Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. These can be activated by enzyme hydrolysis, which causes the sugar part to be broken off, making the chemical available for use. Many such plant glycosides are used as medications. In animals and humans, poisons are often bound to sugar molecules as part of their elimination from the body.A glycoside is a molecule consisting of a sugar and a non-sugar group, called an aglycone. The sugar group is known as the glycone and can consist of a single sugar group or several sugar groups. The sugars is in its cyclic form and is covalently attached to the aglycon through the hydroxyl group of the hemiactal function. There are many different kinds of aglycones. It can be a terpene, a flavonoid, a coumarin or practically any other natural occurring product (se figure 1) The glycone can be attached to the aglycon in many different ways. The most common bridging atom is oxygen (O-glycoside), but it can also be sulphur (S-glycoside), nitrogen (N-glycoside) or carbon (C-glycoside). In general, one distinguishes between α-Glycosides and β-glycosides, depending on the configuration of the hemiactal hydroxyl group. The majority of the naturally occurring glycosides are β-glycosidesGenerally glycosides are more polar than the aglycones and as a result glycoside formation usually increases water solubility. This may allow the producing organism to transport and store the glycoside more efficiently Many biologically active compounds are glycosides. The pharmacological effects are largely determined by the structure of the aglycone. Glycosides comprise several important classes of compounds such as hormones, sweeteners, alkaloids, flavonoids and antibiotics

1. GLYCOSIDESGLYCOSIDES
K.Sudheer Kumar,
Assistant professor.
Dept.of Pharmacognosy
Chilkur Balaji college of Pharmacy
Hyderabad.
E-mail:sudheer.y2k8@gmail.com
K.Sudheer Kumar,
Assistant professor.
Dept.of Pharmacognosy
Chilkur Balaji college of Pharmacy
Hyderabad.
E-mail:sudheer.y2k8@gmail.com

2. Definition
Organic natural compounds present in a lot of plants and some animals,
these compounds upon hydrolysis give one or more sugars (glycone) β- form and
non sugar (aglycone) or called genin.
More important in medicine than a lot of drugs.
Occur in higher plant tissues in very small amounts
Also fungal and bacterial cells (exuded in medium) and animals
Formed by a biochemical reaction that makes a water insoluble compound more
polar than a water soluble molecule
Man forms them in the liver as part of the process of detoxification and they are
excreted via urine
Mammalian glycosides are simple compounds whereas plant glycosides are much
larger and chemically more complex
More important in medicine than a lot of drugs.
Occur in higher plant tissues in very small amounts
Also fungal and bacterial cells (exuded in medium) and animals
Formed by a biochemical reaction that makes a water insoluble compound more
polar than a water soluble molecule
Man forms them in the liver as part of the process of detoxification and they are
excreted via urine
Mammalian glycosides are simple compounds whereas plant glycosides are much
larger and chemically more complex

3. Glycoside - a natural substances that contain carbohydrates where glycosidic part
of the molecule (cyclic form of sugars) is connected with an organic radical that is
not a sugar (aglycone or genin).
By the nature of the sugar glycosides are divided into two groups: piranosides
and furanosides. There are also α-and β-glycosides depending on the configuration
of carbon connected to the aglycone. Sugar part of the molecules may contain one
or more interconnected sugars (monosaccharides, disaccharides, etc.).
Pentosides - pentose glycosides, hexosides - hexose glycosides, biosides -
glycosides of disaccharides.
Glycoside - a natural substances that contain carbohydrates where glycosidic part
of the molecule (cyclic form of sugars) is connected with an organic radical that is
not a sugar (aglycone or genin).
By the nature of the sugar glycosides are divided into two groups: piranosides
and furanosides. There are also α-and β-glycosides depending on the configuration
of carbon connected to the aglycone. Sugar part of the molecules may contain one
or more interconnected sugars (monosaccharides, disaccharides, etc.).
Pentosides - pentose glycosides, hexosides - hexose glycosides, biosides -
glycosides of disaccharides.

4. Physico-chemical properties of glycosides
• Colorless, solid, amorphous, nonvolatile (flavonoid- yellow, anthraquinone-red or
orange).
• Give positive reaction with Molisch's and Fehling's solution test (after hydrolysis).
• They are water soluble compounds, insoluble in organic solvents.
• Most of them have bitter taste.(except: populin, glycyrrhizin, stevioside).
• Odorless except saponin (glycyrrhizin).
• when a glycosides has a lot of sugars its solubility in water decrease.
• Glycosides hydrolyzed by using mineral acids and temperature or by using enzymes
• Glycosides are water soluble compounds and insoluble in the organic solvents.
• Glycone part: water soluble, insoluble in the organic solvents.
• Aglycone part: water insoluble, soluble in the organic solvents.
• Some glycosides soluble in alcohol.
• Colorless, solid, amorphous, nonvolatile (flavonoid- yellow, anthraquinone-red or
orange).
• Give positive reaction with Molisch's and Fehling's solution test (after hydrolysis).
• They are water soluble compounds, insoluble in organic solvents.
• Most of them have bitter taste.(except: populin, glycyrrhizin, stevioside).
• Odorless except saponin (glycyrrhizin).
• when a glycosides has a lot of sugars its solubility in water decrease.
• Glycosides hydrolyzed by using mineral acids and temperature or by using enzymes
• Glycosides are water soluble compounds and insoluble in the organic solvents.
• Glycone part: water soluble, insoluble in the organic solvents.
• Aglycone part: water insoluble, soluble in the organic solvents.
• Some glycosides soluble in alcohol.

5. Role of glycosides in the plants
• Converting toxic materials to non or less toxic.
• Transfer water insoluble substances by using monosaccharide.
• Source of energy (sugar reservoir).
• Storing harmful products such as phenol.
• Regulation for certain functions(growth).
• Some have beautiful colours (pollenation process).
• Some glycosides have antibacterial activity, so they protect the plants from
bacteria and diseases.
• Converting toxic materials to non or less toxic.
• Transfer water insoluble substances by using monosaccharide.
• Source of energy (sugar reservoir).
• Storing harmful products such as phenol.
• Regulation for certain functions(growth).
• Some have beautiful colours (pollenation process).
• Some glycosides have antibacterial activity, so they protect the plants from
bacteria and diseases.

6. Classification of glycosides on the basis of the linkage between glycone and aglycone part
CLASSIFICATION OF GLYCOSIDES
O-glycosides : In these glycosides the sugar part is linked with a oxygen
atom of aglycone .
S-glycosides : In these glycosides the sugar attached to a Sulfur atom of
aglycone ,for example sinigrin.
N-glycosides : In these glycosides the sugar linked with Nitrogen atom of
(-NH2,-NH-)amino group of aglycone ,for example nucleosides
DNA,RNA.
C-glycosides : In these glycosides the sugar linked (condensed) directly to
Carbon atom of aglycone ,for example aloin.
O-glycosides : In these glycosides the sugar part is linked with a oxygen
atom of aglycone .
S-glycosides : In these glycosides the sugar attached to a Sulfur atom of
aglycone ,for example sinigrin.
N-glycosides : In these glycosides the sugar linked with Nitrogen atom of
(-NH2,-NH-)amino group of aglycone ,for example nucleosides
DNA,RNA.
C-glycosides : In these glycosides the sugar linked (condensed) directly to
Carbon atom of aglycone ,for example aloin.

7. Classification of glycosides based on glycone part
• Glucose - Sennoside.
• Rhamnose - frangullin.
• Digitoxose - digoxin.
• Glucose and Rhammnose Glucorhamnoside -glucofrangulin.
• Rhamnose and glucose - Rhamnoglucoside -Rutin.
• Glucose - Sennoside.
• Rhamnose - frangullin.
• Digitoxose - digoxin.
• Glucose and Rhammnose Glucorhamnoside -glucofrangulin.
• Rhamnose and glucose - Rhamnoglucoside -Rutin.

8. Classification of glycosides based on chemical group
[1] Saponins (soaps) aglycone = trans-linked steroid , Ginsang , Dioscorea .
[2] Cardiac glycosides (poisons) from squill, Digitalis,
[3] Anthracene derivatives (purgatives)---- Aloe , Senna , Cascara
[4] Flavenoidal mainly anti-inflammatory drugs, --- Gingko , Buckwheat .
[5] Coumarins cyclooxygenase inhibitors e.g..Ammi , Visanga
[6] Phenolic analgesics – aspirin
[7] Cyanogenic compounds --- Bitter almond , Wild cherry bark
[1] Saponins (soaps) aglycone = trans-linked steroid , Ginsang , Dioscorea .
[2] Cardiac glycosides (poisons) from squill, Digitalis,
[3] Anthracene derivatives (purgatives)---- Aloe , Senna , Cascara
[4] Flavenoidal mainly anti-inflammatory drugs, --- Gingko , Buckwheat .
[5] Coumarins cyclooxygenase inhibitors e.g..Ammi , Visanga
[6] Phenolic analgesics – aspirin
[7] Cyanogenic compounds --- Bitter almond , Wild cherry bark

9. Classifications of glycosides based on their therapeutic effects
CHF(Congestive Heart Failure)and cardiac muscles stimulators
a. Digitalis glycosides: digoxin, digitoxin, gitoxin (Fox glove leaves).
b. Ouabain: Strophanthus gratus seeds.
c. K-strophanthin -Strophanthus kombe seeds.
d. Scillaren A,B which isolated from red and white Squill bulbs.
Laxative group of glycosides
a. Sennoside A,B,C,D (Senna leaves and fruits).
b. Cascaroside A,B (Cascara bark).
c. Aloin and barbaloin (Aloe vera and Aloe barbadensis juice).
Laxative group of glycosides
a. Sennoside A,B,C,D (Senna leaves and fruits).
b. Cascaroside A,B (Cascara bark).
c. Aloin and barbaloin (Aloe vera and Aloe barbadensis juice).
Local irritant group :Sinigrin (Black mustered seeds-Brassica nigra)
Analgesics and antipyretics : Salicin Salisylic acid - Willow or Salix bark.
Anti-inflammatory group : Aloin for acne Glycyrrhizin for peptic ulcer

10. EXTRACTION OF GLYCOSIDES
STEP 1. Drying the plants fresh in special oven at 1000c for 30 minutes.
STEP 2. Boiling them with organic solvents for 20 minutes
STEP 3. Boiling them with acetone 5 minutes
If present in this plant tannins or resins we add lead acetate to precipitate
them.
1.Deactivation of enzymes:
Drying for 15-30 min at 100°C followed by slow drying at a low temperature.
Dipping the fresh material into boiling water or boiling alcohol for 10-20 min.
Boiling the fresh plant material with acetone.
Carrying out the extraction at very low temp.
Freeze-drying of the plant material before extraction (lyophilization).
Carrying the extraction in the presence of (NH4)2SO4.
1.Deactivation of enzymes:
Drying for 15-30 min at 100°C followed by slow drying at a low temperature.
Dipping the fresh material into boiling water or boiling alcohol for 10-20 min.
Boiling the fresh plant material with acetone.
Carrying out the extraction at very low temp.
Freeze-drying of the plant material before extraction (lyophilization).
Carrying the extraction in the presence of (NH4)2SO4.

