(3). buku 'english in arts' 2015 (isi buku keseluruhan)

“Englishin Arts” 1
Section ONE
INTRODUCTION
Drama Lesson.
Since 2006 the English Department of the
Faculty of Teacher Training and Education at Almuslim
University*) Bireuen of Aceh Province Indonesia has
been conducting a lesson program of Drama for the
students of English as a foreign language. After
graduating from this University, hoped these students go
to work as English teachers in secondary and High
Schools or various Institutions throughout the country.
The purposes of Drama lesson helps to achieve
two goals of English program. First, it provides an active
approach to the study of English, putting students into
situations that require practice in oral communication.
Second, it provides an opportunity for the students to use
creativity the English they have already learned,
presenting them with situations that stimulate
imaginative responses.

As the above objectives indicate, the main
purpose of the drama program is to enable advanced
students of English to practice the language productively
and realistically. However, its usefulness does not stop
there. The drama activity itself provides the student-
teacher with a set of skills that will be useful to him as a
teacher. Dramatic activity by its very nature can make
the study and practice of a language interesting,
enjoyable, and dynamic. The students gain much
encouragement from the dialogues and improvisations
they do in the class. If the student feels that drama helps
him to express himself better in English, he will as a full-
fledged teacher, make use of this technique and adapt it
to the objectives of classrooms teaching.
Drama Activity.
In early foreign language teaching, drama is very
useful to promote language. Quite apart from the
benefits for pronunciation and general language use,
drama also helps to build students confidence,
contextualize language, develop students’ empathy for
other characters, involves students in appropriate
problem solving and engage them as whole people. The
basic idea to the development of drama was realization
that needs to play is an important developmental process
in a child. Using drama to teach English results in real
communication involving ideas, emotions, feelings
appropriateness and adaptability; in short an opportunity

to use language in operation which is absent in a
conventional language class.
The drama activity also helps the students
develop the personal traits appropriate for the cultural-
social activities in the classroom. Acting can develop
student’s creative abilities to the utmost. And certain of
the actor’s skills are useful for any teacher in his work as
communicator. He must have a strong, clear voice so
that he can be heard and understood in the classroom.
The teacher must project his voice, so that the students
can hear clearly what he is saying. And he must project
an image of himself and of the language he teaches that
will earn the sympathy of his participating audience.
Educational circles have always acknowledged that the
creative teacher, who projects his own personality in the
classroom attractively, is well on the way to success.
Using drama activities can foster language skills.
In the vocabulary of the English-speaking world the
word 'drama' may be used to mean any one of several
things. It may mean that 'art' which is concerned with
plays as written and performed. Drama may mean a
certain kind of composition in prose or verse presenting,
mainly through dialogue and pantomime, a sequence of
events intended to be acted on the stage. In learning and
teaching process, drama can foster language skills such
as reading, writing, speaking and listening
by creating a suitable context.

Drama is a powerful language teaching tool that
involves all of the students interactively all of the class
period. Drama can also provide the means for connecting
students’ emotions and cognition as it enables students to
take risks with language and experience the connection
between thought and action. Through drama, a class will
address, practice and integrate reading, writing, speaking
and listening. Drama also fosters and maintains students’
motivation, by providing an atmosphere which is full of
fun and entertainment. Teaching English as a foreign
language inevitably involves a balance between
receptive and productive skills; here drama can
effectively deal with this requirement.
The Teacher is an Actor.
The teacher must be an actor. A good teacher is
one who will leave his emotional baggage outside the
classroom. The classroom is a stage, and to be effective
the teacher must in some cases be an actor. A teacher’s
effectiveness depends on his demonstration of the
affective characteristics. These are in born in some of us,
but they are also within the grasp of most teachers. Most
of us want to be encouraging, enthusiastic, and available,
but we just have to be reminded once in a while. The
classroom management techniques of peace and fairness
are often over looked, but they can be crucial to effective
teaching.

The Classroom Atmosphere.
Relaxed classroom atmosphere is good in
teaching and learning process. Relaxed classroom
atmosphere is conducive to the learning process,
especially if that process involves a good deal of
communication between the teacher and the students and
among the students themselves. What I have to suggest
does not seek to ruin a pleasant atmosphere. I simply
want to make one or two practical points on behavior
that is natural in our everyday life but which should be
avoided in the classroom. It is the very fact that the
behavior in question is so natural to us that makes it so
difficult to eradicate in the classroom.
English Through Drama.
I’d say that one of the best methods in teaching
and learning English is using drama as an object of the
lesson. Why? You've to know first the definitions of
drama. Than try to get your English with the items in
acting and practicing 'speaking', 'dialogues', 'writing a
script', and others. Drama is a kind of arts which
concerned with plays as written and performed. It is a
certain kind of composition in prose or verse presenting,
mainly through dialogues and pantomime, a sequence of
events intended to be acted on the stage. Drama is a
branch of literature encompassing such dramatic
compositions.

Teaching and learning 'English Speaking'.
The following areas of knowledge and
competence are important in their own right, within the
overall heading ‘Teaching, Learning and Assessment’
for ease of reference. Teachers’ abilities in these
different aspects of teaching involve not only the
practical application of knowledge, but also familiarity
with and practice in using a range of different teaching
techniques. It is an example in teaching 'speaking'. It
refers to: the key concepts, principles and techniques
used in teaching speaking skills and techniques for
correcting learners' spoken language. Understanding
different genre. The types of speaking and their
purposes, levels of formal it. The differences between
spoken and written English. The difficulties learners face
ability to select appropriate models and tasks
demonstration of practical application through a variety
of appropriate teaching techniques in a specified context,
in order to achieve desired learning outcomes.
Learn by Speaking, Listening and Watching.
There is really only one way to learn how to do
something and that is to do it. We understand that
learning a skill means eventually trying our hand at the
skill. Remember that we need to hear things, not just see
things ,in order to learn well. If we are good learners,
we learn by hearing and listening. We understand and

remember things we have heard. We store information
by the way it sounds, and we have an easier time
understanding spoken instructions than written ones.
When it comes to school, however, instead of allowing
students to learn by doing, we create courses of
instruction that tell students about the theory of the task
without concentrating on the doing of the task. It's not
easy to see how to apply apprenticeship to mass
education.
English in arts.
English in arts is one of the best methods in
teaching English, specially for the teacher of English as a
second or foreign language. If arts performances can be
brought up to the classroom, they would be good
motivations for the students in learning subjects, as in
speaking, reading comprehension and composition.
Kinds of arts can be performed in front of the class, like
singing an English song, and reading poetry. They are
not only performed in front of the class, but they can be
performed on the stage, in the auditorium, or they can be
filmed as the final test of the subjects. In teaching and
learning English, the students can combine dialogues in
speaking with arts (Singing an English song; reading
poetry; telling a story; doing a speech; fragment;
pantomime; debating; hosting; playing drama; film
making; etc). And there are many other arts may be
performed.

Drama in teaching English.
Why should we use a drama in teaching English?
Language is very easy learnt but is very difficult to
understand. A suitable play provides a realistic model of
the way we talk. A good playwright is attuned to capture
the language as it is spoken. Naturally, the play is not an
exact model of the way we talk, but it is closer than the
content of most English language textbooks, which must
be concerned with specific structures and perfect
English. In daily conversation we rarely speak perfect
English. In developing English through drama can
motivate students to do a lot things; they practice their
speaking, arranged their sentences in dialogues and
composition.
There are many ways and methods of teaching
English language students with drama especially for
professional English language teachers. This is the
exciting sector of teaching English language students
using drama, plays and with theatre techniques. The
wide range of subjects for teachers including how to plan
class work, choosing appropriate texts, working with
students with theatrical techniques, modifying dialogue
and lines for different levels of student, stage
management, and how these all work together to
improve language appreciation and learning; using
classic plays, suggested characters; resources beyond the

textbook; using stories, using songs, making games,
reading poems, dialogues and monologue, etc.
From the very moment that students decide
which role to take on they start learning a certain number
of facts about themselves and about other people ⎯ as we
have just seen that we do in our everyday life. The
emotional experience conveyed in the process is not
limited to having a personal insight but also extends to
understanding and feeling sympathy for the experience
of others. And this is essential in any learning process.
The most significant kind of learning which is
attributable to experience in drama is the growth in the
student’s understanding about human behavior,
themselves and the world they live in.
Problems in teaching English.
The problem comes when we are going to teach
‘dialogues’ in a big class. If we have a class of more
than fifty students, or if we are preparing resource-based
learning materials, we can’t have this live dialogue, so
we have to speculate about potential misunderstandings
by putting ourselves as best we can in the shoes of the
learners: and try to offer something for everyone. But
wherever possible, evidence is better than speculation.
So the best guarantee of effective teaching is to keep our
eye on the ball: concentrate on the learning and the
teaching will follow. Think about the teaching and we
might produce a great performance, but the main thing

