove is lined with a tract of cilia that beat forwards.
The ilio-colonic ring is heavily ciliated and serves to rotates the food
cord on its longitudinal axis.
The hind gut has a dorsal ciliated groove that starts from the iliocolonic
ring and extends posteriorly. A small terminal part of the hind gut is
heavily ciliated and may be termed the rectum. The latter opens out by
anus.
Anus. The anus is a small circular aperture at the base of the caudal fin
on the ventral side, but a little to the left of the median line. It is
controlled by a sphincter muscle.
Digestive Glands. The whole intestine, except the ilio colic ring, has
gland cells scattered in its epithelium. Besides these, the mid gut
diverticulum is the main digestive gland. It arises as a blind pouch from
the ventral junction of oesophagus and mid gut and extends forward
through the atrial cavity along the right side of pharynx. It is surrounded
by a narrow coelomic cavity. Its inner lining has a strong ciliated groove
for movement of food.
Feeding and digestion
Branchiostoma is ciliary or filter feeder. The animal remain buried in the
sand only the oral hood rising above the sand. The rotatory movements of
cilia of wheeler organ cause a water current into mouth.
26. Enzymes are secreted by the midgut diverticulum and are passed on into
the midgut by ciliary action. Similar enzymes are secreted by gland cells of
midgut and hindgut. Digestion is mainly extracellular.
Upon arriving at the ilio-colic ring, the food cord is thrown into a spiral
coil and rotated by the action of cilia of this ring.
Broken pieces from the cord pass into the hindgut. Absorption takes place
mainly in the hindgut and digestion in the hindgut is mostly intracellular.
Chief enzymes found in the midgut diverticulum and the hindgut is
amylase, lipase and protease.
Phagocytic cells also occur in the renal papillae present on the atrial floor.
These cells engulf small food particles that occasionally escape into the
atrium.
28. Dorsal Aorta. The right and left lateral dorsal aortae lie on either dorso-
lateral side of pharynx. They extend forward as the carotid arteries to the
hood region. Behind the pharynx, the two unite to form a single vessel, the
median dorsal aorta which runs posteriorly between the notochord and
intestine and enters the tail region as caudal artery.
The main flow of the blood in the lateral dorsal aortae is backward.
Sub-intestinal Vein. The sub intestinal veins lies beneath the intestine.
It has the form of a plexus rather than a single vessel and receives blood
from the intestinal wall. Blood flows forward through it. Posteriorly, the
plexus receives a median caudal vein from the tail.
Hepatic Portal and Hepatic Veins. Sub-intestinal vein continues
anteriorly as a single wide vessel, the hepatic portal vein, along the
ventral surface of the mid gut diverticulum. It gives off several minute
vessels that from a network in the wall of the diverticulum. The vessels
returning blood from the mid gut diverticulum join to form the hepatic
vein on its upper surface. The hepatic vein opens into sinus venosus,
situated below the posterior end of the pharynx.
Cardinal Veins. The blood from ventro-lateral region of body is collected
on either side by an anterior and a posterior cardinal vein. Both the veins
unite just behind the pharynx and form the ductus Cuvieri or common
cardinal vein. The ductus Curvieri discharge blood into the venous sinus.
30. A nephridium is a small, thin walled sac having a long anterior vertical
limb and a short posterior horizontal limb. The vertical limb lies in the
coelomic canal of the primary gill bar and ends blindly.
The horizontal limb also lies in the dorsal coelomic canal but opens into
the atrium opposite a secondary gill bar by nephridiopore.
Numerous short branches arise from the sides of the body of nephridium;
each receives a tuft of flame cells or solenocytes. The entire nephridium
carries about 500 solenocytes.
Each solenocyte is nearly 50μ long and consists of a long hollow stalk or
tubule that opens into the lumen of nephridial branch through a separate
aperture.
A long flagellum runs through the tubules of the solenocyte to drive the
fluid into the body of the nephridium.
