Detail about biological Classification, cellular organizations

2. Biology is the study of life and living
organisms, from one-celled creatures to
the most complex living organism of all —
the human being.
Biology includes the study of genes and
cells that give living things their special
characteristics.

4. All living things share some basic properties.
Cellular Organization
Reproduction
Metabolism (Obtain and Use Energy)
Homeostasis
Heredity
Responsiveness
Growth and Development
Adapt Through Evolution

5. Unicellular Organisms
Entire organism is made up of one single cell
Bacteria and protists
Smallest unit capable of all life functions


6. Multicellular Organisms
The organism is made up of many
cells
Cells have specialized functions
within the organism

7. Reproduction is the process of producing new organisms
of the same type
Asexual Reproduction
A single parent organism reproducing by itself


8. Sexual Reproduction
Two different parent organisms contribute genetic
information
Involves the combination of male and female sex
cells

9. Living organisms need energy to grow,
develop, repair damage, and
reproduce


10. Anabolism
The process of building up complex substances
from simpler substances
 Building up cells and cellular components
 Photosynthesis

11. Catabolism
The process of breaking down complex
substances into simpler substances to release
energy
 Digestion
 Cellular Respiration

12. Metabolism
The total of all chemical reactions in an
organism
 Anabolism + Catabolism = Metabolism


13. A stable state of conditions in the body that
are necessary for life
Body temperature
Blood volume
pH balance
(Blood7.34–7.45)
Water balance


14. Genes carry hereditary information
Genes are composed of DNA
Heredity is the reason children resemble their parents
“Mutations change
DNA code and can be
passed from
generation to
generation”.


15. Organisms react to stimuli:
Light
Temperature
Odor
Sound
Gravity
Heat
Water
Pressure
An example is a plant’s leaves
and stems growing toward light


16. Growth means to get bigger in size


17. Development involves a change in the
physical form or physiological make-up of an
organism


18. Adaptation
A process that enables
organisms to become better
suited to their environment
 Species obtain adaptations
through evolution over great
periods of time


19. An Example of Adaptation
Desert plants have succulent waxy leaves and
stems to store water and reduce water loss

20. What is classification?
Classification is the grouping of living
organisms according to similar structures
and functions.

21. Aristotle grouped animals
according to the way they
moved.

22. As living things are constantly being
investigated, new attributes are
revealed that affect how organisms are
placed in a standard classification
system.

23. Taxonomy is the branch of biology
concerned with the grouping and
naming of organisms.
Biologists who study this are called
taxonomists.

24. People wanted to organize their
world so they began grouping,
or classifying everything they
saw.

25. To help us see relationships, similarities
and differences.
To help us organize all the organisms we
discover . . .

26. To give every species a name based on
a standard method so scientists from
different countries can talk about the
same animal without confusion.

27. Carolus Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist.
Developed a 7-level (taxa) classification system
based on similarities between organisms.
Developed by Carolus Linnaeus.
Two-name system:
First name is the organism’s genus.
Second name is the organism’s species.

28. The first letter of the genus is ALWAYS
capitalized.
The first letter of the species is NEVER
capitalized.
Scientific names of organisms are always
italicized or underlined

29. 29
• Taxon ( taxa-plural) is a category into
which related organisms are placed
• There is a hierarchy of groups (taxa)
from broadest to most specific
• Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class,
Order, Family, Genus, species
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30. Domain
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

31. 31
Hierarchy-Taxonomic Groups
• Domain
• Kingdom
• Phylum (Division – used for plants)
• Class
• Order
• Family
• Genus
• Species
BROADEST TAXON
Most Specific
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32. 32copyright cmassengale

33. HISTORY OF CLASSIFICATION
ARISTOTLE
DIVIDED LIVING
THINGS INTO
TWO KINGDOMS
CAROLLUS LINNAEUS
DEVELOPED THE
CLASSIFICATION ON
SIMILAR PROPERTIES,
FOUND BINOMIAL
NOMENCLATURE AS A
SYSTEM TO GIVE A
SCIENTIFIC NAME
ROBERT WHITTAKER
HE GAVE FIVE
KINGDOMS SYSTEM

34. Domains
Domains are the broadest taxonomic
classification of living organisms
The three Domains:
Archaea
Bacteria
Eukarya

35. 35
• Broadest, most inclusive taxon
• Three domains
• Archaea and Eubacteria are unicellular
prokaryotes (no nucleus or membrane-
bound organelles)
• Eukarya are more complex and have a
nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles
Domains
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36. Domains are Divided into Kingdoms
Archaea----- Archaebacteria
Bacteria ------ Eubacteria
Eukarya ------- Protist
Fungi
Plantae
Animalia

37. How does it work?
There are 6 broad kingdoms
Every living thing that we know of fits into
one of the six kingdoms
Each level gets more specific as fewer
organisms fit into any one group

38. 38
ARCHAEA
• Probably the 1st cells to evolve
• Live in HARSH environments
• Found in:
– Sewage Treatment Plants
– Thermal or Volcanic Vents
– Hot Springs or Geysers that are acid
– Very salty water (Dead Sea; Great Salt
Lake)
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39. 39
ARCHAEAN
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40. 40
EUBACTERIA
• Some may cause DISEASE
• Found in ALL HABITATS except harsh
ones
• Important decomposers for
environment
• Commercially important in making
cottage cheese, yogurt, buttermilk, etc.
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41. 41
Live in the intestines of animals
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42. 42
Domain Eukarya is Divided into
Kingdoms
• Monera (true bacteria (eubacteria)
and cyanobacteria (blue-green
algae).
• Protista (protozoans, algae…)
• Fungi (mushrooms, yeasts …)
• Plantae (multicellular plants)
• Animalia (multicellular animals)
copyright cmassengale
By: ROBERT WHITTAKER

43. KINGDOM MONERA
• Unicellular
• Prokaryotic
• Cell wall is non cellulosic
• Nutrition - autotrophic or heterotrophic
•Locomotion – flagella, gliding or non motile.
•Reproduction – conjugation, transduction and
transformation