our students will learn is merely that we have a high
opinion of ourselves as teachers.
It is also a problem of the English or foreign
language class. The English Class often causes tension,
frustration, and embarrassment in students. The students
find that what they say is very limited. The possibility of
their making mistakes, especially simple ones, is always
present. The teacher may ask the students a question that
they could answer -- if they had understood the question.
The emotions that result from such circumstances can
cause insecurity about speaking and understanding the
target language. It is therefore extremely important that
the English teacher be fully aware of the feelings of his
students and just how much his own behavior influences
these feelings. To overcome the insecurities in his
students, the teacher must create in the class a warm,
accepting climate. The students develop confidence only
if they meet with success and feel that understanding and
speaking English are not beyond them. But feelings of
confidence are rarely found in a classroom climate that is
cold, impersonal, and tense.
Another problem comes from the very shy
students. If you are in a classroom where everybody can
move about, you tend to move toward the students you
are speaking to or would like to speak to. And this is just
what many teachers do when they ask a student a
question : they walk up to the student. The frequent

result of this is that the student speaks only loud enough
for the teacher to hear--leaving most of the students out
of hearing range. So, instead of walking toward the
student, the teacher should normally back away . I say
"normally" because I am aware of the difficulty with
very shy students, and they should of course not be
intimidated by "speak up" barked from the other side of
classroom.
Are you sensitive to the impact of behavior in
teaching and learning process? We know how important
variety of activity is in the teaching process. But are we
equally sensitive to the impact of behavior? Interaction
analysis makes teachers aware of the behaviors they use
automatically -- and also of the wider variety of
behaviors available to the students. The interaction
system most widely used in teacher training. This system
has more than ten categories of behavior in relating them
to the English class. The teacher's behaviors are divided
into two types of influence : indirect and direct. The
indirect behaviors tend to encourage and reinforce
student talk. The categories are: - Accepts students'
feeling. - Asks questions. - Uses students' ideas. -
Praises, encourages, or jokes. - Lectures. - Gives
directions. - Criticizes. - Specific. - Open ended. - Open
initiated. - Silence. and - Confusion.
In the classroom, the constructivist view of
learning can point towards a number of different

teaching practices. In the most general sense, it usually
means encouraging students to use active techniques.
Constructivism gives students ownership of what they
learn, since learning is based on students' questions and
explorations, and often the students have a hand in
designing the assessments as well. The best way for you
to really understand what constructivism is and what it
means in your classroom is by seeing examples of it at
work, speaking with others about it, and trying it
yourself.
What make the students happy?
What make the students happy with performing
the play? The students will be happy with their
performing if in presenting a play in English is success.
They need everything successes, for these encourage us
to strive for further success. Even though their
production of the play may be less than perfect, the
students will feel it is successful, for they have done it. A
play should be fun. It is a chance to use English rather
than study English. It removes the threat of language
learning. It frees the student to relax and let his whole
body absorb the language. No assigning roles
immediately. Start work on the play by reading for
understanding, having many students read each part. Get
them interested in the project as a whole -- not in their
own role. Also the student often does not want a long
role -- he may prefer a smaller part. Remember, it's not

just the performance that counts, but all of the English
used to talk about the play, plus all of the acting
exercises done to prepare for the play.
The silent way method.
The silent way is a method that has received
much less attention than it deserves. This method makes
the teacher doesn't have to talk so much, he has more
time to observe the students, figure out where they are,
and choose just the right task to suggest next. The best
means of learning more about the silent way is to
participate in a workshop or at least to watch a live
demonstration. Learning in the silent way thus becomes
90% productive right from the start. It is therefore
production, rather than mere reflection, that is reinforced
by the teacher's acceptance of what the student says.
Students have a great part of the class time available for
interacting with one another, and this builds group spirit
and a feeling of belonging.
To be a good English teacher.
The essence of teaching is difficult to qualify, but
that line leads directly into the most essential criterion.
Indeed such a teacher will be able to make students
discover their potential in life and also be motivated or
be interested in what the teacher is delivering. Following
are the characteristics of being a good teacher, according
to Patricia Miller*), one who loves his students and his

work. He finds it beneficial to view the process through
the eyes of a student :
1. He wants a teacher who has a contagious
enthusiasm for his teaching.
2. He wants a teacher who is creative and he can
add pace and humor to the class.
3. He wants a teacher who challenges the students,
and takes an interest in student as a person.
4. He wants a teacher who is encouraging and
patient, and who will not give up on student.
5. A teacher who knows grammar well and who can
explain something on the spot if necessary.
6. A teacher who will take a minute or two to
answer a question after class.
7. A teacher who will treat student as a person, on
an equal basis with all the members of the class,
regardless of sex, marital status, race, or the
future need for the language.
8. A teacher who will leave his emotional baggage
outside the classroom.
9. He wants a teacher who will treat us as a person,
on an equal basis with all the members of the
class, regardless of sex, marital status, race, or
my future need for the language.
10. Finally, he wants a teacher who will leave his
emotional baggage outside the classroom.
***

Section TWO
The program
It is my intention to trace, in this short
monograph, where we have been, where we are, and
where we are going in the development of the use of
drama in English language teaching. The subject of
English teaching, and particularly that of English as a
second or foreign language, has been the issue of many
books, papers, and teaching methods. Here, however, the
issue examined is narrowed to the perspective of
teaching English through drama. It is a field that has
evolved remarkably over the last sixty years.
To examine the subject of teaching English
through drama, we must look at the development of two
areas of pedagogical development. One is the evolution
of the language acquisition domain and the other is the
domain of drama in education and how it has melded
with the domain of language teaching. Not every
element or development can be examined here. But we
will look at the overall movement and the significant
changes of thought and focus that have influenced

practitioners in both domains. Finally, we will to look at
the future of the field.
In this section we review the two teaching
sequences and consider the stages, aims and range of
activities available for developing English skills through
drama. Teaching Drama to large groups places a number
of demands on the teacher. When teaching drama we can
expect: A fairly high level of conversational noise
different groupings, with students standing, moving,
sitting, and using space to express themselves.
Different groups working at different paces towards
different goals In the workshop we addressed the fact
that learners may not be confident about their English, or
may think that drama is just fun and games.
As teachers we are aware that the main aim of
this module is to develop students’ language
skills – not produce actors or actresses. For this
reason we need to carefully structure our lessons so that
they have clear linguistic and skills-development aims,
and to communicate these aims clearly to students so
that are clear on what is expected of them.
We can say that it is important to have clear
language aims for lessons. We also see that a generic
structure for a lesson will contain a focus on aims and
expectations, warm up activities which target language
as well as performance aims, a context – such as a story
– within which to develop the drama, a range of drama
conventions which focus on skills such as character
building, expressing emotion through voice and
movement and, of course, creativity and confidence with
language. Lessons, or series of lessons, should provide

opportunities for students to reflect on their progress and
to identify areas for further development.
The other acting illustrate the process of moving
from story to script and we see how a number of
different performance-based activities can be
incorporated into lessons.
In order to implement the objectives described
above, we designed a course that we will call Language
Study through Drama. We have modified the original
syllabus several times in our search for the appropriate
activities and desired results. The syllabus for the current
year includes a one-year compulsory learn and an
optimal six-month study of a semester.
The one-year study consists of 32 sessions during
an academic year. These sessions are held two hours a
week for thirty two weeks. As this is eminently practical
and participatory work, we permit the student to miss no
more than three sessions, and absences must be duly
justified. We allow only 6 students in each group of
maximum 30 students in one class. These smaller groups
meet three times a week to write script containing the
essentials of a dramatic production: characters, plot,
action, and resolution. Then the students perform the
play they have written.
Key drama skills develop in the process
involve characterization and staging conventions. Script
writing has a number of conventions which students
need to be aware of. But the fact that writing dialogue is
often easier than, for example, writing a story, even
lower level students will be able to achieve something
they can feel proud of, given the right support from the
teacher.

Developing Autonomy.
A key part of the new curriculum is the
development of learner autonomy and in the session we
stated that this implies a change of attitude in, first,
teachers and then students. We see autonomy as the
ability and willingness of the learner to take
responsibility for the direction of their learning. In class
we need to provide students with opportunities to
exercise autonomy and work independently of the
teacher. Lessons, therefore, should include aims and
stages which allow students to develop their autonomy.
The Importance of Warming up Activities.
The warm-up is a key feature of a performance-
based class and should always be used even if there is
only time for 5 minutes. The warm-up works on a
number of levels focusing on (a) warming up the body to
enable students to use a good range of movement and (b)
warming up the voice so students are ready to use the
full range of pitch, intonation and volume levels. For our
purposes, warm ups should have a clear language focus
as well. In terms of the group, this is the teacher’s key
moment to bring about a sense of cohesion and
collaboration in the group. Aims: To introduce and
provide practice with key vocabulary. To develop range
of expression through movement and encourage
collaboration / cooperation. Introduce the vocabulary by
showing the word cards and checking students
understand the words. Human Sculptures. Introduce by
demonstrating with a student. You are a sculptor; the
student is the sculpting materials. Move the student to

make the object (chair) written on the card. Check
students understand what to do: if necessary, get a pair
of students to demonstrate for the group.
Using Stimuli.
In language teaching, we generally refer to tasks,
activities and exercises. This language can be used in
drama, but there are also other terms used to refer to
materials. The word ‘stimulus’ (singular) or ‘stimuli’
(plural) is used to refer to material the teacher uses to
generate a focus or create a story. Stimuli can come from
a range of sources as is listed below, and can be used
alone or in combination. Using Stimuli is to further
develop language skills in the context of a narrative. To
encourage creativity and confidence with English
through developing a group narrative.
Voice Work.
Voice work is to develop range and control of
pronunciation. To learn about the effect of voice on
creating a character. To introduce a system of notation
to learners for further voice work. Sound collage is to
provide opportunities for creativity, suitable to mixed
level groups. To emphasize the importance of sound and
sound effects increating drama.
Reflecting on Learning.
The session should contain some attempt to
evaluate what has been done, what achievements
students have made and what they have learnt. There are
different ways to do this from simple to complex and the
table below sets out some suggestions.