11. 2.Maintenance of neutral conditions
• Neutral pH should be assured before and during extraction because:
• Acidity may result in hydrolysis. This is overcome by addition of CaCO3.
• Mild alkalinity may sometimes produce racemization.
3.Defatting of fat-rich organs (e.g. seeds) before extraction
• High amounts of lipoids hinder glycoside extraction. Defatting is usually carried
with petroleum ether.
2.Maintenance of neutral conditions
• Neutral pH should be assured before and during extraction because:
• Acidity may result in hydrolysis. This is overcome by addition of CaCO3.
• Mild alkalinity may sometimes produce racemization.
3.Defatting of fat-rich organs (e.g. seeds) before extraction
• High amounts of lipoids hinder glycoside extraction. Defatting is usually carried
with petroleum ether.
1.solvent/solvent partition : H2O/hexane or CH3Cl to remove pigments in the non-
polar phase
2.adsorption methods : adsorbants (Celite, Fuller’s Earth, graphite)
3.Chromatography
4.precipitate out impurities.
5.crystallisation – final stage

12. 1 Glycosides
(Liebermann’s Test)
2ml extract + 2ml CHCl3 +
2ml CH3COOH
Violet to Blue to
Green coloration
2 Anthraquinones
(Borntrager’s Test)
3ml extract + 3ml Benzene
+ 5ml NH3 (10%)
Pink, Violet or Red
coloration in
ammonical layer
CHEMICAL IDENTIFICATIONCHEMICAL IDENTIFICATION
8 Coumarins 2ml extract + 3ml NaOH
(10%)
Yellow coloration
9 Saponins (Foam Test) (a)5ml extract + 5ml H2O +
heat
(b) 5ml extract + Olive oil
(few drops)
Froth appears
Emulsion forms

13. PHARMACOGNOSTIC STUDY
OF
GLYCOSIDESGLYCOSIDES
PHARMACOGNOSTIC STUDY
OF
GLYCOSIDESGLYCOSIDES

14. AnthraquinonesSENNA
Biological source: Consists of the dried leaflets of Cassia senna (Alexandrian
senna), or Cassia angustifolia (Tinnevelly senna). Belonging to the family
Leguminosae
HISTORY
Synonyms :senna leaf , senai-ki-pati
Indigenous to Africa (tropical regions)
Used since 9th and 10th century
Introduced into medicine by Arab
physicians (used both the leaves and
pods) ,it can grow in dry and wet lands

15. Senna is usually cultivated as rain fed dry. It is a deep rooted hardy plant and
demands all around warm and dry weather conditions.
The plant requires bright sun shine and occasional rains during its growth period.
It is highly sensitive to heavy rainfall and water logging conditions.
The crop cannot survive in water logging condition even for a day. An average
rainfall of 25-40 cm distributed from June- October is sufficient to harvest good leaf
yield of seena.
The whole field is subdivided in plots of suitable size,10-15 tonne farm yard
manure per hectare at the time of last ploughing and mix with the soil.
Generally, two sowing seasons are for irrigated crop- February to March, and for
rain fed crop- July to November.
Broadcasting is the common method for senna. However, line sowing with 45 ×
30 cm row to row, placed at a depth of 1-2 cm in soil for uniform germination
Cultivation and collection
Senna is usually cultivated as rain fed dry. It is a deep rooted hardy plant and
demands all around warm and dry weather conditions.
The plant requires bright sun shine and occasional rains during its growth period.
It is highly sensitive to heavy rainfall and water logging conditions.
The crop cannot survive in water logging condition even for a day. An average
rainfall of 25-40 cm distributed from June- October is sufficient to harvest good leaf
yield of seena.
The whole field is subdivided in plots of suitable size,10-15 tonne farm yard
manure per hectare at the time of last ploughing and mix with the soil.
Generally, two sowing seasons are for irrigated crop- February to March, and for
rain fed crop- July to November.
Broadcasting is the common method for senna. However, line sowing with 45 ×
30 cm row to row, placed at a depth of 1-2 cm in soil for uniform germination

16. COLLECTION
Collected in September , with hand picking method, whole branches bearing
leaves are dried in the sun. Pods and large stalks are separated with sieves.
Leaves are graded (whole leaves and half-leave mix, siftings). Rest – used for
galenicals.
MACROSCOPY
Taste :Characteristic
Odour :slight
Taste :Mucilagenous , un-pleasant
Size: 7-8 mm in width 25-60 mm length
Shape : lanceolate , spine at top ,Bases are
asymmetrical
Extra features :Senna leaves are entire ,
stout,petiolues,lamina is entire , apex.
Taste :Characteristic
Odour :slight
Taste :Mucilagenous , un-pleasant
Size: 7-8 mm in width 25-60 mm length
Shape : lanceolate , spine at top ,Bases are
asymmetrical
Extra features :Senna leaves are entire ,
stout,petiolues,lamina is entire , apex.

17. MICROSCOPY
Senna leafs are isobilateral structure
Epidermal cells have straight walls , contains
mucilage
Both surface shows scattered , unicellular ,non-
lignified warty hairs 260 µm
Mesophyll consists of cluster of crystals 15-20 µm.
Hairs – numerous (approximately three epidermal
cells apart)
Most stomata have two subsidiary cells
Hairs less numerous (approximately six epidermal
cells apart)
Stomata have 2-3 subsidiary cells with the
respective ratio 7:3
Senna leafs are isobilateral structure
Epidermal cells have straight walls , contains
mucilage
Both surface shows scattered , unicellular ,non-
lignified warty hairs 260 µm
Mesophyll consists of cluster of crystals 15-20 µm.
Hairs – numerous (approximately three epidermal
cells apart)
Most stomata have two subsidiary cells
Hairs less numerous (approximately six epidermal
cells apart)
Stomata have 2-3 subsidiary cells with the
respective ratio 7:3

18. CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
Aloe-emodin , rhein , glycosides ,
sennosides A , sennoside B ,Sennoside C and Sennoside D
Kaempferol, (kaempferin)
Mucilage.Calcium oxalates ,Resin
CHEMICAL TESTS
1.(Borntrager’s Test) : 3ml Benzene and 5ml NH3 (10%) added to 3ml extract of
leaf extract gives Pink, Violet or Red coloration in ammonical layer
2.Ether extract of hydrolysed acid solution of herb with methanolic magnesium
acetate solution gives pink colour in daylight and also gives pale green-orange
colour in filtered UV light
CHEMICAL TESTS
1.(Borntrager’s Test) : 3ml Benzene and 5ml NH3 (10%) added to 3ml extract of
leaf extract gives Pink, Violet or Red coloration in ammonical layer
2.Ether extract of hydrolysed acid solution of herb with methanolic magnesium
acetate solution gives pink colour in daylight and also gives pale green-orange
colour in filtered UV light

19. Uses
 Laxatives (habitual constipation or occasional use)
 acts as Vermifuge, diuretic, febrifuge.
 Also used to treat flatulence, gout, fever.
 Topically used as poultice prepared with vinegar to treat pimples.
 Over-use causes dependency.
 Overdose: nausea, bloody diarrhoea, vomiting and nephritis.
 Long-term use: dehydration & electrolyte depletion, worsening constipation
and weakening intestinal muscles.
Uses
 Laxatives (habitual constipation or occasional use)
 acts as Vermifuge, diuretic, febrifuge.
 Also used to treat flatulence, gout, fever.
 Topically used as poultice prepared with vinegar to treat pimples.
 Over-use causes dependency.
 Overdose: nausea, bloody diarrhoea, vomiting and nephritis.
 Long-term use: dehydration & electrolyte depletion, worsening constipation
and weakening intestinal muscles.