A single large nephridium is situated above the oral hood on the left side
of the median line. It is known as the Hatschek’s nephridium and
resembles the paired nephridia in all essential respects. It is narrow tube,
which opens at it hind end into the pharynx just behind the velum and
ends blindly just in the front of the Hatschek’s pit.
Brown funnels and Renal papillae also play some role in excretion.
36. On the hard substratum, the body proper becomes attached by forming a
broad flat or concave base, and the foot is absent.
The body of animal has a peculiar orientation. Its branchial aperture
marks the anterior side. The opposite side attached to the substratum is,
therefore, the posterior side. The atrial aperture is on dorsal side and the
opposite side partly attached and partly free is the ventral side
This abnormal orientation of the adult result from the rotatory change in
the larval organization during metamorphosis.
Test or Tunic
It is a thick, leathery, translucent protective jacket around the body,
which also acts as an accessory respiratory organ and receptor organ.
It is continuously replaced from inside by the epidermis of mantle which
secrets it.
It is consists of a clear, gelatinous matrix having wandering cells or
corpuscles, interlacing fibrils, blood vessels and spicules.
Matrix is made up of a polysaccharide called tunicine, similar to cellulose.
Corpuscles are mesodermal in origin.
o Large eosinophilous cells
o Small amoeboid cells
37. o Small eosinophilous cells
o Spherical vacuolated cells
o Granular receptor cells
o Small branched nerve cells
o Squamous epithelial cells.
Interlacing fibrils run criss-cross all through the matrix. Some are like
smooth muscle cells while some are like nerve fibres.
Blood vessels form a network system throughout the test. Near the
surface, the branches from oval or pear shaped terminal knobs or
ampullae responsible for red patches visible on the surface of test.
The ampullae plays role of accessory respiratory organ as well as receptor
organ, being connected to nerve cells.
Spicules are calcareous and of two types: minute microscleres (40-80 μm
long) and large megascleres (1.5 to 3.5 μm long).
39. Coelom and Atrium
Due to overdevelopment of atrium or peri-branchial cavity the true coelom
in Herdmania is absent except in certain doubtful derivatives like the
pericardial cavity, gonads etc.
The space between the pharynx and the mantle, enclosing visceral organs,
is called atrium.
Atrium is continuous throughout the body except in the anterior and
ventral regions and called the peri-branchial cavity.
It communicates with the branchial cavity through stigmata in the wall of
pharynx.
The wide atrial cavity just above the pharynx is known as cloaca into
which open the anus and gonopore.
The cloaca opens outside through the atrial siphon and atriopore or atrial
aper-ture.
Sphincter muscles and atrial tentacles are associated with atrial siphon.
Locomotion and Movement
Adult animal is sessile and movement is visible only during the
contraction of body which squirt out water through atrial and branchial
siphons.
41. The outer wall is connected with mantle by several hollow strands called
trabeculae.
From the roof of the branchial sac a 1 to 1.5 cm long fold is suspended,
called hyper-pharyngeal band or dorsal lamina. It helps in conduction of
food.
On the floor of the branchial sac, a shallow longitudinal mid-ventral
groove is present called endostyle. Cells of endostyle secrete mucus which
helps in feeding process.
The endostyle of urochordates is homologous with the hypo-pharyngeal
groove of cephalochordates and thyroid glands of vertebrate.
43. The undigested food passes into rectum and further into cloaca though
anus and expelled out through atrial aperture.
Starch-like granules are present in the liver and walls of alimentary canal
in the form of reserve food.
Respiratory system
Branchial sac is the main respiratory organ in Herdmania. The wall of
this sac is highly vascular and very thin enabling gaseous exchange.
Longitudinal folds on the inner surface of the branchial sac further
increases the respiratory surface enormously.
Exchange of gases also takes place in the trabeculae, which stretch
between the pharyngeal wall and the body wall, which constantly bathed
in fresh sea water leaving the pharynx via atrium.
Outer surface of test acts as an accessory respiratory organ, where the
vascular ampullae play
47. Excretory system
Neural gland, which lies mid-dorsally embedded in the mantle just above
the nerve ganglion of the brain, is excretory organ of Herdmania.