The One-Year Lesson.
At the beginning of the lesson we try to establish
an atmosphere in which the student-teacher can relax and
express himself as freely as possible. We provide
activities designed to developed the self-confidence he
needs both as a learner and as a future teacher.
The student starts his drama activity by speaking
about himself. The teacher can readily distinguish the
students who are introverts and those who are
extroverts. From the very first session the teacher’s job
is to develop a spirit of cooperation and encourage the
necessary sincerity and concentration. It is only through
sincerity and absorption that true creative work becomes
possible.
The next lesson, the teacher puts the students
into situations that encourage a continuous flow of
speech between two persons. For example, two students
are asked to perform a short improvisation in which an
overseas visitor asks a passerby for an address.
Later, the teacher introduces situations that
encourage the use of English as a lingua franca between
one person and a group of persons. In these situations the
students must adjust their speech according to the social
occasion and to the changing flow of conversation.
Finally, the teacher brings in situations involving
bigger groups. This encourages students to extend and

develop the range of oral practice . In all these situations
the idea of the dramatic frame is enhanced, from the
static scenes at the beginning to the combination of
movement and speech.
The teacher’s role.
The teacher of the class maintains a low profile.
He gives the necessary instructions, which must be clear,
straightforward, and easy to understand. They should be
expressed in operational terms rather than in vague,
abstract language, for the students have must interpret
them as quickly as possible. While the students are
carrying out these instructions the teacher does not
interrupt to correct mistakes in usage of words or
structures. Instead, he uses a tape recorder, or infocus to
register the mistakes.
After the students have acted out the situation,
the tape is played back and both teacher and students
listen to it and comment on the performance. These
comments center around two aspects: (1) the manner of
presentation, including voice problems and the
appropriate use of movements and gestures, and (2) the
use of words and structures meaningful to the situation.
To improve the first of these, the student must be
given information about articulation, breathing, and
voice placement, and some practical exercises in these
areas.

We do not try to provide a complete course in
voice production, however. The student will have to do
special work on his own if he cannot meet our minimum
standard. Nearly all students have the physical
equipment and potential skill to make themselves heard
and understood, but some are too shy to speak up, and
only with constant checking and practice are they able to
overcome this problem. We try to make the student
aware of what is needed and help him as much as
possible. The student’s needs determine the various
stages that form the basis of the lesson:
The Need to Communicate.
Objective: To place the students in a situation
where speech, debate, or discussion can be developed in
a natural way, promoting participation by the whole
group and encouraging each student to communicate
more easily with his peers.
Practical Activity: Each student takes his turn
standing before the class and speaking on a given subject
for three to five minutes. The student chooses his own
topic. When he has finished, the other students
participate in the discussion. They either (a) ask
questions about the subject, (b) reinforce the speaker’s
position by presenting new arguments, or (c) oppose the
speaker’s view. The teacher sits at the back of the room
and watches the students gradually gain confidence and

break down the formality of the situation through their
nature desire to convince or dissuade.
Comment: The students do this exercise after
they have already tackled speech in short dialogues on
aspects of everyday life.
The Need to Move and Talk.
Objective: To help the students understand that
speech must be linked to movement if it is to have life
and meaning. Practical Activity: The teacher chooses a
series of simulated activities in which it is important to
talk and move naturally.
Comment: The students are allowed some home
preparation for this work. However, there are no scripts
to fall back on and they are asked to express themselves
within their own immediately available knowledge of
English. In this way the students acquire the discipline
necessary to work at improvisation a group of students
prepares and performs, on the spur of the moment, a
scene based on a short story, an anecdote, or a situation
more complex than those described above. Sometimes a
story is not necessary to stimulate dramatic presentation:
two or three objects left on a table may provide sufficient
motivation.

How and When to Improvise.
Objective: To show the students that they can
improvise at any time there is the necessary motivation
and need for such an activity.
Practical Activity: The teacher gives the
students the outline of a story in a brief, clear paragraph
written on a slip of paper that is handed to them three to
five minutes before they go on the stage. The students
read the outline quickly, distribute the roles among the
members of the group, and determine how to begin and
end the play; the rest they make up as they go. The
students performing know that if one of the members
cannot or does not react appropriately at any point,
another has to step in and give him the necessary support
to finish the play in the way they have planned.
Comment: Some encouraging results achieved
in this stage of the course are worth mentioning:
1. The students develop their capacity (a) to
deploy their knowledge of English rapidly
and sensitively to meet the demands of
changing situations, and to convert thoughts
and ideas into language on the spur of the
moment for genuine communication rather
than merely language-like behavior; (b) to
meet the challenge of problem setting and
problem solving within strict time limits; (c)

to “invent” situations. The imaginative work
involved results in a flow of ideas that must
be organized into recognizable pattern. This
helps the students foresee and explore many
alternatives in the process of sorting out their
ideas.
2. The students demonstrate an increased
confidence in themselves and in the other
members of the group, and the group works
together with growing success.
The One-Semester Lesson.
The purpose of the six-month lesson is to teach
the students (a) how to use drama in the classroom and
(b) how to use dramatic material to illustrate a specific
teaching point. We give them training in writing,
directing, and performing in plays so that they will later
be able to organize and direct play groups among their
students.
The teacher begins by giving the students the
necessary background information for writing a script.
Then he conducts a general discussion with the class
about the work they have done previously, and from
their former experience they select scenes and incidents
that appeal to them. The teacher encourages the
expression of original ideas and personal initiative. The
first dialogues that the students produce are quite simple.

The time allowed for preparation is 15 to 20
minutes for a simple dialogue; a longer play may have to
be finished as homework. Once the dialogue has been
written and corrected, a director is chosen to plan and
prepare the performance.
When directing a one-page dialogue or a one-act
play, the students sometimes find that there is a wide gap
between the situation they wanted to describe and the
written version of it. They then rewrite the dialogue as
they go along, making sure that their intended ideas are
reflected in the lines they have produced.
Evaluation ofStudentPerformance.
Every session must give the student a feeling of
progression; unless his work builds into something
worthwhile he will feel no sense of achievement.
Immediate evaluation of individual work in class
activities takes two forms: (a) the students criticize their
own work and that of their classmates, and (b) the audio-
videotape record of their performance is played back
and discussed. The tape, of course, does not show how
movements and speech go together and how movement
sometimes binders speech and communication. It would
be preferable to audio-videotape or multimedia with the
technical resources.
A small panel of teachers assists the teacher in
charge of the course in evaluating the final
improvisations. They give marks for the student’s usage

of English as well as for such related skills as voice
production and gestures. These marks are then averaged
and given to the teacher in charge as a profile system of
evaluation. Those given at the end of the semester
record the student’s improvement. Perhaps the best
evaluation is found in the kind of activities the student-
teacher develops later on in his professional career.
Individual achievement is measured in each
session. The student gets marks for his part in writing the
script in the plans presented by the director of the play,
and for his performance (if he is one of the actors). A
small panel of teachers assists the teacher in charge of
the course in evaluating the final performance, which
takes place at the last session.
Some PracticalSuggestions.
To any teacher who may be interested in
instituting a course in language study through drama I
would like to pass on a few suggestions gleaned from
experience with our students.
 In whatever surroundings the drama lesson
takes place, a conscious attempt should be
made to create the right physical atmosphere
as aid to stimulation and absorption.
 The teacher must have a hall or gymnasium
to work in, or at least a large classroom

where desks can be moved out of the way
quickly and easily.
 Using a stage helps the student concentrate
on the lesson, but it should not be used too
soon, as it tends to add to the difficulties of
shy or self-conscious beginners.
 Students should be encouraged to speak
freely; therefore the teacher must expect to
tolerate a certain amount of noise when they
are preparing or performing their dialogues.
 Students should be trained in proper
movement, not only because this enables
them to perform more gracefully, but also
because of its psychological benefit in
helping to relieve tensions.
 In teaching the student to combine speech
and movement we can help him develop a
feel for rhythmic patterns of English, which
so often tend to be difficult for the learner.