20. Allied drugs
Bombay, Mecca and Arabian Sennas (found in Cassia angustifolia from
Arabia).
• Dog senna – Cassia obovata
• Cassia auriculata – Indian Senna
• Cassia podocarpa
Substitutes or Adulterants
– Argel leaves – Solenostemma argel
– Coriario myrtifolia
Allied drugs
Bombay, Mecca and Arabian Sennas (found in Cassia angustifolia from
Arabia).
• Dog senna – Cassia obovata
• Cassia auriculata – Indian Senna
• Cassia podocarpa
Substitutes or Adulterants
– Argel leaves – Solenostemma argel
– Coriario myrtifolia

21. Aloe Vera Synonyms :senna leaf , senai-ki-pati
Biological source: Dried juice of the leaves of Aloe Barbadensis family Liliaceae
Aloes are the solid residue obtained by evaporating the liquid which drains from
the transversely cut leaves of various Aloe species.
The juice is usually concentrated by boiling and solidifies on cooling.
Types of Aloes
1.Barbados or curacao aloes
2.Cape aloes
3.Socotrine aloes
4.Zanzibar aloes
Biological source: Dried juice of the leaves of Aloe Barbadensis family Liliaceae
Aloes are the solid residue obtained by evaporating the liquid which drains from
the transversely cut leaves of various Aloe species.
The juice is usually concentrated by boiling and solidifies on cooling.
Types of Aloes
1.Barbados or curacao aloes
2.Cape aloes
3.Socotrine aloes
4.Zanzibar aloes

22. Aloe Vera is a perennial, drought-resisting, succulent plant, found to grow in hot
humid and high rainfall conditions.
It is grown in all kind of soils but well drained soil with high organic matter, is most
suitable.
It grows well in bright sun light. Shady conditions results in disease infestation.
The plant grows best when supplied with an excess of 50 cm of rain annually, in
nitrogen-rich, alkaline soil.
Soil nitrogen should ideally be maintained at 0.40%–0.50%. While most species of
Aloe typically grow in sandy soils.
About 2-3 ploughing and laddering are done to make the soil weed free and friable.
Harvesting of leaves starts after 7-8 months of planting. Sharp knife is used for
harvesting.Aloe vera leaf juices, processing should take place as soon as possible
ideally within 36 hours of harvesting the leaves.
Cultivation and collection
Aloe Vera is a perennial, drought-resisting, succulent plant, found to grow in hot
humid and high rainfall conditions.
It is grown in all kind of soils but well drained soil with high organic matter, is most
suitable.
It grows well in bright sun light. Shady conditions results in disease infestation.
The plant grows best when supplied with an excess of 50 cm of rain annually, in
nitrogen-rich, alkaline soil.
Soil nitrogen should ideally be maintained at 0.40%–0.50%. While most species of
Aloe typically grow in sandy soils.
About 2-3 ploughing and laddering are done to make the soil weed free and friable.
Harvesting of leaves starts after 7-8 months of planting. Sharp knife is used for
harvesting.Aloe vera leaf juices, processing should take place as soon as possible
ideally within 36 hours of harvesting the leaves.

23. •Member of the lily family.
•240 species of Aloe.
•Aloe Vera, Aloe Barbadensis.
•Succulent, perennial, evergreen.
•Very hardy.
•Native to Africa, but is now
widespread.
•It is a bitter herb with a wide range
of medicinal properties.
•It contains over 75 compounds,
many of which are biologically
active.
•Member of the lily family.
•240 species of Aloe.
•Aloe Vera, Aloe Barbadensis.
•Succulent, perennial, evergreen.
•Very hardy.
•Native to Africa, but is now
widespread.
•It is a bitter herb with a wide range
of medicinal properties.
•It contains over 75 compounds,
many of which are biologically
active.

24. Components of Aloe
• Lignins
– Inert except when in
topical treatments
• Saponins
– 3% of Aloe Vera gel
• Fatty Acids
– Cholesterol, Campesterol,
Sisosterol, and Lupeol
• Salicyclic acid
– Aspirin-like
• Amino Acids
– 20 amino acids
• Vitamins
– Vitamin D, A, C, E and B12
• Enzymes
– Lipases, proteases, kinases
• Minerals
– Ca, Na, K, Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn,
Cr, and Se
• Sugars
– Mono and poly saccharides,
gluco-mannans
• Anthraquinones
– Most important: Aloin, and
Emodin
• Lignins
– Inert except when in
topical treatments
• Saponins
– 3% of Aloe Vera gel
• Fatty Acids
– Cholesterol, Campesterol,
Sisosterol, and Lupeol
• Salicyclic acid
– Aspirin-like
• Amino Acids
– 20 amino acids
• Vitamins
– Vitamin D, A, C, E and B12
• Enzymes
– Lipases, proteases, kinases
• Minerals
– Ca, Na, K, Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn,
Cr, and Se
• Sugars
– Mono and poly saccharides,
gluco-mannans
• Anthraquinones
– Most important: Aloin, and
Emodin

25. 1.Barbados or
curacao aloes
2.Cape aloes 3.Socotrine
aloes
4.Zanzibar
aloes
MACROSCOPY
Color Brownish black
opaque mass
Dark brown ,
green in color
Brownish yellow Liver brown
Odor Iodoform ,strong Nauseating Un-pleasant Characteristic
Taste Bitter Bitter Extremely bitter Bitter
Description
Taste Bitter Bitter Extremely bitter Bitter
Extra features Transparent in
nature
Glassy fracture Opaque mass Dull ,waxy
,smooth fracture
MICROSCOPY
Needle shaped
Small prisms
appears
Transparent
brown angular
fragments
appear
Large shaped
prisms appears
Appears
irregular lumps

26. PREPARATION OF BARBADOS OR CURACAO ALOES
It is prepared in islands of Aruba and Bonaire west indies
After giving transverse cuts near base of fleshy leaves of Aloe Barbadensis the
cut leaves are placed in V shaped wooden trays to drain out juice.
The juice collected in trays were boiled in copper pans
During boiling the latex evaporates and juice is further thickened
The thick juice is then poured into gourds or metal containers where it harden
Marketed in the name of Barbados or curacao aloes
It is prepared in islands of Aruba and Bonaire west indies
After giving transverse cuts near base of fleshy leaves of Aloe Barbadensis the
cut leaves are placed in V shaped wooden trays to drain out juice.
The juice collected in trays were boiled in copper pans
During boiling the latex evaporates and juice is further thickened
The thick juice is then poured into gourds or metal containers where it harden
Marketed in the name of Barbados or curacao aloes

27.  Cape Aloes are prepared from the wild plants of Aloe ferox.
 Leaves are cut transversely near the base.
 Two hundred leaves arranged around a shallow hole in the ground (lined with
canvas or goatskin).
 Cut ends overlap & drain into the canvas.
After 6hrs all the juice is collected.
 Transferred to a drum.
 Boiled for 4hrs on an open fire.
 Poured into tins while hot  solidifies.
PREPARATION OF CAPE ALOES
 Cape Aloes are prepared from the wild plants of Aloe ferox.
 Leaves are cut transversely near the base.
 Two hundred leaves arranged around a shallow hole in the ground (lined with
canvas or goatskin).
 Cut ends overlap & drain into the canvas.
After 6hrs all the juice is collected.
 Transferred to a drum.
 Boiled for 4hrs on an open fire.
 Poured into tins while hot  solidifies.

28. PREPARATION OF SOCOTRINE ALOES
It is prepared from Aloe perryi occurring in islands of Socotra and mainland of
East Africa
The juice of the leaves is collected in goat skin and allowed to become semisolid
in nature
It is exported in pasty condition under the name of Socotrine aloe
The juice is collected in to skins of carnivorous animals
Where it gets solidifies
Packed in wooden boxes
Zanzibar aloes also called as monkey skin aloes
PREPARATION OF ZANZIBAR ALOES ALOES

29. Chemical constituents : Anthraquinones , Glycosides of aloin ,barbaloin
C-glycosides, Resins Glycosides,Aloe-emodin,Cape Aloes
also Contain,Aloinoside -A & Aloinoside-B (O-glycosides of barbaloin)
CHEMICAL TESTS
Borntrager’s Test – oxidative hydrolysis. Anthraquinones give a red colour when
shaken with dilute ammonia.
Bromine test : freshly prepared bromine solution gives pale yellow colour
precipitate for aloe extract.
Borax test : little quantity of aloe extract is treated with borax and shaken well till
borax dissolves and under appears green fluorescence.
All Aloes give a strong green fluorescence with borax
Chemical constituents : Anthraquinones , Glycosides of aloin ,barbaloin
C-glycosides, Resins Glycosides,Aloe-emodin,Cape Aloes
also Contain,Aloinoside -A & Aloinoside-B (O-glycosides of barbaloin)
CHEMICAL TESTS
Borntrager’s Test – oxidative hydrolysis. Anthraquinones give a red colour when
shaken with dilute ammonia.
Bromine test : freshly prepared bromine solution gives pale yellow colour
precipitate for aloe extract.
Borax test : little quantity of aloe extract is treated with borax and shaken well till
borax dissolves and under appears green fluorescence.
All Aloes give a strong green fluorescence with borax

30. 1.Barbados or
curacao aloes
2.Cape aloes 3.Socotrine
aloes
4.Zanzibar
aloes
Nitrous acid
test
Crystals of
sodium nitrate
+small amnt of
acetic acid
Sharp pink to
carmine color
Faint pink color Very less change
in color
Very less change
in color
Special Tests
Nitric acid test
Nitric acid
applies to drug
Deep brownish
color
Brown color
changes to green
Pale brown to
yellow
Yellowish brown
color
Cupraloin test
Saturated copper
sulphate solution
added to little
quantity of
sodium chloride
Wine red color
lasts up to 4
color
Faint color
rapidly changes
to yellow
No color No color

31. USES
Medicinally acts Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, chologoge, emmenogogue, anti-
inflammatory (juice), anti-inflammatory , demulcent, vulnerary,
Decrease in blood glucose due to stimulation of insulin secretion
Decrease in cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids, and free fatty acids from
increased clearance and decreased transporters
Used to treat Rheumatoid Arthritis
Used to treat Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
Used to prepare many cosmetics formulations.(suntan lotions, tonics and food
additives.)
USES
Medicinally acts Anti-bacterial, anti-fungal, chologoge, emmenogogue, anti-
inflammatory (juice), anti-inflammatory , demulcent, vulnerary,
Decrease in blood glucose due to stimulation of insulin secretion
Decrease in cholesterol, triglycerides, phospholipids, and free fatty acids from
increased clearance and decreased transporters
Used to treat Rheumatoid Arthritis
Used to treat Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)
Used to prepare many cosmetics formulations.(suntan lotions, tonics and food
additives.)

32. ADULTERANTS AND SUBSTITUTES
1.Nata aloes :It resembles cape aloes in microscopy, hence it is used as
substitute .
2.Mocha aloes : This is a brittle black and glossy aloes with strong odour
Aloes gets adulterated with Black catechu ,Iron stones , these
adulterations can be identified by UV light.
1.Nata aloes :It resembles cape aloes in microscopy, hence it is used as
substitute .
2.Mocha aloes : This is a brittle black and glossy aloes with strong odour
Aloes gets adulterated with Black catechu ,Iron stones , these
adulterations can be identified by UV light.