49. Sense Organ
All receptors, except the dorsal tubercle, are very simple in structure,
consisting merely of isolated cells or cell aggregates, with nerve endings.
Tango receptor cells are scattered in the non-vascular parts of the test,
and the epithelium covering the vascular ampullae and the tentacles.
Photoreceptor cells are pigmented cells containing red pigment granules,
located on the margins of siphons and vascular ampullae.
Rheoreceptor cells occur in the rim of the branchial and atrial apertures.
Chemoreceptor cells are present in the dorsal tubercle and the tentacles.
Dorsal tubercle serves to smell and taste the water entering the pharynx,
thus functions as an olfactory cum gustatory receptors.
50. Tentacles test the quality of incoming water and size of food particles
entering the pharynx. It is regarded as olfactoreceptors.
Reproductive system
Herdmania is hermaphrodite but protogynous.
Gonads are two large and embedded in the mantle and cause bulge into
the peri-branchial cavity. The right gonad is situated just parallel and
dorsal to pericardium, while the left gonad lies within the intestinal loop.
Each gonad consists of 10-15 distinct lobes arranged in two rows with one
median lobe at the proximal end. The median lobe is largest and bean
shaped. Others are ovoid or rounded, and become smaller towards the
distal end of the gonad.
Each lobe is bisexual, and consists of an outer large and brick red
testicular and an inner small and pink ovarian part.
Testicular part contains numerous spermatic caeca. The wall of each
caecum consists of a layer of spermatogonia with large nuclei and
surrounds the spermatocytes that give rise to sperms. Mature sperms
become free in the lumen of the caecum.
The ovarian part has a lobulated surface. It contains rounded ova in
various stages of development.
51. Each gonad has two gonoducts oviduct and spermatic duct, running along
the central axis. Both are lined by cilia internally.
The oviduct is wider and opens into cloaca by an oviductal aperture. The
spermatic duct or vas deferens is narrow duct form by union of spermatic
ductules and open independently into cloaca by a spermiducal aperture.
The sperms are polymorphic with at least three types having acrosome
shorter, equal and longer than head.
Ovum is surrounded by three membranes; (i) Vitelline membrane, (ii)
Inner chorion, and (iii) Outer chorion.
The ovum lies eccentrically in the peri-vitelline fluid enclosed by the space
between the vitelline membrane and inner chorion.
When the gametes become mature, they are expelled out in sea water
through atrial current. External fertilization takes place.
Cleavage is holobastic, unequal and determinate.
52. Chapter – 2: Protozoa
LOCOMOTION IN PROTOZOA
Protozoa possess highly variable locomotory organs, which is also the basis for
the classification of Protozoa.
Locomotory organelles
There are four types of locomotory organelles found in protozoa. These include-
A. Pseudopodia
B. Flagella
C. Cilia
D. Pellicular contractile structures
PSEUDOPODIA
Structure of Pseudopodia- Pseudopodia, also known as false feet, are
temporary structures formed by the streaming flow of cytoplasm. They are of
four types:
1. Lobopodia: - Lobe-like blunt pseudopodia composed of both ectoplasm
and endoplasm, e.g. Amoeba.
2. Filopodia: - Filamentous of thread like pseudopodia composed of
ectoplasm only, e.g. Euglypha.
53. 3. Reticulopodia:- Branched and interconnected filamentous
pseudopodia that display two-way flow of cytoplasm, e.g. Globigerina.
4. Axopodia:- Straight pseudopodia radiating from the surface of the body
and internally supported by an axial thread. They display two-way flow
of cytoplasm, e.g. Actinophrys.
Method of locomotion by pseudopodia (Amoeboid movement)- It is
characteristic of all Sarcodines and certain Mastigophora and Sporozoa. The first
observation of amoeboid movement was noticed by Rosel von Resenhof in 1755.