Using Songs in practicing English.
One of the art activities in learning English is
singing songs. Some teachers claim that singing songs in
English will improve students’ pronunciation and
intonation. My purpose in using songs is to improve
listening comprehension and to provide cultural topic for
discussion. In places where these goals have high
priority, popular songs can be of great benefit, as well as
fun. I do not say that songs provide the best way to
teach listening comprehension. I would oppose an
English course called ”Proficiency through Popular
Songs”. But I would like to see more songs used in our
classes for listening comprehension and cultural
understanding, and I would like to offer the following
suggestions for their selection and use. Remember that
your goal is to become a well-rounded performer. Don’t
shy away from classes that challenge you. For example,
if you can’t sing, take a singing course anyway. There’s
more to learn than carrying a tune. As an actor breath

control is vital, and there’s no better way to learn the
tricks of this skill than a course in vocal music.
Guidelines for Selecting Songs. In selecting
songs to use with the classes, I have found it helpful to
keep in mind the following points: (a) The song should
be popular among the students. It should be a song the
students talk about or sing frequently. (b) The song
should not be too fast or too difficult to sing. Not all
popular songs can be used in the classroom; some are
much too difficult or too fast to sing. (c) The words of
the song should be fairly well articulated. If the goal is
listening comprehension, the words must be clear
enough to be understood. (d) Consider the cultural
aspects as you select the song.
Suggested Procedure. (a) Prepare a script of
the words of the songs. You can write the words on the
blackboard for all the students to see, or you may wish to
give each students his own duplicated copy to look at.
Let the students listen to the song twice while looking at
the words. (b) Let the students ask any questions they
may have about the song. (c) Ask the students some
general questions about the song. (d) Have the students
answer specific questions about the song. Keep in mind
your students’ interests and level of ability in English.
(e) Have the class sing the song together.

Using Films in practicing English.
Language teachers have been using films in
their classes for decades, and there are a number of
reasons why film is an excellent teaching and learning
tool. Learning from films is motivating and
enjoyable. Motivation is one of the most important
factors in determining successful second-language
acquisition. Films shows are an integral part of students’
lives so it makes perfect sense to bring them into the
language classroom. Film, as a motivator, also makes the
language learning process more entertaining and
enjoyable. Film provides authentic and varied
language. Another benefit of using film is that it provides
a source of authentic and varied language. Film provides
students with examples of English used in ‘real’
situations outside the classroom, particularly interactive
language – the language of real-life conversation. Film
exposes students to natural expressions and the natural
flow of speech. If they are not living in an English-
speaking environment, perhaps only film can provide
learners with this real-life language input.

Film gives a visual context. The ‘visuality’ of film
makes it an invaluable language teaching tool, enabling
learners to understand more by interpreting the language
in a full visual context. Film assists the learners’
comprehension by enabling them to listen to language
exchanges and see such visual supports as facial
expressions and gestures simultaneously. These visual
clues support the verbal message and provide a focus of
attention. Film can also bring variety and flexibility to
the language classroom by extending the range of
teaching techniques and resources, helping students to
develop all for communicative skills. For example, a
whole film or sequence can be used to practice listening
and reading, and as a model for speaking and writing.
Film can also act as a springboard for follow-up tasks
such as discussions, debates on social issues, role
plays, reconstructing a dialogue. It is also possible to
bring further variety to the language learning classroom
by screening different types of film: feature-length films,
short sequences of films, short films, and adverts.
Given the benefits of using film in the language learning
classroom, it is not surprising that many teachers are
keen to use film with their students, and an increasing
number of them are successfully integrating film into the
language-learning syllabus. Until quite recently it was
difficult to find pedagogically sound film material to
help students improve their language through watching
film, and teachers had to spend many hours creating their

own materials. However, with the advent of the internet
there is now a wealth of online resources for both
language teachers and their students. With so many
resources, it’s sometimes difficult for teachers to see the
wood for the trees.
Making and watching English Film. How
will ‘watching English films’ help students in learning
English? Watching movies in English will help them in
many ways:
1. Listening skills – The students will hear English
being used in a very natural way. Some parts may be
spoken too fast for them to understand but it will be a
perfect way for them to get used to hearing native
speakers talk to each other. They will also hear informal
English and slang words and phrases that they often do
not find in books or dictionaries.
2. Speaking skills – Hearing natives speaker will also
help their speaking skills, especially their fluency. They
will hear how to link your words together and where to
put intonation on certain words and sentences. Why not
watching films with their friends and speak about them
afterwards? Or they could even find movie scripts online
and act out scenes with their friends! They can then play
the scene to check if their pronunciation were correct.
3. Pronunciation – We all know that English
pronunciation is extremely difficult and when you read
words it is hard to know how they should be said.

Hearing native English speakers talk to each other will
help you to hear how words are pronounced. If you are
using English subtitles, you will also be able to see how
the words are written.
4. Vocabulary – By watching English movies, you will
hear many new words and phrases, especially idioms and
colloquial expressions. I would suggest keeping a
notebook with you and writing down any new words or
phrases you hear and you would like to remember or you
don’t understand. You can look up the meaning later or
ask your English teacher.
5. Put knowledge into practice – In your English
classes you will learn a lot of vocabulary and grammar
but you may not know how to use it in real life.
Watching English films will help you understand how to
use all the knowledge you have learnt in everyday
situations.
The Steps in Producing Film.
There are twenty four steps which provide detailed
and well-structured lesson plans based on producing film
which save the busy teachers and students a lot of time:

A. Getting the Essentials
1. Get a camera. Decide what kind of camera you
need and what kind of camera you can afford. If
you already have access to a relatively cheap
camcorder, consider filming a story that would
work well with a homemade-look.
2. Decide how you'll edit the film. you'll need to
import the footage onto a computer. The
computers come with PC. Computers come with
Windows Movie Maker, Vegas Pro, or any others,
basic types of editing software that will allow you
to edit the footage together, mix in the sound, and
even add credits. You can upgrade to more
complex and professional editing software.
3. Find a place to film. Look at what locations are
available to you, and consider what stories might
evolve from that location. Without access to said
convenience store, it would have been difficult
going.
4. Find people willing to help. With very few
exceptions, producing a film involves a large

group of people who come together to serve a
common goal: a great visual story that deserves
telling. You'll need people to act and people to
help film.
5. Dream up a visual story. Because most movies
are essentially visual stories, the first step is
coming up with an idea that you want to turn into a
movie. What's something that you'll have to see to
believe? You don't have to have every detail in
place, but you should have a basic idea of the
premise. Think about the movies you like to watch,
or the books you like to read, and consider what
makes them so interesting. Is it the characters, the
action, the visuals, or the theme? Whatever it is,
keep that element in mind as you plan your movie.
Write out a
list of all
the props,
locations
and actors
which are
currently
available
locally
then develop a film around this. Keep a dream
journal, dreams like films are visual stories and
dreams. Keep a notebook with you for writing
ideas down. Read the news stories in the papers.

Have a basic idea, and work with that. Narrow it
down as you go along while writing the plot.
6. Expand your idea into a story. The essentials
for building a story from your idea have to do with
character. Who is your protagonist? What does
your protagonist want? What keeps them from
getting it? How will the protagonist be changed? If
you can answer all these questions, you're on your
way to a great story. Make sure your story has a
beginning, in which the scenario and the characters
are introduced, a middle, in which the conflict
builds, and an ending, in which the conflict is
resolved.
7. Write a screenplay. A screenplay breaks every
moment of the story into an individual, film-able
scene. While it may be tempting to want to
costume-up and start filming every scene as it
comes, you'll be in much better shape if you can
plan things out before hand and think of your film
scene-by-scene. A screenplay writes out all the
dialog, attributed to each character, along with
some physical directions, exposition, and camera
movement. Each scene should start with a brief
description of the scene.
8. Storyboard your film. It can be done on a large
scale, drawing only each major scene or transition,
or, if you've got a very visual story, It can also be
done at the micro level, planning every shot and

camera angle. This process makes a long film go
more smoothly, and will help you anticipate
difficult scenes or sequences to film. You can try
shooting without storyboarding, but it will not only
help you visualize your movie, it will help you
explain your vision to the other members of the
crew.
9. Develop an aesthetic for your film. Because
movies are visual, it's a good idea to spend some
time on the "look and feel" of the movie.
10. Design the costumes and sets. How do you
want the setting of your film to look? Can you film
it in a real location, or will you have to build a set?
11. Consider lighting. Some movies feature soft,
almost gauzy lighting that makes the actors and the
sets look significantly more appealing, and the
entire film more dreamlike; others favor a lighting
style that looks closer to reality, and some people
push the edges and go for a really hard light that is
almost cutting.
12.Dress the sets, or scout a location. If you're
going to shoot on-location, find the area you want
and make sure it's available for filming. If you're
working on a set, start building and "dressing" (or
adding props) them. If possible, using actual
locations is easier. Green screens can look very
fake in certain locations but you can use one of
you want.