33. DIGITALIS Synonyms : digitalis leaves ,foxglove leaves .
biological source :Dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea , Digitalis lanata
family Scrophulariaceae dried at a temperature below 60ºC
Geographical source : England Europe united states and India
Macroscopic study
Color: Dark grayish green in colour
Taste :Bitter
Odor :Slight
Size :10-40 cm long 4-20 cm wide shape ovate
lanceolate irregularly serrate to broadly
dentate margin
Extra features :leaves are pubescent , pinnate
venation , leaves are crumples , and broken
Macroscopic study
Color: Dark grayish green in colour
Taste :Bitter
Odor :Slight
Size :10-40 cm long 4-20 cm wide shape ovate
lanceolate irregularly serrate to broadly
dentate margin
Extra features :leaves are pubescent , pinnate
venation , leaves are crumples , and broken

34. It is a biennial or perennial herb
It is about 1 – 2 m in height , grows at a altitude of 1300-3000 m.
It requires 20-3ºC , rain fall 30-40 cm / anum ,
The seeds of digitalis are small in size so the are mixed with sand for
sowing
Leaves are collected in when flowers are fully development
Generally leaves are collected in early afternoons
Collected leaves are immediately dried at 60ºC.
Stored in well closed containers, dried leaves shouldn’t contain more than
50% moisture content.
Cultivation and collection
It is a biennial or perennial herb
It is about 1 – 2 m in height , grows at a altitude of 1300-3000 m.
It requires 20-3ºC , rain fall 30-40 cm / anum ,
The seeds of digitalis are small in size so the are mixed with sand for
sowing
Leaves are collected in when flowers are fully development
Generally leaves are collected in early afternoons
Collected leaves are immediately dried at 60ºC.
Stored in well closed containers, dried leaves shouldn’t contain more than
50% moisture content.

35. Microscopic study
Shows Anomocytic stomata.
Trichomes are uniseriate multi cellular
bluntly pointed.
Glandular trichomes with unicellular
stalks
covering trichomes ,calcium oxalate
crystals are present
sclerenchyma ,starch grains are present
in endodermis.
collenchyma present in three different
places they are upper epidermis lower
epidermis ,pericyclic part .
Microscopic study
Shows Anomocytic stomata.
Trichomes are uniseriate multi cellular
bluntly pointed.
Glandular trichomes with unicellular
stalks
covering trichomes ,calcium oxalate
crystals are present
sclerenchyma ,starch grains are present
in endodermis.
collenchyma present in three different
places they are upper epidermis lower
epidermis ,pericyclic part .

36. Chemical constituents : Purpurea glycosides A,B ,Digitoxin,Digoxin.
sugars are 6-deoxyhexoses (L-ramnose), 2,6-deoxyhexoses (D-digitoxose) or 3-O-
methyl ethers (D-cymarose, L-oleandrose).
Aglycons (henins) of the cardiac glycosides have a steroid structure that are
derivatives of cyclopentane perhydro-phenanthrene.
Cardenolides are found in the various types of digitalis (Digitalis),
Kind of digitalis Primary glycosides Products of
hydrolysis
Secondary
glycosides
Kind of digitalis Primary glycosides Products of
hydrolysis
Secondary
glycosides
Digitalis purpurea Purpureaglycoside А
Purpureaglycoside В
Glucose
Glucose
Digitoxin
Gitoxin
Digitalis lanata Digilanide А
Digilanide В
Digilanide С (celanide)
СН3СООН+
Glucose
СН3СООН+
Glucose
СН3СООН+
Glucose
Digitoxin
Gitoxin
DIgoxin

37. • Digitoxin is a cardiotonic glycoside
obtained from D. purpurea, D.
lanata.
• It is the most lipid-soluble of the
cardiac glycosides used in
therapeutics.
• The major pharmacokinetic
parameters for digitoxin include
complete oral absorption, which
distinguishes it from other cardiac
glycosides.
• Digitoxin may be indicated in
patients with impaired renal function.
• Digoxin is the most widely used of
the cardiotonic glycosides, and it is
obtained from the leaves of D.
lanata.
• It is a highly potent drug and
should be handled with exceptional
care.
• Digoxin tablets are 60 to 80%
absorbed.
• Digoxin is indicated when the risk
of digitalis intoxication is great,
since it is relatively short-acting
and rapidly eliminated when
compared with digitoxin.
• Digitoxin is a cardiotonic glycoside
obtained from D. purpurea, D.
lanata.
• It is the most lipid-soluble of the
cardiac glycosides used in
therapeutics.
• The major pharmacokinetic
parameters for digitoxin include
complete oral absorption, which
distinguishes it from other cardiac
glycosides.
• Digitoxin may be indicated in
patients with impaired renal function.
• Digoxin is the most widely used of
the cardiotonic glycosides, and it is
obtained from the leaves of D.
lanata.
• It is a highly potent drug and
should be handled with exceptional
care.
• Digoxin tablets are 60 to 80%
absorbed.
• Digoxin is indicated when the risk
of digitalis intoxication is great,
since it is relatively short-acting
and rapidly eliminated when
compared with digitoxin.

38. CHEMICAL TESTS
1.Keller -Killiani test: Add 0.4 ml of glacial acetic acid and a few drops of 5%
ferric chloride solution to a little of drug extract. Further add 0.5 ml of concentrated
sulfuric acid .The formation of blue color in acetic acid layer confirmed the test.
2.Legal test: dissolve pyridine in the drug extract up on add sodium nitroprusside
solution to it and made alkaline, pink or red color is produced.
3.Baljet test : to a section of Digitalis , add sodium picrate solution it shows yellow
to orange color.
4.Raymond's reaction : in alkaline medium with m-dinitrobenzene reddish-purple
coloration appears.
5.Cedde reaction : in alkaline medium with 3,5- dinitrobenzoic caid purple color
appears.
CHEMICAL TESTS
1.Keller -Killiani test: Add 0.4 ml of glacial acetic acid and a few drops of 5%
ferric chloride solution to a little of drug extract. Further add 0.5 ml of concentrated
sulfuric acid .The formation of blue color in acetic acid layer confirmed the test.
2.Legal test: dissolve pyridine in the drug extract up on add sodium nitroprusside
solution to it and made alkaline, pink or red color is produced.
3.Baljet test : to a section of Digitalis , add sodium picrate solution it shows yellow
to orange color.
4.Raymond's reaction : in alkaline medium with m-dinitrobenzene reddish-purple
coloration appears.
5.Cedde reaction : in alkaline medium with 3,5- dinitrobenzoic caid purple color
appears.

39.  Cardiac glycosides are a group of natural products characterized by their
specific effect on myocardial contraction and atrioventricular conduction.
 In large doses they are toxic and bring about cardiac arrest in systole, but in
lower doses they are in the treatment of congestive heart failure (CHF)
 They have a diuretic activity. Since, the improved circulation tends to improve
renal secretion, which relieves the edema often associated with heart failure.
USES
 Cardiac glycosides are a group of natural products characterized by their
specific effect on myocardial contraction and atrioventricular conduction.
 In large doses they are toxic and bring about cardiac arrest in systole, but in
lower doses they are in the treatment of congestive heart failure (CHF)
 They have a diuretic activity. Since, the improved circulation tends to improve
renal secretion, which relieves the edema often associated with heart failure.
ADULTERANTS AND SUBSTITUTES
Verbascum thapsus are mixed with genuine drug can be identified
microscopically presence of branched candelabra trichomes
The primrose leaves (primula vulgaries) are added to digitalis can be detected by
microscopically presence of uniseriate trichomes.
Symphytum officinale can be detected by presence of multicellular trichomes.

40. SAFFRONSAFFRON
Biological source: It is commonly known as crocus, it consists of dried stigmas and
upper parts of styles of plant Crocus sativus.belonging to the family Iridaceae. It is
a widely used as natural dye in food and cosmetic industry.
Synonyms : Red gold , kesar,
Color :stigma dark red to reddish
brown,style is yellowish brown to orange
Odor :strong characteristic, aromatic
Taste : characteristic , bitter
Size :stigma are 25 mm long , style is 10 mm
long
Shape :stigma is trifid , style is cylindrical
Macroscopic study
Color :stigma dark red to reddish
brown,style is yellowish brown to orange
Odor :strong characteristic, aromatic
Taste : characteristic , bitter
Size :stigma are 25 mm long , style is 10 mm
long
Shape :stigma is trifid , style is cylindrical

42. The saffron crocus (Crocus sativus L.) is sterile and does not set viable seed.
Therefore, the crop must be propagated by corm multiplication. Each corm only lasts
a single season and is replaced by 1 to 10 cormlets.
Corms are globular and depressed, up to 4.5 cm in diameter and covered with a tunic
of parallel fibres.
Corms are dormant during the summer and produce 5 to 11 erect, narrow, grass-like
green leaves, up to 40 cm long, flowers are fragrant, up to 8 cm long,
The outstanding feature of the flower is its style, which divides into three brilliant
red stigmas 25-30 mm long. Saffron is environmentally characterized by cool to cold
winters, with autumn-winter spring rainfall, and warm dry summers with very little
rainfall.
Cultivation and collection
The saffron crocus (Crocus sativus L.) is sterile and does not set viable seed.
Therefore, the crop must be propagated by corm multiplication. Each corm only lasts
a single season and is replaced by 1 to 10 cormlets.
Corms are globular and depressed, up to 4.5 cm in diameter and covered with a tunic
of parallel fibres.
Corms are dormant during the summer and produce 5 to 11 erect, narrow, grass-like
green leaves, up to 40 cm long, flowers are fragrant, up to 8 cm long,
The outstanding feature of the flower is its style, which divides into three brilliant
red stigmas 25-30 mm long. Saffron is environmentally characterized by cool to cold
winters, with autumn-winter spring rainfall, and warm dry summers with very little
rainfall.