Since then several theories have been proposed, out of which, sol-gel theory put
forward by Hyman (1917) and later supported by Pantin (1923-26) and Mast
(1925) is the most widely accepted. It attributes amoeboid motion to change in
the consistency of cytoplasm. Based on the spontaneous sol-gel phenomenon of
protoplasm, in which according to need sol can change into gel and vice versa. it
offers the best explanation for amoeboid locomotion. According to the sol-gel or
change of viscosity theory, cytoplasm of amoeba is differentiated into a clear
outer ectoplasm and a granular inner endoplasm. The latter is further
distinguished into an outer stiffer and jelly-like region, the plasmagel and an
inner fluid region, the plasmasol. Amoeboid movement involves four processes
that occurs simultaneously –
54. (1) The outermost thin, elastic cell membrane or plasmalemma becomes
attached to the substratum.
(2) There is a local partial liquefaction of the plasmagel at the anterior end.
This causes the central plasmasol, under tension, to flow forward and
force the plasmagel against this weakened area to produce a bulge or
pseudopodium. As plasmasol enters the newly formed pseudopodium, it
rapidly changes into plasmagel around the periphery (gelation), thus
forming a gelatinized tube within which the plasmagel continues to flow
forward.
(3) Posteriorly, inner surface of contractile plasmagel undergoes solation, so
that a constant flow of plasmasol is maintained from behind forward in
the direction of movement.
(4) The outer tube of elastic plasmagel contracts and moves from in front
backwards, while the main bulk of body travels forward. The plasmagel
thus exerts a squeezing motion from the sides and rear of amoeba, forcing
the plasmasol to flow forward. At the tip of pseudopodium the endoplasm
is changed to ectoplasm.
FLAGELLA
Structure of flagella- Flagella are thread like
projections on the cell surface of flagellate
protozoa like Euglena, Trypanosoma, etc. A
typical flagellum consists of an elongated, stiff
axial filament, the axoneme, enclosed by an
outer sheath. The axoneme consists of nine
outer double microtubules that encircle two
central single microtubules, forming the typical
9 x 2 + 2 pattern seen in cross-sections. Each of
the peripheral pairs bears a double row of short
arms (containing the motor molecule dynein).
Axoneme arises from a basal body (the blepharoplast or kinetosome) that lies
55. immediately below the cell membrane. Basal bodies resemble an axoneme except
that the outer nine microtubules are triplets and the central singlets are absent
(9 x 3 + 0). The microtubules of each triplet are continuous with an axonemal
doublet. Dynein arms are absent on the basal body triplets. A basal body is
usually anchored in the cell, often to the nucleus and cell membrane, by one or
more cytoskeletal root structures. Some proteinaceous rootlet fibers are
contractile and can, on contraction, pull the flagellum into a shallow pocket or
alter its orientation. When basal bodies are distributed to daughter cells during
mitosis, they typically arrange themselves at each pole of the mitotic spindle and
are then designated as centrioles.
Flagellar movement- It is characteristic of Mastigophora which bears one or
more flagella. The mechanism producing flagellar beat is not exactly known. It is
believed that some or all of the axonemal fibres are involved. According to the
latest sliding tubule theory of flagellar movement, adjacent doublets slide past
each other, causing the entire flagellum to bend. Cross bridges are formed and
energy utilized for the process is supplied by ATP. The flagella need liquid
medium for movement or locomotion. There are three types of flagellar
movements:
(1) Paddle stroke- This is the common movement of a flagellum by which the
animal moves forward, gyrates and is also caused to rotate on its
longitudinal axis. It consists of an effective down stroke with flagellum
56. held out rigidly, and a relaxed recovery stroke in which flagellum, strongly
curved, is brought forward again.
(2) Undulating motion- Wave-like undulations in flagellum proceeds from tip
to base, pulling the animal forward. Backward movement is caused when
undulations pass from base to tip. When such undulations are spiral, they
cause the organism to rotate in opposite direction.
(3) Simple conical gyration- is the spiral turning of flagellum like a screw.
This exerts propelling action, pulling the animal forward through water
with a spiral rotation as well as gyration (revolving in circles) around the
axis of movement.