44. Bacteria Bacteria types

45. 45
Protista
•Most are unicellular
•Some are
multicellular
•Some are
autotrophic, while
others are
heterotrophic
•Aquatic
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46. 46
Fungi
• Multicellular,
except yeast
• Absorptive
heterotrophs
(digest food
outside their
body & then
absorb it)
• Cell walls made
of chitin
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47. Yeast
Sporangial forms
Amanita musaria Bracket fungi

48. 48
Plantae
•Multicellular
•Autotrophic
•Absorb sunlight to
make glucose –
Photosynthesis
•Cell walls made of
cellulose
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49. Bryophytes
Polytricum sp. female gametopytes Polytricum sp. male gametopytes

50. Pteridophytes
Fern (Nephrolepis)

51. Gymnosperms
Thuja Pine

52. Angiosperms

53. 53
Animalia
• Multicellular
• Ingestive
heterotrophs
(consume food &
digest it inside
their bodies)
• Feed on plants or
animals
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54. 54copyright cmassengale

55. 55copyright cmassengale

56. Organizational Hierarchy of Life
Most
Complex
Least
Complex sub-atomic particles
atom
molecule
macromolecule
organelle
cell
tissue
organ
organ system
organism
population
community
ecosystem
biosphere
protons, neutrons, electrons
nitrogen
nucleotide
DNA
nucleus
neuron
nervous tissue
brain
nervous system
fish
school of fish
coral reef populations
coral reef (living + nonliving)
inhabitable regions of earth

57. Biological Levels of Organization

59. Basic Concept of Cell & its
Function

60. What are Cells?
• What is a cell?
• Where do we find cells?
Cell: “A cell is a basic unit of structure and
function of life. In other words, cells
make up living things and carry out
activities that keep a living thing alive”.

61. Cells Continued
• What makes a cell?
• A cell is a living thing.
• Cells are able to make more cells like
themselves.
• Interesting Fact: “New cells can only come
from existing cells (cells that are already
made)”.

62. • In 1660s there was a man named Robert
Hooke. Robert lived in Britain and was a
scientist. He was the first person to
observe cells.
• Robert took a piece bark from an old oak
tree and looked at it through a
microscope.

63. • The bark looked like it was made up
of many small rooms (kind of like a
house with many bedrooms). He
named the rooms, or structures, he
saw under the microscope as cells.
Therefore, he Coined the term cell
• THIS IS HOW THE WORD CELLS
CAME TO BE!!

65. Cell Theory:
1. All living things are composed of cells.
2. Cells are the basic units of structure and
function in living things.
3. New cells are produced from existing cells.
Schleiden
Schwann Virchowwww.nerdscience.com
« Omnis cellula e cellula »

66. • Cells are the basic units of organisms
–Cells can only be observed under microscope
• Two basic types of cells:
Animal Cell Plant Cell

67. Plant Cell
–Made of cellulose
which forms very thin
fibres
–Strong and rigid
–In plant cells only
• Cell wall

68. – Protect and support
the enclosed
substances
(protoplasm)
– Resist entry of excess
water into the cell
– Give shape to the cell
• Cell wall
Plant Cell

69. –A dead layer
–Large empty spaces
present between
cellulose fibres
freely permeable
• Cell wall
Plant Cell

70. –Lies immediately
against the cell wall
–Made of protein and
lipid Selectively
permeable
• Cell membrane
Plant Cell

71. –A living layer
–Can control the
movement of
materials into and
out of the cell
• Cell membrane
Plant Cell

72. –Jelly-like substance
enclosed by cell
membrane
–Provide a medium for
chemical reactions to
take place
• Cytoplasm
Plant Cell

73. –Contains organelles
and granules :
•e.g. chloroplast
•e.g. mitochondria
• Cytoplasm
Plant Cell

74. Organelles
 very small size – can only be
observed under electron
microscope
 has specific functions
 in cytoplasm

75. –Contains the green
pigment chlorophyll
•To trap light energy,
to make food by
photosynthesis
Plant Cell
• Chloroplast

76. –Contain starch grains
(products of
photosynthesis)
• Chloroplast
Plant Cell

77. –Rod shape
–For respiration
Plant Cell
• Mitochondrion
( mitochondria )

78. – Active cells ( eg.
sperms, liver cells)
have more
mitochondria
Plant Cell
• Mitochondrion
( mitochondria )

79. –Starch granules
–Oil droplets
–Crystals of insoluble
wastes
Plant Cell
• Non-living
granules

80. – large central vacuole
– Surrounded by tonoplast
– Contains cell sap
• a solution of chemicals
(sugars, proteins,
mineral salts, wastes,
pigments)
Plant Cell
• Vacuole

81. –Control the normal
activities of the cell
–Bounded by a
nuclear membrane
–Contains thread-like chromosomes
Plant Cell
• Nucleus

82. –Each cell has fixed
number of chromosomes
• Chromosomes carry
genes
–genes control cell characteristics
• Nucleus
Plant Cell

83. mitochondrion
nucleus
glycogen
granule
cell
membrane
cytoplasm
Animal cell
• No cell wall and
chloroplast
• Stores glycogen
granules and oil
droplets in the
cytoplasm
vacuole

84. Different kinds of animal cells
white blood cell
red blood cell
cheek cells
sperm
nerve cell
muscle cell
Amoeba
Paramecium

85. Similarities between plant cells
and animal cells
Both have a cell membrane surrounding
the cytoplasm
Both have a nucleus
Both contain mitochondria

86. Differences between plant cells
and animal cells
Animal cells Plant cells
Relatively smaller in
size
Irregular shape
No cell wall
Relatively larger in
size
Regular shape
Cell wall present

87. Animal cells Plant cells
Vacuole small or absent
Glycogen granules as
food store
Nucleus at the centre
Large central vacuole
Starch granules as
food store
Nucleus near cell wall
Differences between plant cells
and animal cells

88. Structure Animal cells Plant cells
cell membrane Yes yes
nucleus Yes yes
nucleolus yes yes
ribosomes yes yes
ER yes yes
Golgi yes yes
centrioles yes no
cell wall no yes
mitochondria yes yes
cholorplasts no yes
One big vacuole no yes
cytoskeleton yes Yes

89. Cell Type Example
Prokaryotic Bacteria
Eukaryotic Protists
Fungi
Plants
Animals

94. The distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is
considered to be the most important distinction among
groups of organisms.
Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles,
such as nucleus, while prokaryotic cells do not.
Differences in cellular structure of prokaryotes and
eukaryotes include the presence of mitochondria and
chloroplasts, the cell wall, and the structure of
chromosomalDNA.
Prokaryotes were the only form of life on Earth for
millions of years until more complicated eukaryotic cells
came into being through the process of evolution.