B. Casting the Crew.
13. Choose someone to direct. The director
controls the creative aspect of the movie, and is a
key connection between the crew and the cast. If
you have an idea for movie and know exactly how
it should look and feel, it would be a safe bet that
the director is you, but if your not good at directing
people and your not comfortable bossing people
around, then, you can take a different approach on
directing or just hire someone else and try to give
them the full picture. You'll cast the major players,
oversee the filming, and offer creative input where
you see fit.
14. Choose a Cinematographer, or Director of
Photography. This person is in charge of making
sure the lighting and actual filming of the movie go
smoothly, as well as deciding with the director
how each shot should be framed, lit, and shot. He

or she manages the lighting and camera crews, or
operates the camera on a small film.
15. Assign someone the set design. This person
is in charge of making sure the sets correspond
with the director's creative vision. Costume, hair,
and makeup design could be in the same category
on a very small production. On a large production,
this person would choose every costume used in
the film.
16. Put someone in charge of sound and music.
The sound man may be one or more people. Dialog
needs to be recorded either in scene, or looped in
later during production.
Sound effects, like gunshots and grenades or an
explosion, all need to be created; music needs to be
sourced, recorded, and mixed; and footsteps,
leather creaks, plates broken, doors slamming, etc.
All the needs to be generated. The sound also

needs mixed, edited, and lined up with the video in
post-production. And remember, the music doesn't
have to be very loud, it can be quiet in a quiet
scene to the point where people aren't focusing on
it as it now just acts an aid to capture the scene.
17. Cast your film. People in your community
might work for screen credits in low-budget films.
Of course, it would be advantageous to have a
well-known name starring in your movie, but
learning to play to the strengths of the actors you
do have will ensure that you've got a great filmed
product. If you need a cop character in your film,
call one up and ask if he'd be willing to film a
couple scenes some afternoon. Just make sure that
the movie doesn't involve anything illegal while
the police officer is there, as this could not end
well. If you need a college professor, contact the
school. Test the range of your actors. If you know
that one of them will have to cry in a sad scene,
make sure he or she can do it before you contract
for the project. Avoid scheduling conflicts. Make
sure your actors can be available on-set when you
need them. Be careful of stunts if any. The actor
might get injured.

C.Filming and Editing
18. Gather and test your equipment. At the very
least, you'll need a video camera. You will
probably also need a tripod — to mount the camera
for steady shots — lighting equipment, and sound
equipment. Filming some "screen tests" would be a
good idea. Give your actors the chance to practice
while being filmed, and give the crew a chance to
coordinate their actions.
19. Plan meticulously. Keep track of which "take"
is the best take for each scene, to help yourself in
the editing process later. If you've got to comb
through multiple missed takes and bad takes every
time you want to find the scene you wanted, the
editing process will be a drag. Make sure
everyone's on the same page at the start of each
day for filming each scene. It can get a lot to get a
whole case, crew, and location appointment
together at once, so it might help to write out and
distribute an itinerary at the beginning of the
process.
20. Film your movie. The decisions you make will
result in the difference between a "home movie" or
a professional looking movie. Some people say to
shoot multiple takes from multiple angles because
it will be more interesting in the end, giving
multiple options for the editing process. As a very
general rule, professional filmmakers shoot each

scene in a wide shot, medium shot and close up of
important elements.
21. Edit your film. Take your footage to your
computer, upload the files, then log them,
identifying what shots work. Put together a rough
cut using these shots. The way that you edit your
film drastically affects the way the film ends up
looking and feeling. Making jump cuts will hold
the viewer's interest and set the tone for an action
movie, but long, lingering shots have a powerful
impact as well, but done badly this can be very
boring. You can also edit to music, which is a fast
and effective way of editing; you can also edit to
music on a quiet section of the film, by choosing
music which provides the right mood. Editing
between various angles can quickly show multiple
things going on in the same scene. Use your
editing system's split or razor tool to create smaller
clips from multiple shots, and then mix and match.
You'll get the hang of it quickly, and with digital
movie making, your mistakes are always saved by
Undo.
22. Sync sound effects and music. Make sure
that your music flows with what is going on during
the movie at that second, and that the live sound
you recorded with the film comes through loud and
clear.

Re-record any parts that are important. Remember
that if you are planning on distributing a film using
found music can cause problems, so it is best if
you can get music specially composed for the film;
plus there are many skilled musicians out there
who would love to get experience.
23. Create the title and credits sequences.
You'll want to name your cast and crew at the end
of the film. You can also include a list of "thank
you” to any organizations that were willing to let
you shoot in their establishments. Most
importantly keep it simple.
24. Export the film to a digital format DVD.
Make a teaser or trailer. If you want to promote
your film online or in other theaters, select pieces
of it for a promotional trailer. Don't give away too
much of the plot, but do try to catch the viewer's
interest. Also don't forget to upload your movie to
youtube or your web.
***

Section THREE
WHAT IS DRAMA?
Drama is literature written for performance--or at
least written in a style that would allow for stage
performance. As a text form, drama can be thought of as
story told though spoken remarks and stage directions.
In the vocabulary of the English-speaking world
the word “drama” may be used to mean any of several
things. First, it may mean that art which is concerned
with plays as written and performed. Second, it may
mean a certain kind of composition in prose or verse
presenting, mainly through dialogue and pantomime, a
sequence of events intended to be acted on the stage,
Finally, it may mean that branch of literature
encompassing such compositions.
The principal subject of this section is the
dramatic composition – what it is, its parts, its various
kinds, and the qualities which make one composition
better or worse than others. We are about to study the
dramatic composition, therefore, not as a self-contained

work, not as literature, but as an element of the whole art
of the drama as it exists in performance. An analogy to
music may help to make the point clear. This study may
be compared to the study of musical composition, not of
the score as written, played, and heard.
And of all the literary forms, drama is the one in
which the author/dramatist almost never speaks directly
to the audience/reader. (The use of an onstage narrator—
as with the Stage Manager in Thornton Wilder's Our
Town— is relatively rare.) Similarly, few dramatists
create characters as vehicles for their thoughts or values,
as in some works of George Bernard Shaw. For the most
part, dramatists convey ideas through their characters
and the plot, rather than in a direct embodiment of
themselves in the way novelists do with narrators and
poets do with personas
A. Drama is an art.
1. Drama is an art which is concerned with
plays as written and performed.
2. Drama may mean a certain kind of
composition in prose or verse presenting,
mainly through dialogue and pantomime,
sequence of events intended to be acted on
the stage.
3. Drama may also mean that branch of
literature encompassing such compositions.

In order to make sense of the subject from this
approach, it is necessary to return briefly to the first
definition of drama given above: drama as an art of
which composition and performance are elements, and of
which the only final and complete work is the whole
play, including composition, performance, and audience
response.
Drama and Mood.
There is a saying in drama that you should leave
your personal problems at the stage door. In other words,
don’t let your current mood affect your performance.
Remember that while on the stage or in front of the
camera, you are the character you are playing, not the
other way around. However, you are human, and the
character you are playing is usually human. Don’t deny
your feelings, but patiently observe them so that you can
call upon them to breathe life into your future roles.
Drama entails a plot and characters that are
governed by a certain overriding theme. As an actor, it is
your duty to understand this theme and let it suffuse your
work. Work within the drama and let it flow through you
and the relationships that you build with other
characters. You can begin by discussing the stage or
screenplay with your fellow actors and or the director or
dramaturgy, if one is available. Coming to a common
agreement about the motivations of each character will
help round out the production as a whole.

Drama Strategy.
A simple strategy for creating honest drama is
through the use of mantras. While you are acting in a
scene, recite an appropriate motivational phrase over and
over again in your head. The mantra will subconsciously
affect your performance, making it seem more natural.
For example, if you are playing a love scene, you may
want to try reciting, “I love you”, in your head during the
scene. The mantra will help to add depth to your
character.
Drama and Playing.
Drama, and the act of performing drama, forces
us to re-engage the spirit of discovery. As students, we
played and discovered. In the artificial creation of human
relationship, and the mimicry of human relationships that
stem from the drama, we are forced to relearn how we
engage in relationships. The writer of drama must
examine how to bring characters together within the plot,
while the actor of drama must learn how to imitate these
relationships on stage. It is perhaps why we call it
“playing” a role, or even why a dramatic production is
called a “play”.
Drama and Humor.
Humor comedy acting is often a critical
component of drama, though it is one that is difficult to
create. Because humor is subjective, one can’t be sure
what will make an audience member laugh. Usually the
best rule of thumb is not to try too hard. In life, many
things can make us laugh, even in moments of high
tension. Ideally the writer will have achieved honestly in
the script, so as an actor you have only to portray the

role as honestly as possible. The audience will feel
manipulated and lose interest in the world you have
created with your character.
Drama in the University tend to have a highly
competitive admissions process. Applicants must submit
to an audition process before they are granted admission.
Here the drama focus on the development of acting
technique, usually focusing on work in the theatre.
Although the work is performance based, students
typically also learn about stage craft. Classes on set
building, lighting design, and even dramatic writing are
often offered so that students get a well-rounded
education.
B. The Characteristic of Drama
Considering drama as an art and comparing it
with other arts such as music, painting, and architecture,
one is able to note many ways in which it differs from or
resembles each of the others. The comparison reveals
four characteristics of drama, which, taken together,
distinguish it from other arts and also describe its own
peculiar artistic make-up.
First, temporal nature. Drama is a fugitive art.
Its best performance occupies only a few hours and then
is gone forever. From the point of view of the theatre
artist its characteristic effects must be achieved within
the narrow limits of time which circumscribe a single
performance.