CILIA
Structure of cilia- Cilia are short, highly vibratile, small ectoplasmic processes
having oar-like motion. They resemble flagella in their basic structure. Electron
microscope reveals the presence of an external membranous sheath, continuous
with plasma membrane of cell surface and enclosing the fluid matrix. Running
along the entire length of body of cilium are nine paired peripheral fibres and
two central fibres (9 x 2 + 2), all embedded in a matrix. Central fibres are
enclosed within a delicate sheath. In between the outer and inner fibre rings are
present nine spoke-like radial lamellae. In addition to these, one sub-fibre or
microfiber of each peripheral pair bears a double row of short projections called
arms, all pointing in the same direction. Each cilium arises from a thickened
structure, called the basal body or blepharoplast. Basal body shows nine
peripheral subfibril triplets (9 x 3 + 0), each disposed in a twist-like fashion.
57. Ciliary movement- Mechanism of ciliary movement in ciliates is little studied.
It is now known that cilia are moved in a coordinating system. They move by the
contraction of peripheral fibres located within them. The basal bodies of cilia are
connected to one another by contractile bundles of fibres called kinetodesmata in
such a way that five cilia form one contractile unit called kinety. Successive
contractions of kineties produce a metachronal wave of movement of cilia giving
forward thrust to the animal. The energy needed for fibrillar contraction is
supplied by ATP. Cilia also need liquid medium for their movements. Two types
of movements are seen in ciliates-
58. (1) Ciliary beats- During the effective stroke, the cilium is outstretched stiffly
and moves in an oar-like fashion, perpendicular to the cell surface. In the
recovery stroke, the cilium flexes and snakes forward parallel to the cell
surface. As the organism moves through the medium, the ciliary beat is
coordinated over the surface of the cell. The cilia in any cross row are all in
the same stage of the beat cycle, while those in front are in an earlier
stage and those behind are in a later stage. This phase shift is seen as
waves, called metachronal waves that pass over the surface of the cell like
wind passes in waves over a wheat field.
(2) Swimming- Large ciliates are the swiftest swimmers. During the mode of
swimming, the animal does not follow a straight tract but rotates spirally
like a rifle bullet along a left- handed helix. The reason for this is two-fold.
Firstly, the body cilia do not beat directly backwards but somewhat
obliquely towards right, so that the animal rotates over to the left on its
long axis. Secondly, the cilia of oral groove strike obliquely and more
vigorously so as to turn the anterior end continually away from the oral
side and move in circles. The combined effect causes the movement of
animal along a fairly straight path, rotating about its axis in an
anticlockwise direction.
PELLICULAR CONTRACTILE STRUCTURES
In many protozoa are found contractile structures in pellicle or ectoplasm called
myonemes. These are present in the form of ridges and grooves (e.g. Euglena),
contractile myofibrils (large ciliates) or microtubules (e.g. trypanosoma). Such
organisms show gliding or wriggling or peristaltic movement, which is also
referred to as gregarine movement.
59. Nutrition in protozoa
The protozoa display a range of nutritional types, from the entirely plant-like
photosynthetic (or autotrophic) nutrition to the totally animal-like (or
heterotrophic) nutrition, in which bacteria, algae, other protozoa and small
animals like the crustacean copepods constitute the food source. Protozoa also
lead parasitic life, usually doing no or little harm to their hosts, but occasionally
causing serious diseases. Six types of nutrition seen in protozoa are-
1. Holophytic nutrition: All those
phytoflagellates possessing chloroplasts
or chromatophores synthesize their food
by photosynthesis. As energy is supplied
by sunlight to carry on food making
activity, this method involving self-
feeding is also referred to as autotrophic
or phototrophic nutrition. Carbon dioxide
and water acting as raw materials enter
into a complex cycle of chemical reactions
and produce dextrose sugar.
2. Holozoic nutrition: Majority of free-
living protozoa derive nourishment by
ingesting other organisms, both animals
and plants. Such protozoa are called
holozoic and mode of nutrition is said to be
holozoic nutrition. This mode of nutrition
involves development of organelles for food
capture, ingestion, digestion and egestion
of undigested residues. Food of holozoic
protozoa consists of microorganisms like
other protozoans, bacteria, diatoms,