95. • In Greek:
–Pro = before
–karyotic = nucleus
• Cell that do not
have a nucleus
• Bacteria

96. • In Greek:
–Eu = True
–Karyotic = nucleus
• Cell that have a
nucleus

100. In this PowerPoint you will
learn the following:
• Different cell parts
• What function each part has

101. Even if cells are very tiny,
they are made up of
smaller parts, and the
parts do different jobs.

102. Cell organelles are of 2 types..
• Membranous Organelles:
1. Rough Endoplasmic reticulum.
2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
3. Mitochondria.
4. Golgi.
5. Lysosomes.

103. • Non membranous Organelles.
1.Ribosomes.
2.Cytoskeletal structures.

104. As you can see cells have many parts.

105. Cell wall
• Only found surrounding plant, fungal and
bacterial cells
• Its purpose is to shape and protect the cell like
the outside wall of a shopping mall, which
provides shape and protection for it.
• “Supporter and Protector”

106. Cell membrane
The cell membrane holds
and protects the cell.
It controls what substances
come into and out of the cell
like an entrance you have to
pass to get into the shopping
mall.
“Gate of the Cell”.

107. Surrounds all cells.
In a plant cell, it lies
beneath the cell wall.
In animal cells, it is the
outer boundary (made of Cell
Membrane
cholesterol)
Cell membrane
Provides cell with
– Protection
– Control of
movement of
materials in/out of
cell
– Support
– Maintains condition
of cell

108. Function
• Regulates the movement of materials from one
environment to the other.
• Transports raw materials into the cell and waste
out of the cell.
• Prevents the entry of unwanted matter and the
escape of needed materials.
• Maintain a steady environment: Homeostasis

109. Cytoplasm
• The cytoplasm is the watery, gel-like material in
which cell parts move and cell activities take place
like the hallways of the mall where people move.
• “Area of Movement”

110. Found in both plant and
animal cells
• Clear, thick, jelly-like
Material.
• Located beneath cell
Membrane.
• Supports and protects cell
Organelles.
• It’s like the sidewalks that
are found throughout a
city!
Cytoplasm

111. Mitochondria
• Mitochondria produces most of the energy for the
cell, like an electrical system of the shopping mall,
which supplies electrical energy.
• “Powerhouse of the cell”

112. Found in both plant and
animal cells.
Looks like a jellybean
Breaks down sugar
molecules to release usable
energy.
Has inner foldings
(Cristae) that increase
the internal surface area.
It’s like a city’s power
plant!

113. Mitochondria are the only
organelles to have their own genetic
material.
In EM it can be seen that mitochondria are
bounded by double unit membrane.
These membrane are separated by narrow
intramembranous space
Inner membrane is four or five times
larger than outer membrane.

114. Outer membrane is fairly permeable, inner
membrane is highly selective.
Interior of the mitochondrian is filled with
mitochondrial matrix of slightly higher
electron density than the surrounding
cytoplasm.
Mitochondria are renewed on a continuous
basis throughout the cell cycle.

115. The number and size of mitochondria give
an indication of the energy requirements.
Mitochondria primarily concerned with
the chemical process by which energy is
made available to the cell in the form of ATP.
ATP is often referred to as the energy
“currency of cell”
Main site of aerobic respiration.

116. • This DNA is inherited maternally.
• Mitochondria are also significant participants in
many versions of apoptosis, and altered
mitochondrial function appears to be associated
with various cancerous changes in cells.
• In cell hypertrophy- increase in number of
mitochondria in cells
• In cell atrophy- decrease in no. of
mitochondria's in cells.
Mitochondrial DNA

117. Chloroplast
• Chloroplast is only in plant cells, like the cell wall. It
contains chlorophyll, which captures energy from
sunlight and uses it to produce food for the cell like
the pizza shop in the mall that makes food.
• “Food Producers”
• Green in color due to chlorophyll.

118. Vacuoles
• The vacuoles store food, water, and chemicals, like
water tank and pipes of the mall, which store
water.
• “Storage Tanks”

119. Found in both plant and
animal cells
– In plant cells: very
few and very large
Vacuoles
– In animal cells:
many little ones
Fluid-filled sacs
Vacuoles

120. Identified in 1833 by
Robert Brown
Found in both plant
and animal cells
Nucleus
Large, oval shape
Centrally located in cell
Controls cell activities
Contains genetic
information (DNA)

121. Nucleus
• Nucleus regulates and controls cell activities,
acting like the “brain” of the cell, like the mall
office, which regulates and controls activities of
the shopping mall.
• “Control Center”

122. NUCLEUS
• Most prominent
organelle.
• All cells in the body
contain nucleus
except mature RBCs
& uppermost layer of
skin.