43. It can withstand substantial frosts (-10ºC), and can tolerate occasional snow in the
winter.
Saffron flowers in the autumn, about 40 days after planting, and continues for 30-40
days, depending on the weather. The flowering period of each plant may last up
to 15 days.
Flowers are usually picked daily in the morning. The flower is cut at the base of the
flower stem with a slight twisting movement or by cutting with the finger nail.
It is considered that the flower is quicker to pick in this state, and that it is quicker
to remove the stigma. it is essential to dry the flower heads immediately.
Drying experiments show that drying at temperatures up to 110ºC can be used.
Another method is to use a dehydrator at 48oC for 3 hours. Irrespective of the drying
method, it is important not to over dry.
A final dry matter close to 10% moisture is adequate for long-term storage.
It can withstand substantial frosts (-10ºC), and can tolerate occasional snow in the
winter.
Saffron flowers in the autumn, about 40 days after planting, and continues for 30-40
days, depending on the weather. The flowering period of each plant may last up
to 15 days.
Flowers are usually picked daily in the morning. The flower is cut at the base of the
flower stem with a slight twisting movement or by cutting with the finger nail.
It is considered that the flower is quicker to pick in this state, and that it is quicker
to remove the stigma. it is essential to dry the flower heads immediately.
Drying experiments show that drying at temperatures up to 110ºC can be used.
Another method is to use a dehydrator at 48oC for 3 hours. Irrespective of the drying
method, it is important not to over dry.
A final dry matter close to 10% moisture is adequate for long-term storage.

44. Chemical constituents
The main constituents of saffron are crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin and safranal. α-
crocin is a carotenoid pigment which is primarily responsible for saffron’s golden
yellow-orange colour.
The bitter glycoside picrocrocin is responsible for saffron's flavour. It is a union of
an aldehyde sub-element known as safranal, which is responsible for the aroma of the
saffron.
Chemical constituents
The main constituents of saffron are crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin and safranal. α-
crocin is a carotenoid pigment which is primarily responsible for saffron’s golden
yellow-orange colour.
The bitter glycoside picrocrocin is responsible for saffron's flavour. It is a union of
an aldehyde sub-element known as safranal, which is responsible for the aroma of the
saffron.

45. 1. Sulfuric acid produces with the sample a blue colouration which gradually
changes to violet, cherry-red finally to brown.
2. To a solution of 0.1 g of diphenylamine in 20 ml of sulfuric acid and 4 ml of
water in a shallow porcelaine dish, add a small amount of the sample. The
immediate colouration produced is blue, which turns rapidly to brown-red. In
presence of nitrates the blue colouration persists.
Allow the nitrated preparation to stand for a minute, cover it with a cover slip, and
remove the excess of liquid with a piece of filter paper. Examine under the
microscope first at a magnification of 50x then at 100x.
The sample is coloured blue-green the grains of pollen take a blue tint and their
diameter appears increased.
IDENTIFICATION TESTS
1. Sulfuric acid produces with the sample a blue colouration which gradually
changes to violet, cherry-red finally to brown.
2. To a solution of 0.1 g of diphenylamine in 20 ml of sulfuric acid and 4 ml of
water in a shallow porcelaine dish, add a small amount of the sample. The
immediate colouration produced is blue, which turns rapidly to brown-red. In
presence of nitrates the blue colouration persists.
Allow the nitrated preparation to stand for a minute, cover it with a cover slip, and
remove the excess of liquid with a piece of filter paper. Examine under the
microscope first at a magnification of 50x then at 100x.
The sample is coloured blue-green the grains of pollen take a blue tint and their
diameter appears increased.

46. 3. Boil 200 mg saffron in 200 ml of 1% KOH for 2 min, cool, acidify with dil.
H2SO4, add 50 ml benzene and shake vigorously. Wash benzene extract free of acid
and dry over anhydrous Na2SO4. Identify crocetin by adsorption on column of
aluminia.
Crocetin is adsorbed strongly and forms a band of brilliant yellow which is not
eluted by benzene, petroleum ether, chloroform, acetone, ethyl and methyl alcohols.
After clearing the column with benzene and then chloroform, 5 ml of Carr-Price
reagent turns the band violet.
4.Saffron macerated with water imparts a yellow colour in the aqueous phase.
5.It gives a pale yellow colour to ether or petroleum ether.
6.Thin layer chromatography :Spot 20 μl of 5% aqueous extract of the sample on
a silica gel G plate, using a mixture of n-butanol, acetic acid and water (4:1:2) as
developing solvent. Identify the yellow sports of crocin (or crocetin, if any) with a
genuine sample of saffron. No other spots are observed.
3. Boil 200 mg saffron in 200 ml of 1% KOH for 2 min, cool, acidify with dil.
H2SO4, add 50 ml benzene and shake vigorously. Wash benzene extract free of acid
and dry over anhydrous Na2SO4. Identify crocetin by adsorption on column of
aluminia.
Crocetin is adsorbed strongly and forms a band of brilliant yellow which is not
eluted by benzene, petroleum ether, chloroform, acetone, ethyl and methyl alcohols.
After clearing the column with benzene and then chloroform, 5 ml of Carr-Price
reagent turns the band violet.
4.Saffron macerated with water imparts a yellow colour in the aqueous phase.
5.It gives a pale yellow colour to ether or petroleum ether.
6.Thin layer chromatography :Spot 20 μl of 5% aqueous extract of the sample on
a silica gel G plate, using a mixture of n-butanol, acetic acid and water (4:1:2) as
developing solvent. Identify the yellow sports of crocin (or crocetin, if any) with a
genuine sample of saffron. No other spots are observed.

47. Saffron is used in folk medicine as an antispasmodic, eupeptic, gingival sedative.
Anticatarrhal, nerve sedative, carminative, diaphoretic, expectorant, stimulant,
stomachic, aphrodisiac and emmenagogue.
Its active constituents have anticonvulsant, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory and
antitumor properties, radical scavenger as well as learning and memory improving
properties and promote the diffusivity of oxygen in different tissues.
Crocus sativus has been shown to have antidepressant effects; two active
ingredients are crocin and safranal.
Crocin analogs isolated from saffron significantly increased the blood flow in the
retina and choroid as well as facilitated retinal function recovery and it could be used
to treat ischemic retinopathy and/or age-related macular degeneration.
Picrocrocin and safranal in patients with coronary artery disease indicates the
potential of saffron as an antioxidant.
MEDICINAL IMPORTANCE
Saffron is used in folk medicine as an antispasmodic, eupeptic, gingival sedative.
Anticatarrhal, nerve sedative, carminative, diaphoretic, expectorant, stimulant,
stomachic, aphrodisiac and emmenagogue.
Its active constituents have anticonvulsant, antidepressant, anti-inflammatory and
antitumor properties, radical scavenger as well as learning and memory improving
properties and promote the diffusivity of oxygen in different tissues.
Crocus sativus has been shown to have antidepressant effects; two active
ingredients are crocin and safranal.
Crocin analogs isolated from saffron significantly increased the blood flow in the
retina and choroid as well as facilitated retinal function recovery and it could be used
to treat ischemic retinopathy and/or age-related macular degeneration.
Picrocrocin and safranal in patients with coronary artery disease indicates the
potential of saffron as an antioxidant.

48. ADULTERANTS AND SUBSTITUTES
Typically methods includes mixing of pomegranate fibers ,red dyed silk threads .
Powdered saffron is mixed with
Pomegranate- Punica granatum.
Turmeric- Curcuma longa
Paprica- Capsicum annuum
Beetroot-Beta vulgaris
Typically methods includes mixing of pomegranate fibers ,red dyed silk threads .
Powdered saffron is mixed with
Pomegranate- Punica granatum.
Turmeric- Curcuma longa
Paprica- Capsicum annuum
Beetroot-Beta vulgaris

49. AMMI
Biological source: these are the fruits of Ammi majus belonging to the family
Umbelliferae .
Synonyms : Bishop’s weed
Color : greenish brown in color
Odor :strong characteristic, aromatic
Taste : characteristic , bitter
Size :2-2.5 mm length , 1 to 1.2 mm width ,0.8-1
mm thickness
Shape :plano-convex in
shape,ovoid,entire,lanceolate
Extra features : meri carp shows 4 secondary
ridges.cremocarpous in nature ,lacuna is absent
Macroscopic study
Color : greenish brown in color
Odor :strong characteristic, aromatic
Taste : characteristic , bitter
Size :2-2.5 mm length , 1 to 1.2 mm width ,0.8-1
mm thickness
Shape :plano-convex in
shape,ovoid,entire,lanceolate
Extra features : meri carp shows 4 secondary
ridges.cremocarpous in nature ,lacuna is absent

50. Chemical constituents : Furanocoumarins like xanthotoxin 0.4 -1.9% ,Bergaptoen ,
Ispimplin , Imperatorin,
USES:
Used to increase melanin pigmentation in the skin
Used to increase Idiopathic vitiligo
prevent fertilization in females, diuretic, tonic, calm digestive system, angina,
asthma,toothache, psoriasis, vitiligo; precautions: dizziness, nausea, headache,
 used for appetite loss, sleeping disorders, and pruritus (Itching)
USES:
Used to increase melanin pigmentation in the skin
Used to increase Idiopathic vitiligo
prevent fertilization in females, diuretic, tonic, calm digestive system, angina,
asthma,toothache, psoriasis, vitiligo; precautions: dizziness, nausea, headache,
 used for appetite loss, sleeping disorders, and pruritus (Itching)

51. VISANGA
Biological source: these are the fruits of Ammi visanga belonging to the family
Umbelliferae .
Synonyms :khella , pick tooth fruit, ‘honey plant’
Color : yellowish brown in color
Odor : aromatic
Taste : characteristic , bitter
Size : Fruits small, 2-2.5 mm in diameter
Shape : ellipsoid, broadly ovoid
Extra features : double achenes (cremocarp) split
into two simple achenes. Each mericarp is
glabrous, greyish brown with five prominent
primary ridges and with faint secondary ridges.
Macroscopic study
Color : yellowish brown in color
Odor : aromatic
Taste : characteristic , bitter
Size : Fruits small, 2-2.5 mm in diameter
Shape : ellipsoid, broadly ovoid
Extra features : double achenes (cremocarp) split
into two simple achenes. Each mericarp is
glabrous, greyish brown with five prominent
primary ridges and with faint secondary ridges.

