1. Forest type Tropical rainforest Tropical monsoon Mangrove forest Coniferous Forest
(TRF) forest (TMF) (MGR) (CNF)
Climate Tropical equatorial Tropical monsoon Tropical climate. Cool temperate
(Precipitation, climate. climate. climate.
temperature) High RF.
High RF, High RF, Low PPT,
RF > 1500mm. RF > 1500 mm. High temp. 300 < RF < 635mm
High temp, High temp, Small ATR, Low temp,
temp > 27°C. temp about 26°C. MAT is high. subzero is normal.
Small ATR, Larger ATR than Largest ATR,
MAT is high. TRF, MAT is high. MAT is very low.
Distinct wet and dry 4 seasons in a year:
seasons. Affected Spr, Sum, Fall, Winter
by monsoonal
winds. Winter is coldest.
Distribution LTT: 10° N&S LTT: 10°-25° N&S LTT: 25° N&S LTT: 60° to 70° N
(Latitudes, major
areas, conditions) Major areas: Major areas: Major areas: Major areas:
1. Amazon Basin 1. S China 1. Cent America 1. Canada
2. Congo Basin 2. S India 2. Africa 2. USA
3. SE Asia 3. SE Asia 3. SE Asia (esp 3. Norway
4. N Australia MAS and INA) 4. Finland
5. Sweden
Found in areas with Found in sheltered 6. Russia
monsoonal changes. coastal areas with
brackish waters only.
Density Very dense and Less dense than Very dense and Not dense at all.
(Overall, luxuriant. Sparse TRF. Still very luxuriant. Sparse
undergrowth) undergrowth. dense esp during undergrowth. EXP: Low PPT & low
wet season. Dense temp cannot support
EXP: High RF & high undergrowth. EXP: High RF & dense veg growth.
temp through- out the high temp through-
year enc growth. EXP: No interlock- out the year enc
Interlock- ing canopy ing canopy to block growth. Interlock- ing
blocks sunlight from sunlight. During wet canopy blocks
passing to lower layers. season, high RF & sunlight from passing
high temp enc growth. to lower layers.
During dry season,
leaves are lost and
forest appears sparse.
Structure 5 distinct layers. 3 distinct layers. 3 distinct zones. No distinct layers or
(Layers/Zones) zones.
Emergent (30-50) Canopy (15-30) Coastal
-Thick, tall, str trunks. - More spread out. - Nearest the sea.
Creepers, vines, parasitic Avicennia, Sonneratia
Canopy (15-30) plants, epiphytes found trees found here.
- Umbrella-shaped, wide, here. Breathing roots are
shallow crowns. found here.

2. Understorey (6-15) Understorey (6-15)
- Oval-shaped crowns, Middle
trees grow in gaps, young Undergrowth (0-6) - Rhizophora trees
“emergents” and -Bamboo thickets and found here. Prop roots
“canopies” found here. grasses grow densely are found here.
during the wet season
Shrub (0-6) here. Less dense during Inland ----------
- Tree saplings, woody dry season. - Bruguiera trees found
plants found here. here. Knee-like roots
are found here.
Undergrowth (0-5)
- Grasses, fungi, mosses
found here. Sparse plant
growth.
Diversity Largest diversity of Less diverse than Halophytes (salt- Very few species.
all biomes. Trees for TRF. Hardwoods tolerant plants), Sea Trees for softwood
furniture (eg. meranti, (eg. sandalwood, sal, hibiscus and nipah (eg. pine, spruce and fir)
kapur) found here. teak) found here. palm found here. found here. Grow in
- Inconsistent RF (wet vs
pure stands.
- High year-round temp - Some plants cannot
and RF supports a large dry season) makes it withstand salinity of - Many plants cannot with-
plant diversity. hard for plants to brackish waters. stand the low temp and low
flourish. ppt.
Leaves - Evergreen - Deciduous - Evergreen - Evergreen
- No need to shed leaves - Reduces loss of water - No seasonal changes - Maximises every bit of
all at one time as there is a thru transpiration during hence no need to shed time when temp is above
constant high RF all year dry season, leaves grow leaves all at one time. 6°C to photosynthesise
round. rapidly during wet
season. - Salt-removing - Needle-like
- Broad abilities - Small surface area to
- Maximises area for - Narrow leaves - Secrete excess salt or reduce loss of water thru
photosynthesis. - Reduces loss of water store salt in dropped off transpiration.
thru transpiration esp leaf to reduce the
- Waxy w/drip tips during dry season. amount of salt in them. - Stores water
- Allow rainwater to drain - Uses stored water during
off, preventing growth of - Waxy w/drip tips - Broad winter when there is little
harmful bacteria. - Allow rainwater to - Maximises area for water in the frozen ground.
drain off, preventing photosynthesis.
- Leathery growth of harmful
- Allows leaves to bacteria. - Waxy w/drip tips
withstand high temp. - Allow rainwater to
- Leathery drain off, preventing
- Allows leaves to growth of harmful
withstand high temp. bacteria.
- Leathery
- Allows leaves to
withstand high temp.
Bark, branches - Smooth and thin - Coarse and thick - Thick bark
- No need for protection - Protects tree from heat - Protects plants from long,
against cold or dry and dryness during dry cold winters.
conditions season, helps protects
during common forest ----------
- Branches high up fires.
- Flexible branches
- Reach for sunlight as the - Slopes downwards to slide
lower, the darker it is due - Branches in centre off snow, prevents collect-
to interlocking canopy. - More sunlight ion of snow that may break
penetrates down as branches.
forest is less dense.

3. - Conical shape
---------- ---------- ---------- - Helps withstand strong
winds, trees sway and not
collapse.
Fruits and flowers - Colourful and - Flower and fruit - Fr of Avicennia: - Cones
sweet-smelling during dry season buoyant - Female cones produces
- Attract pollinators while they are - When dropped into seeds, males produce pollen
(insects and small leafless. water, currents carry
- Dispersed by wind or
animals) as air is still them away to a coast
animals
below canopy. where they take root.
- Flowers & fruits - Fr of Rhizophora:
thru-out the year elongated, sharp
- High temp and RF all tips, germinate
year round allow growth. while on tree
- Sharp tips anchor fruit
into muddy soil.
- Grow rapidly as they
would have already
germinated.
- Fl of Bruguiera:
colourful
- Bright red lantern-
shaped flowers attract
pollinators.
Roots - Shallow, spreading - Deep tap roots - R of Sonneratia: - Shallow, spreading
- Leaf litter decomposes - Irregular rainfall causes
Breathing roots - Absorb water from
- Help in aeration as it
to form humus. Nutrients roots to be deep so that melting snow on surface.
grows in oxygen-
are most plentiful near they can get water from
deprived soil.
surface. underground.
- Do not need to dig deep - R of Rhizophora:
for water as plenty of Prop roots
water near surface. - Anchor plant firmly to
the muddy soil.
- Buttress roots
- Thick and spread out to - R of Bruguiera:
support great weight of Knee-like roots
trees. - Provide firm support
on the soft soil.
How to remember Remember: EVERY Remember: Remember: BRAS
CHILD USES SOFT CHOOSING UGLY NEED PROPER
UNDERWEARS UMBRELLAS BOOBS
(Emergent, Canopy, (Canopy, (Bruguiera,
Understorey, Shrub, Understorey, Rhizophora,
Undergrowth) Undergrowth) Avicennia,
Sonneratia,
Knee-like roots,
Prop roots,
Breathing roots)