123. Cell Nucleus: Functions
• Bag of chromosomes: It contains most of the
cell's genetic material.
• Storage of DNA, DNA maintenance
• Replication & repair of DNA
• Site of transcription & post transcriptional
processing/ modification

124. The control center of a cell:
-Controls the activities of cell
by regulating gene expression.
- Production of ribosomal
subunits in the nucleolus
Nucleolus: Actively transcribing
region of nucleus
• Synthesis of rRNA
• Formation of ribosome
subunits

125. Nuclear membrane
• The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus and
also allow substances to pass in and out of the
nucleus, as the cell membrane does the same for
the cell; like the main office; like the walls of the
mall and its entrance, which protect the office and
let workers in and out.
• “Gate of the Nucleus”

126. FUNCTIONS CONT.
Nuclear membrane Compartmentalizes the
nucleus
Nuclear pore
Transport of molecules
between the cytoplasm and
the nucleus
Chromatin DNA Replication and transcription
Nuclear matrix
Replication, DNA repair and
transcriptional process
Nucleolus
Synthesis of rRNA and
ribosomes

127. Chromosomes
• The chromosomes direct the activities of cells like
a mall office director who works in the office and
directs all the activities of the shopping mall.
• “Director of the Cell”

128. Golgi Apparatus
Discovered in 1898 by
Camillo Golgi
Found in both plant and
animal cells
Looks like a flattened
stack of membranes (or
pancakes!)
Processes and packages
molecules, like lipids
and proteins, that were
made by the cell

129. Ribosomes
Found in both plant
and animal cells
Can be attached to the
Endoplasmic Membrane
or floating free in the
cytoplasm
Ribosomes:-
• Produces proteins
• The smallest organelles
• It’s like the brick yard
that supplies a city with
what it’s made of!

130. Endoplasmic Reticulum
Found in both plant and
animal cells
• Network of tubes
• Transports materials
throughout the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Two types
– Smooth (no ribosomes)
– Rough (covered with
ribosomes)
• It’s like a city’s highway
system!

131. ‘The Cell’s Delivery System’

133. Biomolecules Definition
• Biomolecules are molecules that occur
naturally in living organisms.
• Biomolecules include macromolecules
like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and
nucleic acids.

134. • It also includes small molecules like
primary and secondary metabolites and
natural products.
• Biomolecules consists mainly of carbon
and hydrogen with nitrogen, oxygen,
sulphur, and phosphorus.
• Biomolecules are very large molecules
of many atoms, that are covalently
bound together.

135. Classes of Biomolecules
There are four major classes of biomolecules:
• Carbohydrates
• Lipids
• Proteins
• Nucleic acids

136. Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are often known as
sugars, they are the 'staff of life' for most
organisms.
• They are the most abundant class of
biomolecules in nature, based on mass.
• Carbohydrates are also known as
saccharides, in Greek sakcharon mean
sugar or sweetness.

137. • Carbohydrates consist of the elements
carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) with
a ratio of hydrogen twice that of carbon and
oxygen. General formula of carbohydrate
is Cn H2n On
• In their basic form, carbohydrates are
simple sugars or monosaccharides.

138. • These simple sugars can combine with each
other to form more complex carbohydrates.
• The combination of two simple sugars is
a disaccharide.
• Carbohydrates consisting of two to ten
simple sugars are called oligosaccharides,
and those with a larger numbers are
called polysaccharides.

139. Sugars
• Sugars are white crystalline carbohydrates
that are soluble in water and generally have a
sweet taste.

140. Classification of Carbohydrates
• The carbohydrates are divided into three
major classes depending upon whether or
not they undergo hydrolysis, and if they do,
on the number of products formed.

142. Monosaccharides
• The monosaccharides are polyhydroxy
aldehydes or polyhydroxy ketones which
cannot be decomposed by hydrolysis to give
simpler carbohydrates.
• Examples are glucose and fructose, both of
which have molecular formula, C6H12O6.
• Many saccharide structures differ only in the
orientation of the hydroxyl groups (-OH).

143. • This slight structural difference makes a big
difference in the biochemical properties, and
in the physical properties such as melting
point .
• A chain-form monosaccharide that has a
carbonyl group (C=O) on an end carbon
forming an aldehyde group (-CHO) is
classified as an aldose. When the carbonyl
group is on an inner atom forming a ketone,
it is classified as a ketose.

144. • On the basis of number of carbon
atoms monosaccharide are further classified
into following small units:
(i) Trioses (C3 H6 O3) – It contain 3 carbon
molecule. Examples are: Glyceraldehyde and
and Dihydroxy acetone.
Glyceraldehyde

145. (ii) Tetroses(C4 H8 O4) – It contain 4 carbon
molecules. Examples are: Erythrose,
Erythrulose.
D-Erythrose D-Threose D-Erythrulose

146. (iii) Pentoses (C5 H10 O5) – It contain 5 carbon
molecules. Examples are: Ribose, Ribulose,
Arbinose,Xylulose, Deoxyribose.
D-Ribose D-Arabinose D-Xylose D-Lyxose

147. • The ring form of ribose is a component of
ribonucleic acid (RNA).
• Deoxyribose, which is missing an oxygen at
position 2, is a component of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
• In nucleic acids, the hydroxyl group attached
to carbon number 1 is replaced with
nucleotide bases.

148. Ribose Deoxyribose

149. (iv) Hexoses(C6H12O6) – It contain 6 carbon
molecules. Examples are: Glucose, Mannose,
Fructose, Galactose etc…
D-Glucose D-Mannose D-Galactose

150. • Structures that have opposite configurations
of a hydroxyl group at only one position, such
as glucose and mannose, are called epimers.
• Glucose, also called dextrose, is the most
widely distributed sugar in the plant and
animal kingdoms and it is the sugar present
in blood as "blood sugar".

151. • Fructose, also called levulose or "fruit sugar",
is shown here in the chain and ring
forms. Galactose is a constituent of agar-agar.
It is also called brain sugar.
• Fructose and glucose are the main
carbohydrate constituents of honey.
D-Fructose
Fructose

152. (v) Heptoses (C7 H14 O7) – It contain 7 carbon
molecules. Examples are: Sedoheptulose.
Sedoheptulose has the same structure as
fructose, but it has one extra carbon.
Sedoheptulose is found in carrots.
D-Sedoheptulose

153. • Many simple sugars can exist in a chain form
or a ring form, as illustrated by the hexoses
above.
• The ring form is favored in aqueous solutions,
and the mechanism of ring formation is similar
for most sugars.

154. • The rearrangement
produces alpha glucose when the hydroxyl
group is on the opposite side of the -
CH2OH group, or beta glucose when the
hydroxyl group is on the same side as the -
CH2OH group.
α-D-Glucose β-D-Glucose

155. • Monosaccharides forming a five-sided ring,
like ribose, are called furanoses. Those
forming six-sided rings, like glucose, are
called pyranoses.
Furanose Pyranose

156. Oligosaccharides
• These sugars are formed by linking of 2-10
units of monosaccharides.
• In Oligosaccharides ,aldehyde or ketone
group of one monosaccharide are linked
with alcoholic group of another
monosaccharide to form Glycosidic bond
(C-O-C).