The second characteristic of drama is that it is
mimetic. By this is meant that it re-creates, reproduces,
or re-presents. What it re-creates, of course, is human
life in speech and action. The thoughts, feelings,
decisions, and actions of human creatures constitute the
principal material from which the work of art is
authored. The re-creation of these is called mimesis.
The third characteristic of drama is that it is
interpretative. The ultimate work of art, the
performance, is not an original creation; it is an
interpretation performed according to a previously
created scheme or composition.
The fourth characteristic relates to the form of
drama. Drama as manifested in the performance is a
synthesis, or blend, or fusion, of distinct elements into a
complex whole. Fundamentally, the synthesis consists of
the art of the playwright plus the art of the performer, but
the typical production is a synthesis not any of director,
designer, composer and choreographer as well.
C. The Elements of Drama
The primary elements of drama are plot,
character, and theme. The theme is the central idea of the
work, or the audience. The theme governs the
progression of the plot. The plot in turn governs the
characters, who move through the plot’s conflicts,
thereby helping to further develop the theme. Other
elements such as irony and symbolism can be added to

lend more subtle touches to the drama, making it more
human and accessible.
The principal elements seen from the few of
theatre worker are:
1. Dramatic composition (the plot, language
characterization, and thought);
2. Acting (adaptation of the composition to the
stage, the directing, and the actor’s work in
itself);
3. Design / visual scheme(involving setting,
costume, properties and lighting).
The elements of drama are similar the to the
elements of fiction. Like fiction, drama usually tells a
story with characters, plot and setting. Unlike fiction,
drama is written to be performed for an audience. For
this reason, drama is written in a special from called a
script, in which lines are written has various parts.
Cast of Characters. A script usually begins
with a list of the characters in the play. Often a short
description appears next to character’s name.
Dialogues. A play consists almost entirely of
dialogue, conversation between the characters. Both the
plot of the play and the characters’ personalities are
revealed through dialogue. The dialogue appears in lines
next to the characters’ name.

Stage directions. A play includes instructions
for the director, the performers, and the stage crew.
These are called stage directions. Many stage directions
also describe the scenery – all the decorations on stage
that helps create the setting. Some stage directions
describe props – the objects the actors need during the
play. Many scripts also include suggestions for lighting
and sound. The stage directions in drama that are meant
to be filmed must also include camera directions.
Through the medium of the camera , the audience might
see a close-up of a character, a look between characters
while someone else is speaking, or a quick shots of the
outside a high school. These types of camera shots are
carefully planned by the playwright and are an important
element in the play.
Acts and scenes. The action of a play is
divided into scenes. A scene changes whenever the
setting-time, place, or both time and place – changes.
D. The Dramatic Composition
The composition is also called the script,
playscript, or scenario, is the written plan or scheme
according to which a drama is performed. In point of
time, the composition is necessarily the first element of
the synthesis to develop. All the other elements, such as
acting, directing, and design, are dependent upon it,
develop out of it, and are incapable of exiting apart from

it. Until the play has been written, it cannot be designed,
directed or acted.
Kinds of Composition. The principal kinds of
composition are those which are distinguished according
to the author’s purpose, his attitude toward his subject,
and his treatment of his material.
The author’s purpose. The primary purpose of
the play is persuasion. Many another play is composed
primarily in order to demonstrate some theory or to teach
some sort of lesson.
The author’s attitude.
The author’s treatment of his material.
Formalities of Composition
Unifying devices.
Devices for increasing impact.
Device for economizing exposition.
Terminal device.
The Elements of Composition
 The plot
 The characterization
 The language
 The thought
 The dance
 The design

E. The PLOT.
Plot is the scheme of action which includes the
selection, arrangement, and progression of events from
the beginning and the end of the play.
Plot is the thing that moves your Story. It is the
main plan of your story. It is the engine that drives the
story forward on course. It is the hook, or mystery, or
engaging "what if" that interests the viewer. The plot
extends to include all the things that make the story
work. Plot is the most important part of a screenplay and
is an integral part of the story. You can write out the
plot, or you can weave the tangled web in your head. But
you should know the basic plot.
The easiest way to plot a story is to know two
things: What your characters want, and what the
situation is. When the characters are put in a situation,
they are going to start working to get what they want.
Plotting a story can be a lot of fun. You keep
asking yourself, "What would this character do in this
situation?" or, "What would happen if this happened?"
And you continue throwing your characters into worse
and worse situations until they finally cave in or conquer
the problem. It's fun to ask others what they think
someone would do. You'll find by discussing it with
others you'll get a lot of ideas and write a more
believable screenplay. Start getting your ideas on paper

as soon as possible. This helps solidify them so they
don't drift around in space forever.
Part of the problem with plotting is that once you
have planned your story through to the end, you know
the ending and the thrill of discovery is finished for you.
The way to avoid this is to remember that each scene is a
little story in itself, so you have several little stories to
write for your screenplay.
The mad rush to get it written can work in your
favor. Instead of writing full scenes, write brief
paragraphs about what is going to happen in the scenes
or acts, so you get a brief sketch of the entire story on
paper. There are always some great scenes you will want
to write right away, so do it. This way the character's
motivations can still drive the story, but not get out of
control.
Subplot. The subplot is like the plot, but not as
important. It intertwines with the plot and helps develop
it. Romance is a very typical subplot.
The plot is how the author arranges events to
develop his basic idea; It is the sequence of events in a
story or play. The plot is a planned, logical series of
events having a beginning, middle, and end. The short
story usually has one plot so it can be read in one sitting.
There are four essential parts of plot:
a) Introduction - The beginning of the story where
the characters and the setting is revealed.

b) Rising Action - This is where the events in the
story become complicated and the conflict in the story is
revealed (events between the introduction and climax).
c) Climax- This is the highest point of interest and the
turning point of the story. The reader wonders what will
happen next; will the conflict be resolved or not?
d) Falling action - The events and complications
begin to resolve themselves. The reader knows what has
happened next and if the conflict was resolved or not.
(1). Kinds of Plots
(2). The Episode
(3). Articulation of Plot
(4). Plot Conflict
(5). Dilemma
(6). Irony
(7). Suspense
(8). Surprise
(1). Kinds of Plots
There are three kinds of plots: simple; complex;
and compound. The simple plot is one which represents
a direct progression of events from some acceptable
starting point to some predictable conclusion, with no
major deviation from expectation.

(2). The Episode
An episode is a part of a dramatic work such as
a serial television or radio program. An episode is a
part of a sequence of a body of work, akin to a chapter of
a book. The term sometimes applies to works based on
other forms of mass media. Episodes of news programs
are also known as editions. Episodes which end in the
middle of a climactic moment are often called
cliffhangers, after the name used for early movie serials.
Such episodes can be nearly daily occurrences in soap
operas and are frequently used in season finales of many
prime time shows. Episodes can be part of a larger story
are stretched out over a time period covering one or
more seasons, or even an entire series run.
F. The Characterization
The whole subject of characterization is an
exceedingly complex one because of the intricate
relationship between composition and performance. In
performance the behavior and speech of the character
seem spontaneous. Only a few in the writing or acting
will permit even momentary recognition of the fact that
what the actor is saying and doing has been
predetermined by the actor. Certain aspects of character
are clear in any dramatic composition :
(1). Aesthetic acceptability.
(2). Identification.
(3). Consistency of character.
(4). Motivation.

(5). Revelation.
(6). Contrast.
(7). Conflict.
However the playwright and actor also have the
choice of indirect characterization in a similar vein to the
writer in literature. The presentation of a character for
a sociological discussion only has to be as real as the
discussion requires. In this way a character can be used
as an iconic reference by a playwright to suggest
location, an epoch in history, or even draw in
a political debate. The inclusion of a stock character, or
in literary terms an archetypal character, by
a playwright can risk drawing overly simplistic pictures
of people and smack of stereotyping. However, the
degree of success in direct characterization in order to
swiftly get to the action varies from play to play, and
often according to the use the character is put to. In
explicitly characterizing a certain character the actor
makes a similar gamble. The choice of what aspects of a
character are demonstrated by the actor to directly
characterize is a political choice and makes a statement
as to the ethics and agenda of the actor.
G. The Language
The language of the drama is distinguished by the
fact that its primary appeal is to the ear. It must be heard
to be fully appreciated. In this respect it differs from

language of other kinds and other purposes. By contrast,
dramatic language is rather more pleasant to hear than to
see and is designed to catch the ear.
Since drama consists of the spoken word,
language plays a role in drama insofar as the language of
the characters offers clues to their backgrounds, feelings,
and personalities, and to changes in feeling throughout
the play.
The requirements of Dramatic Language.
The distinguishing fact of its auditory appeal
imposes upon dramatic language two cardinal
necessities, The first of these is oral effectiveness. This
means that the language must be such as an actor can
speak easily and can manipulate to maximum dramatic
effect. The second necessity is auditory effectiveness.
This means that it must be the kind of language that an
audience can really enjoy listening to and can understand
without difficulty.
Oral effectiveness. In order to be effectively
spoken, language must recognize the virtues and
limitations of the human voice. For example, emotion is
expressed in speech mainly by the way in which a
speaker utters vowel sounds. In the best dramatic
language, therefore, vowels are arranged in such a way
as to allow the actor considerable leeway in voicing
these sounds, sustaining them when necessary or
coloring them with emotion.
Auditory effectiveness. Most of the devices
which make language pleasant to hear are based on the