52. The plant is glabrous, 50 –80 cm high, much branched with leaves ovate in outline.
Umbels mainly terminal; bracts 1 or 2 pinnate, as long as or longer than rays; rays
are 150 cm; slender and patent in the flower, becoming erect, thicker and indurate in
the fruit.
Bracteoles are subulate; pedicels are erect, stout and rigid in the fruit.
The fruit is 2 – 2.5 mm in diameter.
.
c= club shaped cells;
end = endosperm;
ep = endocarp;
g = glandular lacunae;
t = testa;
v = vittae;
vs = vascular
c= club shaped cells;
end = endosperm;
ep = endocarp;
g = glandular lacunae;
t = testa;
v = vittae;
vs = vascular

53. Microscopic study
In transverse section the fruit appears as a pentagon with a broader commissural face as
an attaching side of two mericarps.
The outermost 1-layered epidermis consists of polygonal to tabular cells covered by a
striated cuticle with some papillae in between.
The mesocarp or cortex is parenchymatous having vascular strands of a few xylary
cells enclosed by phloem occurring in the ridges.
The cells of the cortex are polygonal to rounded and elongated, often with dense
contents.
Glandular lacunae often with yellowish contents are present between the epidermis and
vascular strands in the primary ridges.
The vittae, are small, narrow, oblong to elliptic or tangentially elongated with thick
walls.
The inner epidermis or endocarp consists of a layer of large polygonal to tabular and
elongated cells enclosing the testa.
In transverse section the fruit appears as a pentagon with a broader commissural face as
an attaching side of two mericarps.
The outermost 1-layered epidermis consists of polygonal to tabular cells covered by a
striated cuticle with some papillae in between.
The mesocarp or cortex is parenchymatous having vascular strands of a few xylary
cells enclosed by phloem occurring in the ridges.
The cells of the cortex are polygonal to rounded and elongated, often with dense
contents.
Glandular lacunae often with yellowish contents are present between the epidermis and
vascular strands in the primary ridges.
The vittae, are small, narrow, oblong to elliptic or tangentially elongated with thick
walls.
The inner epidermis or endocarp consists of a layer of large polygonal to tabular and
elongated cells enclosing the testa.

54. Chemical constituents: it shows volatile oils Khellin 1% , visangin 0.3 %
,(Furanocoumarins),also contains khelloside,samidine,dihydrosamidine, visanadine
USES
Khellin is used as smooth muscle relaxant.
Also used as coronary vasodilator in angina pectoris.
It is also used to trat bronchial asthma , whooping cough.
The fruit is a powerful bronchial antispasmodic and frees from allergic bronchial
asthma.
It is a strong photosensitiser and on prolonged use is hepatotoxic
USES
Khellin is used as smooth muscle relaxant.
Also used as coronary vasodilator in angina pectoris.
It is also used to trat bronchial asthma , whooping cough.
The fruit is a powerful bronchial antispasmodic and frees from allergic bronchial
asthma.
It is a strong photosensitiser and on prolonged use is hepatotoxic

55. CASCARA
Biological source: Cascara is obtained from the bark of Rhamnus purshiana
belonging to the family rhamnaceae, it collected at one year before use
Synonyms : Rhamnus Purshiana, sacred bark, Bearberry, sagrada.
Macroscopical characters
Colour: Dark, purple brown on the outer side
Pale yellowish brown to black on the inner side
Shape: Flat pieces, single quills
Size: 5 to 20 Cm length
Fracture: short and granular (outside) and fibrous in the phloem region
Taste: Persistently bitter and nauseous.
Odour: faint
Extra features :Outer surface: Smooth with transversely elongated lenticels
Inner Surface: definite fine longitudinal striations and faint transverse
corrugations
Macroscopical characters
Colour: Dark, purple brown on the outer side
Pale yellowish brown to black on the inner side
Shape: Flat pieces, single quills
Size: 5 to 20 Cm length
Fracture: short and granular (outside) and fibrous in the phloem region
Taste: Persistently bitter and nauseous.
Odour: faint
Extra features :Outer surface: Smooth with transversely elongated lenticels
Inner Surface: definite fine longitudinal striations and faint transverse
corrugations

56. Microscopical characters
1. Periderm:
a. Cork: 10-13 layers, cells rectangular and arranged regularly in radial rows and
have some reddish brown contents.
b. Phellogen and Phelloderm: not clear.
2. Cortex:
Cortex relatively narrow, cells from the outer few layers collenchymatous and the
rest parenchymatous. Groups of Sclereids which are ovoid to irregular in shape and
yellowish in colour are scattered in the parenchyma of the cortex. Parenchymatous
cells encircling the groups of Sclereids contain prisms of calcium oxalate.
3. Secondary phloem:
It consists of phloem parenchyma, phloem fibres and medullary rays
Group of Sclereids as in the cortex may also be found, through not common, in the
phloem parenchyma. Each group of fibres is tangentially elongated and encircled by
a layer of parenchymatous sheath whose cells contain calcium oxalate prisms.
4. Medullary rays:
They are numerous and transverse radially the phloem parenchyma. The rays are
wavy, 2-4 cells in width and extend up to cortex where they become wider.
Microscopical characters
1. Periderm:
a. Cork: 10-13 layers, cells rectangular and arranged regularly in radial rows and
have some reddish brown contents.
b. Phellogen and Phelloderm: not clear.
2. Cortex:
Cortex relatively narrow, cells from the outer few layers collenchymatous and the
rest parenchymatous. Groups of Sclereids which are ovoid to irregular in shape and
yellowish in colour are scattered in the parenchyma of the cortex. Parenchymatous
cells encircling the groups of Sclereids contain prisms of calcium oxalate.
3. Secondary phloem:
It consists of phloem parenchyma, phloem fibres and medullary rays
Group of Sclereids as in the cortex may also be found, through not common, in the
phloem parenchyma. Each group of fibres is tangentially elongated and encircled by
a layer of parenchymatous sheath whose cells contain calcium oxalate prisms.
4. Medullary rays:
They are numerous and transverse radially the phloem parenchyma. The rays are
wavy, 2-4 cells in width and extend up to cortex where they become wider.

57. Chemical constituents
Anthracene glycosides:
(i) C- glycoside comprising
Cascaroside-A and B, Cascaroside C and D, Barbaloin and Chrysaloin
(ii) O-glycosides: Fragula emodin oxathrone glucoside.
(iii) Homodianthrone of emodin, aloe-emodin and chrysophenol.
(iv) Heterodianthrone like palmidin A, B and C.
(v) Emodin, aloe-emodin and chrysophenol as free aglycone.
Chemical constituents
Anthracene glycosides:
(i) C- glycoside comprising
Cascaroside-A and B, Cascaroside C and D, Barbaloin and Chrysaloin
(ii) O-glycosides: Fragula emodin oxathrone glucoside.
(iii) Homodianthrone of emodin, aloe-emodin and chrysophenol.
(iv) Heterodianthrone like palmidin A, B and C.
(v) Emodin, aloe-emodin and chrysophenol as free aglycone.
Chemical tests
a. Yellow colour is seen in a chloral hydrate preparation.
b. With KOH, the preparation turns red (anthraquinone).
Uses:
Cathartic (Promoting active movement of bowels). It rectifies the habitual
constipation where it is not only act as a laxative but restores natural tone the colon.

58. LIQUORICE
Biological source: It consists of peeled and unpeeled stolons, roots, and stems of
Glycyrrhiza glabra belonging to the family Leguminosae
Synonyms : Mulethi, Radix glycyrrhizae, Licorice, Yashtimadhu
Macroscopical characters
Odour:Characteristics.
Taste:Sweet
Shape:Cylindrical.
Condition:Dry, occurs in the peeled or unpeeled form.
Surface (Outer):Yellowish brown with longitudinal wrinkles (unpeeled); peeled
ones are yellow coloured with fine longitudinal ridges. In case of stolons, scars of
the buds can be seen.
Fracture: Coarsely fibrous in the bark region and splintery in the wood; fractured
surface shows long fibres projecting outwards.
Macroscopical characters
Odour:Characteristics.
Taste:Sweet
Shape:Cylindrical.
Condition:Dry, occurs in the peeled or unpeeled form.
Surface (Outer):Yellowish brown with longitudinal wrinkles (unpeeled); peeled
ones are yellow coloured with fine longitudinal ridges. In case of stolons, scars of
the buds can be seen.
Fracture: Coarsely fibrous in the bark region and splintery in the wood; fractured
surface shows long fibres projecting outwards.

60. Microscopical characters
1. Periderm: Phellem (cork):Several layers with tabular cells, outer layers are filled
with reddish brown contents and inner few are colorless.
Phellogen: Indistinct Phelloderm: 3-5 layered, immediately below cork,
parenchymatous cells whose corners thickened with cellulose (collenchymatous some
cells contain prism of calcium oxalate and minute starch grain.
2.Secondary phloem: Radially the fibre bundles alternated with soft phloem
elements and tangentially with medullary rays.
3. Medullary rays:Distinct, bi-to multiseriate, parenchymatous, in continuation with
those of xylem
4. Secondary xylem:Well represented, divided (like phloem) by large medullary rays
at regular interval. Xylem consists of vessel, fibres and lignified wood parenchyma.
The vessels, fibres and lignified wood parenchyma the vessels, fibres and lignified
wood parenchyma the vessels which are relatively wide show scalariform and
bordered pitted thickenings.
5. Pith:Consist of large parenchyma with intercellular spaces and contain few starch
grains. Pith absent in root.
Microscopical characters
1. Periderm: Phellem (cork):Several layers with tabular cells, outer layers are filled
with reddish brown contents and inner few are colorless.
Phellogen: Indistinct Phelloderm: 3-5 layered, immediately below cork,
parenchymatous cells whose corners thickened with cellulose (collenchymatous some
cells contain prism of calcium oxalate and minute starch grain.
2.Secondary phloem: Radially the fibre bundles alternated with soft phloem
elements and tangentially with medullary rays.
3. Medullary rays:Distinct, bi-to multiseriate, parenchymatous, in continuation with
those of xylem
4. Secondary xylem:Well represented, divided (like phloem) by large medullary rays
at regular interval. Xylem consists of vessel, fibres and lignified wood parenchyma.
The vessels, fibres and lignified wood parenchyma the vessels, fibres and lignified
wood parenchyma the vessels which are relatively wide show scalariform and
bordered pitted thickenings.
5. Pith:Consist of large parenchyma with intercellular spaces and contain few starch
grains. Pith absent in root.