157. • The most abundant oligosaccharides are
disaccharides, formed by two
monosaccharides, and especially in the
human diet the most important are sucrose
(common table sugar), lactose and maltose.

158. (i) Disaccharides:
• Carbohydrates which upon hydrolysis give
two molecules of the same or different
monosaccharides are called disaccharides.
Three particular disaccharides are: Sucrose,
Maltose & Lactose.

159. (a) Sucrose: Also called saccharose, is ordinary
table sugar refined from sugar cane or sugar
beets. When Sucrose is hydrolyzed, it yields
one unit of glucose and one unit of fructose.
Sucrose

160. (b) Maltose (also known as malt sugar): It
occurs in the body as an intermediate
product of starch digestion. When maltose is
hydrolyzed, it yields two molecules of
glucose.
Maltose

161. (c) Lactose ( also known as milk sugar): This
disaccharide is found only in milk. When
lactose is hydrolyzed it yields one unit of
glucose and one unit of galactose.
Lactose

163. (ii) Trisaccharides:
(a) Raffinose: Also called melitose, is a
trisaccharide that is widely found in legumes
and vegetables, including beans, peas,
cabbage etc..
• It consists of galactose connected to sucrose
via a 1α→6 glycosidic linkage.
• Humans cannot digest saccharides with this
linkage and the saccharides are fermented in
the large intestine by gas-producing bacteria.

164. Raffinose

165. Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharide, also called glycan, the form
in which most natural carbohydrates occur.
• Polysaccharides may have a molecular
structure that is either branched or linear.
• Linear compounds such as cellulose often
pack together to form a rigid structure;
branched forms (e.g., gum arabic) generally
are soluble in water and make pastes.

166. • Polysaccharides composed of many
molecules of one sugar or one sugar
derivative are called homopolysaccharides
(homoglycans).
• Homopolysaccharides composed
of glucose include glycogen and starch, the
storage carbohydrates of animals and plants
respectively; and cellulose, the important
structural component of most plants.

167. • Polysaccharides consisting of molecules of
more than one sugar or sugar derivative are
called heteropolysaccharides
(heteroglycans). Most contain only two
different units and are associated with
proteins; like Peptidoglycan, proteoglycans
etc..
• Hetropolysaccharides provide extracellular
support for organisms of all kingdoms.

168. • The polysaccharides described below play
important roles in nutrition, biology, or food
preparation.
Types of polysaccharides:
(i) Starch: Starch is the major form of stored
carbohydrate in plants. Starch is composed of
a mixture of two substances: amylose, an
essentially linear polysaccharide,
and amylopectin, a highly branched
polysaccharide.

169. • Both forms of starch are polymers of α-D-
Glucose. Natural starches contain 10-20%
amylose and 80-90% amylopectin.
• Amylose forms a colloidal dispersion in hot
water (which helps to thicken gravies)
whereas amylopectin is completely insoluble.

170. a) Amylose molecules consist typically of 200 to
20,000 glucose units which form a helix as a
result of the bond angles between the glucose
units.
Amylose

171. b) Amylopectin differs from amylose in being
highly branched.
Short side chains of about 30 glucose units
are attached with 1α→6 linkages
approximately every twenty to thirty glucose
units along the chain. Amylopectin molecules
may contain up to two million glucose units.

172. Examples of starch are: Dextrins, Syrups, High
fructose corn syrup(HFCS), Polydextrose etc..
(ii) Glycogen: Glucose is stored as glycogen in
animal tissues by the process of glycogenesis.
 Glycogen is a polymer of α-D-Glucose
identical to amylopectin, but the branches in
glycogen tend to be shorter (about 13 glucose
units)

173. Glucose chains are organized globularly like
branches of a tree originating from a pair of
molecules of glycogenin, a protein with a
molecular weight of 38,000 that acts as a
primer at the core of the structure.
Glycogen is easily converted back to glucose
to provide energy.

174. (iii) Dextran: Dextran is a polysaccharide similar
to amylopectin, but the main chains are
formed by 1α→6 glycosidic linkages and the
side branches are attached by 1α→3 or 1α→4
linkages.
 Dextran is an oral bacterial product that
adheres to the teeth, creating a film called
plaque.
It is also used commercially as food additives..

175. Dextran

176. (iv) Cellulose: Cellulose is a polymer of β-D-
Glucose, which in contrast to starch, is
oriented with -CH2OH groups alternating
above and below the plane of the cellulose
molecule thus producing long, unbranched
chains.
The absence of side chains allows cellulose
molecules to lie close together and form rigid
structures.

177. Cellulose is the major structural material of
plants.
Wood is largely cellulose, and cotton is almost
pure cellulose.
Cellulose can be hydrolyzed to its constituent
glucose units by microorganisms that inhabit
the digestive tract of termites and ruminants.

178. Cellulose

179. (v) Hemicellulose:
 The term "hemicellulose" is applied to the
polysaccharide components of plant cell walls
other than cellulose, or to polysaccharides in
plant cell walls which are extractable by
dilute alkaline solutions.
Hemicelluloses comprise almost one-third of
the carbohydrates in woody plant tissue.

180. The chemical structure of hemicelluloses
consists of long chains of a variety of
pentoses, hexoses.
Hemicelluloses may be found in fruit, plant
stems & grain. Although hemicelluloses are
not digestible, they can be fermented by
yeasts and bacteria.

181. • The polysaccharides yielding pentoses on
hydrolysis are called pentosans. Xylan is an
example of a pentosan consisting of D-xylose
units with 1β→4 linkages.
Xylan

182. (vi) Chitin:
 Chitin is an unbranched polymer of N-Acetyl-
D-glucosamine.
It is found in fungi and is the principal
component of arthropod and lower animal
exoskeletons, e.g., insect, crabs etc..
It may be regarded as a derivative of cellulose,
in which the hydroxyl groups of the second
carbon of each glucose unit have been replaced
with acetamido (-NH(C=O)CH3) groups.