repetition of certain sounds according to some distinct
pattern.
Poetic Language.
Poetic language gives the impression less of a
mode of expression than of a character unusually well-
spoken; of a character imaginative and emotional,
fascinating to listen to and more than ordinary vivid in
his speech.
Prosaic Language.
It imitates everyday speech, In general it avoids
highly colored images and pronounced rhythms, aiming
rather toward the idiom and the impression of
formlessness of the language we hear about us. The
difference between prose and poetry is like the
difference between drawing and painting.
Some forms of Dramatic Language.
For the purposes of this discussion it will suffice
to note a few of the outstanding forms of dramatic
language. They are: dialogue, set speech, and soliloquy
The Dialogue. The commonest form of dramatic
language is dialogue: conversation between two or more
persons. The sharpest, most effective dialogue is usually
that which takes place between two characters, but
dialogue between three or more is capable of greater
variety and of being sustained longer. Dialogue

involving more than five characters is likely to be
somewhat diffuse, for five is generally the largest
number that a listener can keep track of without
conscious effort.
The Set Speech. It is a speech, addressed by one
character to another, or to a group, which is set off
somewhat from the dialogue by its greater length, more
careful composition, and especial appropriateness.
The soliloquy (“speaking alone”). It is used in
drama to describe a speech which is delivered either
when a character is alone on the stage or when, in the
presence of other characters, his speech is not addressed
to them and is usually not heard by them.
H. The Thought
The nature of drama as a simulation of life makes
the thought content of a play a matter of considerable
importance. How important the thought is depends upon
how serious the play is. In farce the thought is
inconsequential, for the view of life in a farce is
flippant; in tragedy the quality of the thought –
according to the view of life intended – is of first
importance.
(1). The nature of thought in the drama.
Most serious dramas are marked by the presence
of some pervading idea or “theme”, and it is according to

this idea of life that the action is developed and the
characters motivated.
(2). The channels through which thought is
Expressed.
The author’s thought is evident in four aspect of
his work: plotting, characterization, language and the use
of symbols. A symbol is a material object which
represents something immaterial. In drama it may be
some object featured in the action in such a way as to
suggest certain meanings or emotional states not actually
shown or described, or it may be some object referred to
repeatedly until eventually it acquires special
significance for the audience. Occasionally, though
rarely, the symbol is developed from some sound or
smell.
I. The audience
The audience is the better half of the play. With
drama the ultimate test of quality is its effect in
performance. Great drama is drama of great
effectiveness; it provokes thought, arouses laughter, or
stirs the emotions to an extraordinary degree. As the
performance takes shape moment by moment it calls
forth a perceptible response from its audience which
becomes increasingly definite as the play progresses. As
this response develops, a reciprocity is established
between performer and audience which enhances the

whole experience for all involved: audience, actor, and
playwright, too, if he be alive and present.
Among theatre people there is a saying that the
audience is the better half of the play. What they mean
by this is that the drama is at its best when its
performance is supported by a responsive audience.
Everyone who works in the theatre certainly knows how
the same play can achieve at one time, with a sensitive
audience, an inspired and brilliant performance, while at
another time, with a dull audience, it falls woefully short
of the brilliance which all know to be potential in it.
Levels of perception and effect. Every audience
is composed of individuals representing many different
levels of perception. These levels can be differentiated
according to age, education, intellect, emotional
sensitively, and experience both of life and of dramatic
art.
Aftereffects. A play seldom ends when the
performance is concluded. Like a piece of music, it lives
on for some time in the memory of the spectator. If it has
been a good play and well performed, it may live thus
for many years. The more intense the pleasure during the
performance and the greater the impact, the more vivid
the memory is likely to be. The richer the work and the
more meanings it possesses, the longer this memory is
likely to persist.
Afterimages. The most vivid afterimages are
usually those created by certain high points in a play

when the action is momentarily arrested, and they
remain in the mind like pictures.
*
“Conflict”

Section FOUR
ACTING
Acting is being, and one of the greatest
challenges facing any actor is producing realistic, non-
self-conscious behavior on cue while being observed by
an audience. Advice on acting ranges from simple tips
such as "Know your lines and don't bump into the
furniture" to avant-garde exercises involving actors
running around in animal masks and grass skirts trying
to establish
dominance over
one another. Often
the simplest acting
advice is the best
and most useful.
The
director’s principal
medium of expression in achieving the projection is the
actors – individually and collectivity, and in their

relations to each other as well as to the setting in which
or before which they move and speak.
First principal has already been implied: a good
performance is rooted deeply in the play from which it
springs. Its patterns of action, of dialogue, and of
character are not only congruous one with the other, but
are uniquely suited to a particular playscript. A good
performance is composed not of random bits from other
roles, other plays, and other productions, but of carefully
integrated details characteristic of the style and form of
the manuscript at hand.
In the second place, a good performance is
continuously clear.
Thirdly, a good performance is continuously
interesting.
Fourthly, a good Performance must seem to be
spontaneous as well.
Finally, a good performance is a team
performance.

Purpose and method of acting.
The director of a dramatic production has for his
central objective – in its simplest terms – the projection
to an audience of the form, purpose, and meaning of a
playwright’s manuscript.
(2). Movement and gesture
(3). Voice and Speech
(4). Characterization
(5). A perspective on the whole.
Emotional Scenes.
For many actors, learning to “cry on crew is one
of the hardest skills to learn. There are many exercises
one can do to reach the emotional level where tears can
come freely. The best methods may be not to try. In
other words, the more we attempt to use a techniques,
the less it can work for us.
Read the Entire Script
You must memorize your part to be prepared,
but you also need to be familiar with the entire script to
act in it
effectively. If
you thoroughly
understand the
story, then you
have context for
your character.
Knowing the
full context of
your role allows

you to build your character intelligently so that
everything you do is in service to the story being told. A
lot of actors read the entire script maybe once at the first
cast read-through and after that focus on their lines.
Reread the script repeatedly throughout the production's
run so that you understand each 1. story beat and what
level of energy you need to bring to your scenes to keep
the story on track.
Listen. Actors are often guilty of not effectively
listening to their acting partners unless they are waiting
for the next cue. This is a bad habit that can ruin scenes,
because the audience will quickly grow bored watching
actors who are not connecting with each other. There is a
lot of truth to Spencer Tracy's advice that acting is
largely reacting to the other person. Perform exercises
with your acting partners in which the objective is to
simply listen and wordlessly react while they talk.
Staying in character when the other actors are the focal
point not only makes them look better, it also enhances
your own performance and helps create a believable
scene.
Relax. Being tense prohibits you from effectively
expressing your character's state of being. When you are
tense, you cannot focus on character, your fellow actors
or the scene itself. It's also a mistake to think that you
have to be keyed up to play a tense character, because
you certainly wouldn't get drunk to play a drunk scene.
Before performing, you should practice some breathing
exercises and stretch your body. Warming up is one of
the simplest and most effective ways to relax your mind
and body before performing so that you can concentrate
on the work itself.

Section FIVE
THEATRE and STAGE
It concerns the contributions to a dramatic
performance made by the theatre structure which houses
the performance, and by the type of scenery which forms
its décor. Theatre structure differ widely in their basic
architectural organization, which dictates the relationship
between actor, scenery, and audience. The most
primitive organization of the theatre space is the pure (or
complete) arena, which provides merely an un localized
space for the action in the midst of the audience.

In theatre or performance arts, the stage is a
designated space for the performance of productions.
The stage serves as a space for actors or performers and
a focal point for the members of the audience. As an
architectural feature, the stage may consist of a platform.
There are several types of stages that vary as to the usage
and the relation of the audience to them. The most
common form found in the West is the proscenium
stage. In this type, the audience is located on one side of
the stage with the remaining sides hidden and used by
the performers and technicians. Thrust stages may be
similar to proscenium stages but with a platform or
performance area that extends into the audience space so
that the audience is located on three sides. In theatre in
the round, the audience is located on all four sides of the
stage. The fourth type of stage incorporates created and
found stages which may be constructed specifically for a
performance or may involve a space that is adapted as a
stage.

Section SIX
DESIGN
‘Design’ is the visual scheme of the production,
including scenery, properties, and stage lighting.
‘Design’ therefore consists of all the inanimate things
which contribute to the visual effect of the performance.
The visual scheme of the production is developed
simultaneously in both time and space. Scenery,
costumes, and properties exist in space, and either
separately or together they make their separately or
together they make their primary appeal to the eye. At
any given moment during the performance the
arrangements and the effects of which they are capable
respond to principles which govern the spatial arts.
Design in drama or theater can also be discussed
in terms of the type of space in which it is provided.
Stages and auditoriums have distinctive forms in every

era and in different cultures. Design as an element of
drama. When you are asked about the 'design elements'
in an evaluation, they usually mean things like costume,
props, lighting, all the things that you have designed to
enhance your theatre. We provide comprehensive
theatre planning and design services for all types of
theatres, from professional and civic theatres to
university and schools. We collaborate with theatre
architects, theatre owners and performing arts
organizations to design outstanding venues. Our work
includes new theatres, renovations, historic
restoration and adaptive re-use. With ongoing
experience in the theatre design and technology,
theatre systems, and operations of performing arts
theatres, The Studio understands how to provide for
each theatre's unique artistic goals and practical needs.