61. Chemical constituents
1. Saponin glycosides: Glycyrrhizin and glycyrrhetic acid.
2. Flavonoids: Liquiritin, liquiritigenin, isoliquiritin and isoliquiritigenin.
3. Coumarin derivatives: Herniarin, umbelliferone.
4. Bitter principle: glyceramarin.
5. Asparase, β-sitosterol, starch, resin and malic acid
Uses
1. Demulcent and expectorant.
2. Tonic.
3. Laxative.
4. Diuretic and emollient property.
5. Anti-inflammatory agent.
6. Spasmolytic agent.
7. Cough and peptic ulcer.
Chemical constituents
1. Saponin glycosides: Glycyrrhizin and glycyrrhetic acid.
2. Flavonoids: Liquiritin, liquiritigenin, isoliquiritin and isoliquiritigenin.
3. Coumarin derivatives: Herniarin, umbelliferone.
4. Bitter principle: glyceramarin.
5. Asparase, β-sitosterol, starch, resin and malic acid
Uses
1. Demulcent and expectorant.
2. Tonic.
3. Laxative.
4. Diuretic and emollient property.
5. Anti-inflammatory agent.
6. Spasmolytic agent.
7. Cough and peptic ulcer.

62. Substitutes and Adulterants
1.Manchurian Licorice is obtained from Glycyrrhiza uralensis Colour is chocolate
brown .
It does contain glycyrrhizin the active principle.
2.The common adulterant is wild licorice also called Indian licorice, derived from
the root of Abrus precatorius (Leguminosae). The root is very toxic due to an
alkaloid abrine and therefore should not be used in place of licorice.
The root possesses a peculiar disagreeable Odour and bitter acrid flavour leaving
faintly sweet after taste.
Substitutes and Adulterants
1.Manchurian Licorice is obtained from Glycyrrhiza uralensis Colour is chocolate
brown .
It does contain glycyrrhizin the active principle.
2.The common adulterant is wild licorice also called Indian licorice, derived from
the root of Abrus precatorius (Leguminosae). The root is very toxic due to an
alkaloid abrine and therefore should not be used in place of licorice.
The root possesses a peculiar disagreeable Odour and bitter acrid flavour leaving
faintly sweet after taste.

63. Biological source:Dioscorea consists of the dried tubers of a number of wild and
cultivated species of Dioscorea deltoidea belonging to the family Dioscoreaceae
DIOSCOREA Synonyms : Yam
Macroscopical Characters
Color :chestnut brown with recoiling roots.
Odour: Odourless.
Taste: bitter.
Shape :Rhizomes are Horizontal tubers,
Macroscopical Characters
Color :chestnut brown with recoiling roots.
Odour: Odourless.
Taste: bitter.
Shape :Rhizomes are Horizontal tubers,
Microscopy of Dioscorea
•Epidermis is absent.
• Stele is the major part of the drug.
•Endodermis & pericycle are indistinguishable.

64. Isolation of Diosgenin
The tubers are washed, dried, sliced and extracted with hot water or 95% ethyl
alcohol for several hrs.
The alcoholic extract is concentrated under vacuum and the glycosides is
precipitated with solvent ether or by lead acetate (in the case of acid saponin)
followed by hydrolysis and extracted with petroleum ether, 40-60°C will isolate
the Diosgenin.
Isolation of Diosgenin
The tubers are washed, dried, sliced and extracted with hot water or 95% ethyl
alcohol for several hrs.
The alcoholic extract is concentrated under vacuum and the glycosides is
precipitated with solvent ether or by lead acetate (in the case of acid saponin)
followed by hydrolysis and extracted with petroleum ether, 40-60°C will isolate
the Diosgenin.

65. Chemical constituents:
1.Steroidal saponin glycosides: Dioscin and its aglycone is diosgenin. Small quantity
of Hecogenin.Resin-Botagenin.Alkaloids: dioscorine.Sterol: Cholesterol,
stigmasterol, P-sitosterol.Enzyme: sapogenase.
2.75% of the dioscorea is starch which is bitter in taste. Steroidal saponin diosgenin
is also present in the range of 4-6%. Diosgenin is the hydrolytic product of
dioscin. Diosgenin is the precursor for the synthesis of many steroidal hormones.
Chemical constituents:
1.Steroidal saponin glycosides: Dioscin and its aglycone is diosgenin. Small quantity
of Hecogenin.Resin-Botagenin.Alkaloids: dioscorine.Sterol: Cholesterol,
stigmasterol, P-sitosterol.Enzyme: sapogenase.
2.75% of the dioscorea is starch which is bitter in taste. Steroidal saponin diosgenin
is also present in the range of 4-6%. Diosgenin is the hydrolytic product of
dioscin. Diosgenin is the precursor for the synthesis of many steroidal hormones.
Uses:
1. Diosgenin is used as a precursor for the synthesis of many steroidal drugs like
corticosteroids, sex hormones and oral contraceptives.
2. It is also used in rheumatism.

66. Substitutes and Adulterants
1. Dioscorea esculenta:
It is a prickly climber; tuber 4 too many stalked, produced in branches close to the
surface of the ground. The tubers are starchy and free from dioscorine. They have a
sweetish taste; in flavour and mealiness, closely resemble potatoes. The tubers are
applied for swelling.
2. Dioscorea globra:
It is a climber with stems twining to the right. This species occurs in Assam, Bengal,
Bihar, Orissa, and Andaman. The tubers are used as food edible.
3. Dioscorea oppositifolia:
It is a climber with glabrous or finely pubescent stem. The tuber is usually single
with few rootlets; skin reddish; flesh white, soft and edible. The tubers are used
externally to reduce swellings.
1. Dioscorea esculenta:
It is a prickly climber; tuber 4 too many stalked, produced in branches close to the
surface of the ground. The tubers are starchy and free from dioscorine. They have a
sweetish taste; in flavour and mealiness, closely resemble potatoes. The tubers are
applied for swelling.
2. Dioscorea globra:
It is a climber with stems twining to the right. This species occurs in Assam, Bengal,
Bihar, Orissa, and Andaman. The tubers are used as food edible.
3. Dioscorea oppositifolia:
It is a climber with glabrous or finely pubescent stem. The tuber is usually single
with few rootlets; skin reddish; flesh white, soft and edible. The tubers are used
externally to reduce swellings.

67. CHIRATA Synonyms: Bitter stick; Chiretta; Chirayita; East Indian Balmony.
Biological Source:It is the dried plant of Swerlia chirata belonging to
family Gentianaceae.
MacroscopyMacroscopy
Colour : Leaves, flowers and fruits-yellowish shade;
stem-yellowish brown to purple
Odour : Odourless
Taste : Extremely bitter
Size : Stems = Length: 1.0 meter; Breadth = 6 mm
Shape : Stems are mostly cylindrical, glabrous and
quandrangular at the appex hawing a large pith.
MacroscopyMacroscopy
Colour : Leaves, flowers and fruits-yellowish shade;
stem-yellowish brown to purple
Odour : Odourless
Taste : Extremely bitter
Size : Stems = Length: 1.0 meter; Breadth = 6 mm
Shape : Stems are mostly cylindrical, glabrous and
quandrangular at the appex hawing a large pith.

69. Chemical ConstituentsChemical Constituents
It invariably contains bitter principles, namely: ophelic acid
amarogentin and chiratin; alkaloids; gentianine and gentiocrucine.
Uses
1. It is invariably used as a bitter tonic.
2. It also finds its use as a febrifuge.
3. It is employed in dyspepsia.
4. It has been recommended as a diuretic and in epilepsy.
5. Industrially, it is extensively used in dyeing cotton cloth.
Uses
1. It is invariably used as a bitter tonic.
2. It also finds its use as a febrifuge.
3. It is employed in dyspepsia.
4. It has been recommended as a diuretic and in epilepsy.
5. Industrially, it is extensively used in dyeing cotton cloth.
Substituents/Adulterants
Swertia paniculata Wall
Swertia angustifolia
Sweritia densifolia

70. GENTIAN
Synonyms:Yellow Gentian; Pale Genetian; Bitter Root; Gentian Root; Radix; Radix
Gentianae; Gentiana.
Biological Source:Gentian is the dried rhizomes and roots of Gentiana
lutea belonging to family Gentianaceae.
Rhizome part Root part
Macroscopy
Rhizome part Root part
Color yellowish brown to dark brown yellowish brown to dark brown
Odour characteristic and agreeable characteristic and pleasant
Taste initially sweet turns to bitter initially sweet turns to bitter
Size
Length
diameter
15-20 cm
2.5 cm
15 cm
6 cm
Shape cylindrical Cylindrical with conical buds at apex
Outer surface longitudinally striated Transversely wrinkled , having scars

72. Chemical Constituents
The dried Gentian root of commerce contains Gentiin and Gentiamarin, bitter glucosides,
together with Gentianic acid (gentisin), the latter being physiologically inactive.
Gentiopicrin, another bitter glucoside, a pale yellow crystalline substance, occurs in the
fresh root, and may be isolated from it by treatment with boiling alcohol.
The saccharine constituents of Gentian are dextrose, laevulose, sucrose and gentianose, a
crystallizable, fermentable sugar. It is free from starch and yields from 3 to 4 per cent ash.
The drug also contains amarogenin, which is considerd to be a strongly bitter
glucoside that even imparts a distinct bitter taste at 580 thousand time dilutions.
Chemical Constituents
The dried Gentian root of commerce contains Gentiin and Gentiamarin, bitter glucosides,
together with Gentianic acid (gentisin), the latter being physiologically inactive.
Gentiopicrin, another bitter glucoside, a pale yellow crystalline substance, occurs in the
fresh root, and may be isolated from it by treatment with boiling alcohol.
The saccharine constituents of Gentian are dextrose, laevulose, sucrose and gentianose, a
crystallizable, fermentable sugar. It is free from starch and yields from 3 to 4 per cent ash.
The drug also contains amarogenin, which is considerd to be a strongly bitter
glucoside that even imparts a distinct bitter taste at 580 thousand time dilutions.