183. Chitin

184. (vii) Pectin: Pectin is a polysaccharide that
acts as a cementing material in the cell walls
of all plant tissues. Pectin is the methylated
ester of polygalacturonic acid, which consists
of chains of 300 to 1000 galacturonic acid
units joined with 1α→4 linkages.
Pectin is an important ingredient of fruit
preserves, jellies, and jams.

185. Pectin is a polymer of α-Galacturonic acid
with a variable number of methyl ester
(-COOCH3) groups.

186. Carbohydrates have six major functions within the
body:
• Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose
• Sparing the use of proteins for energy
• Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis
• Biological recognition processes i.e. they are
essential for cells to communicate with each
other.
• Flavor and Sweeteners
• They have the potential to reduce the risks of
many chronic diseases.

187. Lipids: Fats & Oils

188. LIPIDS
• Lipids are naturally occurring hydrophobic
molecules.
• They are heterogeneous group of compounds
related to fatty acids. They include fats, oils,
waxes, phospholipids, etc.
• They make up about 70% of the dry weight of
the nervous system. Lipids are crucial for the
healthy functioning of the nerve cells.

189. • Lipids are greasy or oily organic substances;
lipids are sparingly soluble in water and
are soluble in organic solvents like chloroform,
ether and benzene.
• Lipids are important constituent of of the diet
because they are a source of high energy value.
• Lipids combined with proteins are important
constituents of the cell membranes and
mitochondria of the cell. Lipids are not generally
macromolecules.

190. Classification of Lipids

191. • They may be classified based on their
physical properties at room temperature
(solid or liquid, respectively fats and oils), on
polarity, or on their essentiality for humans,
but the preferable classification is based on
their structure.

192. Types of Lipid
1.Triglycerides
[Fats & Oils]
1. Waxes
2. Phospholipids
3. Steroids
4. Glycolipids
5. Lipoproteins
6. Terpenes

193. Based on structure, they can be classified in
three major groups.

194. 1. Simple Lipids or Homolipids
• These are esters of fatty acids with various
alcohols.
(A)Fats and Oils: Esters of fatty acids with
glycerol. The difference between fat and oil is
only physical. Thus, oil is a liquid while fat is a
solid at room temperature.
These triglycerides (or triacylglycerols) are found
in both plants and animals, and compose one of
the major food groups of our diet.

195. Fats & Oils
• the commonest lipids in nature
• the constituents of fats are:-
fatty acids
(alkanoic acids)
glycerol
(propane 1-2-3 triol)

196. (B)Waxes: Esters of fatty acids(usually long
chain)with alcohols other than glycerol.
These alcohols may be aliphatic or alicyclic.
Cetyl alcohol [CH3(CH2)15OH] is most
commonly found in waxes.
The name cetyl derives from the whale oil
(Latin: cetus) from which it was first isolated.
Example: Beeswax(insect wax), Carnauba wax
(important plant wax; also a complex mixture
; hardest known wax)

197. Fatty acids
- general formula: R.COOH
- most have an even number
of C - most commonly 16-18
C16H32O2
R
- fatty acids may be:
 saturated or
unsaturated

198. Saturated fatty acid
[Single bonds only]
Unsaturated fatty acid
[Double bonds]

199. Stearic acid, C17H35COOH –
Saturated fatty acid Oleic acid, C17H33COOH –
Unsaturated fatty acid

200. The more double bonds present,
the more bent the molecule is

201. Properties of Saturated
Fatty Acids
• Contain only single C–C bonds
• Closely packed
• Strong attractions between chains
• High melting points
• Solids at room temperature
201

202. Properties of Unsaturated
Fatty Acids
• Contain one or more double C=C bonds
• Nonlinear chains do not allow molecules
to pack closely
• Few interactions between chains
• Low melting points
• Liquids at room temperature
202

203. Fatty Acids
• The Length of the Carbon Chain
–long-chain, medium-chain, short-chain
• The Degree of Unsaturation
–saturated, unsaturated,
monounsaturated, polyunsaturated
• The Location of Double Bonds
–omega-3 fatty acid, omega-6 fatty acid

204. Monounsaturated Fatty Acid
(MUFA)
One carbon-carbon double bond

205. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid
(PUFA)
More than one carbon-carbon double bond

206. Location of Double Bonds
• PUFA are identified by position of the double
bond nearest the methyl end (CH3) of the
carbon chain; this is described as a omega
number;
• If PUFA has first double bond 3 carbons away
from the methyl end=omega 3 FA
• 6 carbons from methyl end=omega 6 FA

208. Cis and Trans Fatty Acids
• Because of the presence of doubles bond in
aliphatic hydrocarbon chain of unsaturated
fatty acids, they can exhibit geometrical
isomerism also called as cis-trans
isomerization.
• Naturally occurring fatty acid exhibit cis-
configuration which can be modified to
artificial configuration known as trans.

209. • In cis-form the hydrogen atoms of double
bonded carbon atom oriented on same side,
however in trans form they oriented in
opposite direction.
• The differences in geometry of trans and cis-
unsaturated fatty acids play an important role
in biological processes.

210. • Cis and trans forms of fatty acids show
different physical and chemical properties
just like other organic geometrical isomers.
• Trans isomers show high melting points due
to closely packed structure compare to cis
isomers.
• The configuration of unsaturated fatty acids
not only affects their physical properties but
also their health implications.

211. Some other differences between cis and
trans-fatty acids are as follows.

212. 2. Compound Lipids or
Heterolipids
• Esters of fatty acids containing groups in
addition to an alcohol and a fatty acid.

213. (a)Phospholipids: Lipids containing, in
addition to fatty acids and an alcohol, a
phosphoric acid residue.
• They frequently have nitrogen containing
bases and other substituent's, e.g., in
glycerophospholipids the alcohol is glycerol
and in sphingophospholipids the alcohol is
sphingosine.

214. (b) Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids): Lipids
containing a fatty acid, sphingosine, and
carbohydrate.
(c) Other complex lipids: Lipids such as
sulfolipids and aminolipids. Lipoproteins may
also be placed in this category.