We also design architectural lighting for a wide
range of clients. From intimate restaurants to corporate
offices and art installations, our designers believe
thoughtful, creative lighting design, fully integrated with
the architecture, completes the built environment. Our
work combines artistry, technical skill, and
environmental awareness with real world issues of cost,
maintenance, constructability, and code compliance to
provide winning solutions.
The aesthetic of theatre art is different from most
other arts in that it really exist only for the brief space of
time during which the play is being performed. One
among the aesthetic factors is the need for a sound unity
in the visual scheme. This unity is most simply defined
as oneness. In the production which possesses it all the
various parts of the design seem to belong together and
to contribute to some central plan or idea. A perfectly
unified design is one in which nothing is absent which

could add to the total effect and in which nothing is
present which does not strengthen the whole.
The Set and Costume Designer conceives the
physical space and costume for performance. Stage
designers need to be able to innovate and to provide
inspiration for stage directors, actors, set and costume
makers. Study will include projects that go from model
box to full-realization in a range of performance spaces.
Students will get to experiment with form, space and
performance genres with experienced professionals. At
Central, the course will indicatively include: learning to
make models; producing technical and costume
drawings; applying these skills in order realize public
productions in our professionally equipped performance
spaces; Undertaking theoretical design projects from
opera to site-specific installations; working in an inter-
disciplinary style with students of other courses (such as
construction and craft students, who'll realize designs,
lighting and sound design students, and production and
stage management students, who'll bring the work to the
moment of the performance).

Section SEVEN
DIRECTION
The proper goal of every dramatic production is
to project a complete and accurate theatrical effect to an
audience. Such an effect is a composite pattern of visual
and auditory stimuli which produces an intellectual or
emotional responses on the part of the spectators; it is the
direct translation of the form and purpose of a play into
the expressional mode of the stage. The script initiates
the production: actors, assisted by all the aspects of
design, are the medium for creating the effect.
These elements alone – script, actors, design,
plus a theatre and audience – have on occasion resulted
in effective theatre production. At times a playwright, a
theatre manager, a patron, an actor, or perhaps a
“prompter” has acted as the coordinator of the
production, and has performed some of the function
which we now assign to a director. By reason of the
individual skills of the artists themselves, it is possible

today as in the past for a superior company to give an
effective performance without the guidance of a director.
A theatre director or stage director is a
director/instructor in the theatre field who oversees and
orchestrates the mounting of a theatre production (a play,
an opera, a musical, or a devised piece of work) by
unifying various endeavors and aspects of production.
The director's function is to ensure the quality and
completeness of theatre production and to lead the
members of the creative team into realizing their artistic
vision for it. The director therefore collaborates with a
team of creative individuals and other staff, coordinating
research, stagecraft, costume design, props, lighting
design, acting, set design, stage combat, and sound
design for the production. If the production he or she is
mounting is a new piece of writing or a (new) translation
of a play, the director may also work with the playwright
or translator. In contemporary theatre, after
the playwright, the director is generally the primary
visionary, making decisions on the artistic concept and
interpretation of the play and its staging. Different
directors occupy different places of authority and

responsibility, depending on the structure and
philosophy of individual theatre companies. Directors
utilize a wide variety of techniques, philosophies, and
levels of collaboration.
Content. We can use the same criteria of content
with drama as we used with novels and stories:
character, action, and setting. With dramatic
performance, however, we must add several additional
elements. Putting on a play involves not only actors, but
also a set designer, a costume designer, and a director.
The director controls the action. The set and costume
designer contribute to creating a visual representation of
the setting.
(1). The Director as Administrator.
(2). The Director as Leader.
(3). The Director as Interpreter.
It is to be seen from this analysis that the director has
highly complicated duties. As interpreter, he analyzes
the script for the intent of the whole and of the parts. He
conducts the rehearsals, and make various other
preparations. He supplies leadership for the group in
order to inspire the best effort of each associate. He so
patterns the auditory and visual stimuli that the full
intent of the script is imparted to the audience. And as an
objective critic, he evaluates the work of all of his
associates and, if need be, coaches them in those phases
of their efforts that fall short of successful expression. In
consequence, he is responsible for the total effect of the
production.

Section EIGHT
WHY DO WE USE DRAMA?
Why do we usedrama,and whatare its advantages in English
Language Teaching? The teachers and students felt positive of
Using drama in the English language classroom. Students of this
study found that drama could create a relaxing environment;
provide fun, interest and motivation; offer active participation
opportunities; help in cognitive development; encourage self
expression; develop creativity and imagination; facilitate the
developmentof communication and collaboration skills; help them
to learn things in depth; and provide context for language
acquisition.
Regarding the teaching of literacy skills through drama,
students also found the approach useful in teaching reading,
writing, speaking and listening. Students generally found
themselvescomfortableinparticipatinginthedramaactivitieswhen
they were given enough exposure to get used to the approach and
could work in groups to prepare for their performances. Moreover,
students revealed that most of them performed seriously in front of
the class. Nevertheless, the top-ranked students and the lower-

ranked students admitted that they did not make full use of their
preparation time to prepare for their performances.
The positive perceptions of the use of process drama in
teaching English among learners maysuggest that teachers should
adopt this approach in their language classrooms to motivate
students to learn English and to develop their generic skills.
Teachers can also use drama to link up the teaching of the reading,
writing, speaking and listening because drama could provide
meaningful contextsforstudents to acquireand to use the language.
Students also identified problems in adopting the process
drama approach in English teaching context. They revealed that
there might be discipline problems. Also, the effectiveness of the
learning outcome relied on students’ learning attitudes. When
students didnot take the dramaactivities seriously, they mightnot be
able to benefit from the lessons. Furthermore, they pointed out that
large class size would be a big problem in adopting the process
drama approach. It seems that many of the problems identified are
related to the large classes in the University.
There are also important aspects for the University to
consider. One of the major findings of the study is that in order to
facilitatethe useof processdrama,smallclassteachingseems to be
of paramount importance, as small classes might help to solve a lot
of problemsincludingdisciplineproblems.Oneexampleis that some
top-rankedstudents admitted that theyplayed during the preparation
time. With small classes, teacher can closelyinspect students’ work
when they are in groups, it might help to prevent students from
playing. Moreover, when the classes are smaller and the students of
similar English ability are grouped together, it would be easier for
teachers to select teaching materials that better cater for the needs
and levels of the students. Small classes can also circumvent
students from getting bored bywatching too manyperformances on

the same issue. Students may then truly enjoy learning English
through drama. Drama bridges the gap between course-book
dialogues and natural usage, and can also help to bridge a similar
gap between the classroom and real-life situations by providing
insights into how to handle trickysituations.
Drama strengthens the bond between thought and expression
in language, provides practice of supra segmental and
paralanguage, and offers good listening practice. If drama is
considered as a teaching method in the sense of being part of the
eclecticapproach to language teaching, then it can become a main
aid in the acquisition of communicative competence.
Dramaactivitiesfacilitatethe type of languagebehaviorthat
should lead to fluency, and if it is accepted that the learners want to
learn a language in order to make themselves understood in the
target language, then drama does indeed further this end. In
addition, drama could always be extended and used as a starting-
point for other activities. The theme can act as a stimulus for
discussionorwrittenwork goingfar beyond the acting out of scenes.
Dramatic activitiescanthusbe integratedintoa course, whichinturn
couldleadto them beingexploitedintermsof the languagesyllabus,
for example the learning of vocabulary, even of structures. As
mattersstand now, dramaanddramatic activitiestend not to exist as
a special area within the syllabus separate from all other language
activities, but they often overlap with them. Perhaps one of the
greatest advantages to be gained from the use of drama is that
students become more confident in their use of English by
experiencing the language in operation. The student - centredness
inherent in all dramatic activities also improves students' maturity
and motivation, and the physical involvement contained in drama
along with the concept of learning language through action is an
effective variation on the method of Total Physical Response2 and

other holistic approaches to language teaching, where the learner
rather than the languageorindeedthe teacher is at the centre of the
learning process.
Drama in the English language classroom is ultimately
indispensable becauseit gives learners the chance to use their own
personalities. It draws upon students' natural abilities to imitate and
express themselves, and if well-handled should arouse interest and
imagination. Drama encourages adaptability, fluency, and
communicative competence. It puts language into context, and by
giving learnersexperience of success in real-life situations it should
arm them with confidence for tackling the world outside the
classroom.

‘trauma’

Section NINE
LESSON PLAN
Teaching and learning English using drama or
film is increasingly common in educational contexts. The
most significant kind of learning which is attributable to
experience in drama is the growth in the student’s
understanding about human behavior, themselves and the
world they live in. When we use drama in our lessons we
are unquestionably enhancing not only creativity and
imagination but also sensitivity towards oneself and
towards others. From the very moment that students decide
which role to take on they start learning a certain number
of facts about themselves and about other people ⎯ as we
have just seen that we do in our everyday life. The
emotional experience conveyed in the process is not limited
to having a personal insight but also extends to
understanding and feeling sympathy for the experience of
others. And this is essential in any learning process.
An active teaching style, based on
communication, thought and context, demands methods
geared to meaningful and reflexive learning processes.
When dramatizing, we are using our imagination to

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