73. Medicinal Action and Uses
Gentian is one of the most useful of our bitter vegetable tonics.
It is specially useful in states of exhaustion from chronic disease and in all cases
of general debility, weakness of the digestive organs and want of appetite.
It is one of the best strengtheners of the human system, and is an excellent tonic
to combine with a purgative to prevent its debilitating effects.
Many dyspeptic complaints are more effectually relieved
It is of extreme value in jaundice and is prescribed extensively.
Besides being unrivalled as a stomachic tonic, Gentian possesses febrifuge,
emmenagogue, anthelmintic and antiseptic properties, and is also useful in
hysteria, female weakness.
Chemical tests: under UV light root extract shows light-blue florescence
Medicinal Action and Uses
Gentian is one of the most useful of our bitter vegetable tonics.
It is specially useful in states of exhaustion from chronic disease and in all cases
of general debility, weakness of the digestive organs and want of appetite.
It is one of the best strengtheners of the human system, and is an excellent tonic
to combine with a purgative to prevent its debilitating effects.
Many dyspeptic complaints are more effectually relieved
It is of extreme value in jaundice and is prescribed extensively.
Besides being unrivalled as a stomachic tonic, Gentian possesses febrifuge,
emmenagogue, anthelmintic and antiseptic properties, and is also useful in
hysteria, female weakness.

74. Adulterants and Substitutes
G. purpurea, G. pannonica, G. punctata and G. acaulis are European gentians
having similar medicinal properties to G. lutea and are used indiscriminately with
each other and the official root, from which they differ but little in appearance,
though are somewhat smaller.
American Gentian root is derived from G. puberula, G. saponaria and G.
Andrewsii. This drug is said to have properties practically identical with those of
European varieties.
Belladonna and Aconite roots, and the rhizomes of Orris and White Hellebore
have been found mixed with the genuine root, and the powdered root of commerce
is frequently adulterated, ground almond shells and olive stones having been used
for this purpose.
Adulterants and Substitutes
G. purpurea, G. pannonica, G. punctata and G. acaulis are European gentians
having similar medicinal properties to G. lutea and are used indiscriminately with
each other and the official root, from which they differ but little in appearance,
though are somewhat smaller.
American Gentian root is derived from G. puberula, G. saponaria and G.
Andrewsii. This drug is said to have properties practically identical with those of
European varieties.
Belladonna and Aconite roots, and the rhizomes of Orris and White Hellebore
have been found mixed with the genuine root, and the powdered root of commerce
is frequently adulterated, ground almond shells and olive stones having been used
for this purpose.

75. GINSENGGINSENG Synonyms :Panax; Energofit; Pannag; Ninjin.
Biological Source Ginseng is the Dried root of different naturally occurring species
of Panax, namely: Panax ginseng belonging to family Araliaceae.
Colour : Yellowish- brown, white or red
Odour : None
Shape : Tuberous and corpulent
Size :5-12 cm. long, &1-2.5 cm thick,
Appearance:Translucent and bears the stem
scars. Resemblance to the human figure
Macroscopy and microscopy
Colour : Yellowish- brown, white or red
Odour : None
Shape : Tuberous and corpulent
Size :5-12 cm. long, &1-2.5 cm thick,
Appearance:Translucent and bears the stem
scars. Resemblance to the human figure
Cellular structures identified in Panax
ginseng root are the rosettes of calcium oxalate
and yellow secretion from a resin canal when
observed at 400x with Acidified Chloral
Hydrate Glycerol Solution.

76. Chemicals Constitutents
Ginseng chiefly comprises of a complex mixture of triterpenoid
saponins which may be either a steroidal triterpene or a pentacyclic related to
oleonic acid.
these glyscosides have been classified into three major heads, namely:
(a) Ginsenosides,
(b) Panaxosides, and
(c) Chikusetsu Saponins.
Chemicals Constitutents
Ginseng chiefly comprises of a complex mixture of triterpenoid
saponins which may be either a steroidal triterpene or a pentacyclic related to
oleonic acid.
these glyscosides have been classified into three major heads, namely:
(a) Ginsenosides,
(b) Panaxosides, and
(c) Chikusetsu Saponins.
GINSENOSIDES

77. Uses
1. In the Chinese system of medicine ginseng is the most favourite remedy for a
variety of ailments e.g., as a general tonic, stimulant, carminative and diuretic
activities.
2. It also possesses adaptogenic (antistress) properties and is found to exert positive
action on the metabolism, the endocrine system and the central nervous system.
3. In the orient ginseng is used abundantly in the treatment of anaemia, diabetes,
insomnia, gastritis, neurasthenia and specifically to cure sexual impotence.
4. It is found to enhance the natural resistance (i.e., non-specific resistance) and
increases the ability to overcome both exhaustion or illness to a great extent.
5. It prolongs the life of elderly persons and cures giddiness.
Uses
1. In the Chinese system of medicine ginseng is the most favourite remedy for a
variety of ailments e.g., as a general tonic, stimulant, carminative and diuretic
activities.
2. It also possesses adaptogenic (antistress) properties and is found to exert positive
action on the metabolism, the endocrine system and the central nervous system.
3. In the orient ginseng is used abundantly in the treatment of anaemia, diabetes,
insomnia, gastritis, neurasthenia and specifically to cure sexual impotence.
4. It is found to enhance the natural resistance (i.e., non-specific resistance) and
increases the ability to overcome both exhaustion or illness to a great extent.
5. It prolongs the life of elderly persons and cures giddiness.

78. STROPHANTUS (OUABAIN)
Biological source :Obtained from the seeds of Strophanthus gratus belonging to the
family Apocynaceae.
Strophanthus is an herb. It has been used as an arrow poison in Africa. Strophanthus
seeds are used to make medicine.
Despite serious safety concerns, people take strophanthus for “hardening of the
arteries” (arteriosclerosis), heart problems, and high blood pressure.
Synonym :Climbing Oleander, Rose Allamanda
Biological source :Obtained from the seeds of Strophanthus gratus belonging to the
family Apocynaceae.
Strophanthus is an herb. It has been used as an arrow poison in Africa. Strophanthus
seeds are used to make medicine.
Despite serious safety concerns, people take strophanthus for “hardening of the
arteries” (arteriosclerosis), heart problems, and high blood pressure.

79. Morphology
Colour : Grayish green to light yellowish brown
Odour : Slight unpleasant
Taste : Bitter
Size : Length 1- 2 cm; Breadth 3-5 mm
Thickness = 2 mm
Shape : Lanceolate to linear- lanceolate,
acute at the apex, rounded or blunt at the base
Weight : For 100 seeds 3-4 g
Preparation The ripe strophanthus fruit comprises of two fully developed follicles
each about 30cm broad with tapering at both ends and consisting of a number of
seeds. The ripe fruits are collected from the wild plants, the seeds are subsequently
separated and freed from their owns.
Morphology
Colour : Grayish green to light yellowish brown
Odour : Slight unpleasant
Taste : Bitter
Size : Length 1- 2 cm; Breadth 3-5 mm
Thickness = 2 mm
Shape : Lanceolate to linear- lanceolate,
acute at the apex, rounded or blunt at the base
Weight : For 100 seeds 3-4 g

80. Chemical Constituents: Strophanthus gratus seeds – Cardioactive steroid
glycosides (cardenolides, 3– 8%): chief glycoside strophanthin – G (ouabain, over
80%), further including acolongifloroside K, stroposide (K – stophanthoside,
composed of the genin, strophanthidin, coupled to a trisaccharide consisting of
cymarose, b – glucose, and a – glucose), among others. Saponins (0.2%). Fatty oil
(35%). Ferments.
OUABAINOUABAIN

81. Chemical Tests:
1. Generally, the strophanthus glycosides exhibit an emerald green colouration
on the addition of sulphuric acid.
2. Dissolve about 0.1g of strophanthin in 5 ml of water and add to it a few drops
of ferric chloride solution followed by a 1-2 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid; the
appearance of an initial red precipitate that finally turns green within a period of 1-2
hours.
3. To 50 mg of strophanthin add 5 ml of water, shake and add 2 ml of 2% tannic
acid solution, the appearance of a distinct precipitate affirms its presence.
4. It shows positive Baljet Test, Legal Test and Keller Killiani Test
Chemical Tests:
1. Generally, the strophanthus glycosides exhibit an emerald green colouration
on the addition of sulphuric acid.
2. Dissolve about 0.1g of strophanthin in 5 ml of water and add to it a few drops
of ferric chloride solution followed by a 1-2 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid; the
appearance of an initial red precipitate that finally turns green within a period of 1-2
hours.
3. To 50 mg of strophanthin add 5 ml of water, shake and add 2 ml of 2% tannic
acid solution, the appearance of a distinct precipitate affirms its presence.
4. It shows positive Baljet Test, Legal Test and Keller Killiani Test

82. Uses :
Ouabain used as arrow poison in Africa,Fevers and minor abrasions
Used as Antidotes (venomous stings, bites, etc.)
Ornamental and aromatic, Relieves symptoms of restlessness, and simple
Relieves nervous tension associated with anxiety,
Relieves abdominal pain, also used in lack of concentration, absent mindedness
Uses :
Ouabain used as arrow poison in Africa,Fevers and minor abrasions
Used as Antidotes (venomous stings, bites, etc.)
Ornamental and aromatic, Relieves symptoms of restlessness, and simple
Relieves nervous tension associated with anxiety,
Relieves abdominal pain, also used in lack of concentration, absent mindedness
Adulterants and Substitutes:
1.strophanthus courmontii
2.strophantus nicholsoni.
3.strophantus kombe

83. THANK YOUTHANK YOU