215. 3. Precursor and derived lipids:
• This group includes:
–Fatty Acids.
–Glycerol.
–Cholesterol.
–Steroid hormones.
–Fatty aldehydes.
–Fat soluble vitamins [ A D E K].
–Some other alcohols.
215

216. Derived lipids
• Derived lipids are the substances derived from
simple and compound lipids by hydrolysis.
• These includes fatty acids, alcohols,
monoglycerides and diglycerides, steroids,
terpenes, carotenoids.
• The most common derived lipids are steroids,
terpenes and carotenoids.

217. • Steroids do not contain fatty acids, they are
nonsaponifiable, and are not hydrolyzed on
heating.
• They are widely distributed in animals, where
they are associated with physiological
processes.
• They performs various functions such as
hormones and contributes to the structure of
cell membranes.

218. Steroids
• Steroids are: Lipids containing the steroid
nucleus, which is a fused structure of four
rings.
• Found in cholesterol, bile salts, hormones,
and vitamin D.

219. a. Cholesterol
• The most abundant steroid in the body.
•Contains 27 carbon atoms.
• At C3 there is a –OH group; so it is an
alcohol. Composed of the steroid nucleus with
methyl groups, an alkyl chain, and a hydroxyl
group attached.

220. b. Bile Salts
• Are synthesized from cholesterol and stored
in the gall bladder.
• Emulsify fats and oils to give a greater surface
area for lipid digesting enzymes.

221. Terpenes
• In majority are found in plants. Example:
natural rubber. Gernoil, etc.
• Are volatile organic compounds which are
odoriferous constituents of essential oils.
• They contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
and are not aromatic in character.

222. Carotenoids
• Carotenoids are tetraterpenes. They are
widely distributed in both plants and animals.
• They are exclusively of plant origin.
• Due to the presence of many conjugated
double bonds, they are colored red or yellow.
Example: Lycopreene, carotenes,
Xanthophylls.

223. Function of Lipids
Lipids perform several biological functions:
• Lipids are storage compounds, triglycerides
serve as reserve energy of the body.
• Lipids are important component of cell
membranes structure in eukaryotic cells.
• Lipids regulate membrane permeability.
• They serve as source for fat soluble vitamins
like A, D, E, K.

224. • As lipids are small molecules and are
insoluble in water, they act as signalling
molecules.
• Cholesterol maintains fluidity of membranes
by interacting with lipid complexes.
• Layers of fat in the subcutaneous layer,
provides insulation and protection from cold.
Body temperature maintenance is done by
brown fat.

225. Summary
 Lipids
It’s sub types: Classification
Fatty Acids
Types of fatty acids
Compound and derived lipids
Functions of lipids

227. What is a Protein?
The word protein came from a Greek word “Proteios”
Proteins are like long necklaces with differently
shaped beads. Each "bead" is a small molecule
called an amino acid.
Compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen and arranged as strands of amino acids

228. • Proteins are a class of most important
compounds that are found in living
organisms.
• Proteins are the main constituents of our
body such as muscles, skin, hair and nails.
• Protein carry all vital life processes in the
human system.
• Proteins are a vast class of substances of
almost unbelievable diversity in structure
and function.

229. What is Amino Acid?
• Amino acids are derivatives of carboxylic acids
formed by substitution of -hydrogen for amino
functional group

230. What do Amino Acids Do?
Amino acids are essential to life, have a role in
metabolism, and are important in nutrition.
They form short polymer chains called peptides, as
well as longer chains that are called polypeptides
or proteins.
About 75 percent of the human body is made up of
chains of amino acids, which is why they are so
vital to how your system functions.
All the chemical reactions that occur in the body
depend on amino acids and the proteins they
build.

231. Amino Acids
• Amino Acids are the building units of proteins.
Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked
together by what is called “ Peptide bond”.
• There are about 300 amino acids occur in
nature. Only 20 of them occur in proteins.
• Each amino acid has 4 different groups
attached to α- carbon ( which is C-atom next
to COOH). These 4 groups are : amino group,
COOH gp, Hydrogen atom and side Chain (R)
R

232. • At physiological PH (7.4), -COOH gp is
dissociated forming a negatively charged
carboxylate ion (COO-) and amino gp is
protonated forming positively charged ion
(NH3+) forming Zwitter ion

233. • Amino acid structures differ at the side chain (R-
groups).
• Abbreviations: three or one letter codes
• Amino acids (except glycine) have chiral centers:
• There are 20 commonly occurring amino acids that
make up proteins, and the order of amino acids in
proteins determines its structure and biological
function.

234. Classification of amino acids
• Amino acids are classified into different ways
based on polarity, structure, nutritional
requirement, metabolic fate, etc.
• Generally used classification is based on
polarity.
• Amino acid polarity chart shows the polarity
of amino acids.

235. Classification on polarity basis
Based on polarity, amino acids are classified
into four groups as follows,
• Non-polar amino acids.
• Polar amino acids with no charge.
• Polar amino acids with positive charge.
• Polar amino acids with negative charge.

241. Classification of Proteins
Proteins ate divided into three main classes :
1. Simple proteins
2. Conjugated proteins
3. Derived proteins

242. Classification of Proteins

243. Simple proteins
• The simple proteins are those which are made
of amino acid units only, joined by peptide
bond.
• Upon hydrolysis they yield mixture of amino
acids or their derivatives. They include the
following groups:-

244. (a) Albumins:
These are water soluble-proteins found in all
body cells and also in the blood stream.
Examples are: lacto albumin found in milk ;
serum albumin found in blood and egg
albumin found in egg.
(b) Globulins:
These are insoluble in water but are soluble in
dilute salt solutions of strong acids and bases.
Examples of globulins are lactoglobulin found
in milk and ovoglobulin in egg yolk.

245. (c) Glutelins:
These are soluble in dilute acids and alkalis.
The protein glutenin of wheat and oryzenin
of rice is an example. They occur only in plant
material.
(d) Histones:
These are water soluble proteins in which
basic amino acids predominates. They are rich
in arginine or lysine. In eukaryotes the DNA of
the chromosomes is associated with histones
to form nucleoproteins.

246. (e) Protamines:
 These are water soluble basic polypeptides
with a low molecular weight (about 4,000
Daltons).
Protamines are found bound to DNA in
spermatozoa of some fishes. Examples of
protamines are salmine (in salmon) and
sturine (in sturgeons)

247. Conjugated proteins
• These consist of simple proteins in
combination with some non-protein
component.
• The non-protein groups are called prosthetic
groups. Conjugated protein includes the
following group:-

248. (a) Nucleoproteins:
(Protein + nucleic acid). Nucleoproteins are
proteins in combination with nucleic acids.
Examples are: Nucleohistone.
(d) Chromoproteins:
These are proteins in combination with a
prosthetic group that is a pigment. Examples
are the respiratory pigments hemoglobin.

249. (c) Phosphoproteins (Protein+phosphate):
Phosphoproteins are proteins in combination
with a phosphoric acid residue as a prosthetic
group.
Examples of phosphoproteins are casein of milk
and vitellin in egg yolk.
(e) Lipoproteins:
These are proteins conjugated with lipids. There
are different types of lipoproteins, high density
lipoproteins (HDL), low density
lipoproteins(LDL); Very low density
lipoprotein(VLDL).

250. (f) Metalloproteins:
These are proteins conjugated to metal ion
(s). Example : The heme protein, which
contain iron are classed as chromoproteins
also are metalloproteins.

251. Derived proteins
 They are substances resulting from the
decomposition of simple and conjugated
proteins as in peptones, peptides.
Derived proteins are subdivided into primary
derived proteins and secondary derived
proteins.

252. Derivatives of proteins due to action of
heat, enzymes, or chemical reagents.
a) Primary Derived
b) Secondary Derived

253. Primary derived proteins –
• Proteans,
• Metaproteins and
• Coagulated proteins. Example: cooked egg
albumin etc..
Secondary derived proteins –
• Proteoses,
• Peptones and
• Polypeptides.

254. STRUCTURE OF
PROTEINS

255. Four different levels of structure –
Primary,
Secondary,
Tertiary and
Quaternary

256. PRIMARY STRUCTURE

257. Secondary Structure

259. Tertiary & Quaternary
Structure
Structure

261. Protein Functions
Antibodies
Contractile Proteins
Enzymes
Hormonal Proteins
Transport Proteins
Storage Proteins
Structural Proteins

263. It’s Composition
DNA
RNA

264. Composition of DNA
• A pentose sugar – Deoxy ribose sugar
• Nucleotides – A,T,G,C
• A phosphate

265. Pentose sugar in DNA
• Deoxyribose sugar
– 4 C atoms and oxygen molecule forms the ring
– 5th C atom is outside the, part of CH2 group
– 3 OH groups at positions 1,3,5

266. Nitrogen Bases
• There are four nitrogen bases making up four
different nucleotides.
Adenine
Guanine
Thymine
Cytosine
Pyrimidines
Purines
A
C
G
T
N base

267. Nucleic Acid
Composition
phosphate
nucleotide
N base
PO4
SugarSugar
PO4
N base
The numbers are
the positions of
the carbons on
the sugar.
(the 3’ end)
5
4
3 2
1
(the 5’ end)
sugar
nitrogen base
DeoxyriboNucleic Acid

268. Nucleosides & Nucleotides
• Nucleotide = a nitrogenous (nitrogen-
containing) base + a pentose + a phosphate
• Nucleoside = a nitrogenous (nitrogen-
containing) base + a pentose

270. A molecule of
DNA is formed by
millions of
nucleotides
joined together in
a long chain
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
sugar-phosphate
backbone
+ bases
Joined nucleotides

271. PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
PO4
Double stranded DNA

272. The bases always pair up in the same way
Adenine forms a bond with Thymine
And cytosine bonds with guanine
Adenine Thymine
Cytosine Guanine

273. The paired strands are coiled into a spiral
called
A DOUBLE HELIX
sugar-phosphate
chain
Bases

274. Formation of
Phosphodiester
bonds to make a
polynucleotide
strand

275. Structure of DNA:
Watson & Crick model

277. Erwin Chargaff
A A
A A
A
A
A
T
T
T
T T
T
T
C
C
C G G
G

278. The Properties of DNA

279. Types of DNA

281. DNA as a genetic
material

282. Is the Genetic Material
Protein or DNA

283. Direct evidences come from :
• Frederick Griffith’s (1928) experiment.
• Hershey and Chase (1952 ) experiment.

284. Frederick Griffith’s (1928)
experiment.

285. STEPS IN THE EXPERIMENT
1 LIVE
SIII
2 LIVE
RII
3 H K S III 4 H K S III &
LIVE RII
Strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae injected to mice

286. Griffith’s
Experiment
RII SIII
Transformation
takes place in
step 4 gives
clue for DNA as
“genetic
material”
1
2
3
4

287. Hershey & Chase
Experiment
(1952)

288. Life Cycle of
T-2 Phage
Phage is made of
DNA and protein
coat
Only DNA enters
in the Bacterial
cell and protein
coat is left out
side
288

289. Events which take place in
life cycle of bacteriophage

292. HERSHEY & CHASE
CONCLUSION

293. Summary of Hershey &
Chase (1952 ) experiment

294. End of Presentation

295. RNA STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTIONS

296. What we will be
discussing?

297. RNA
Introduction
Structure
Different types & functions
Conclusion

298. Structure of RNA

299. Ribonucleic acid

300. THE NUCLEOTIDE: RNA
OH
O=P-O-5CH2 BASE
OH O
4C 1C
H H H H
3C 2C
OH 0H
Adenine
Guanine
Cytosine
Uracil

301. Synthesis

302. Types of RNA
Messenger RNA (mRNA)
carries information from
DNA to the ribosome
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
involved in the process of translation
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
RNA Types

303. Messenger
RNA (mRNA)
Comprises
only 5% of
the RNA in
the cell

304. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

305. Transfer RNA (tRNA)

306. Functions of different RNA

307. RNA V/S DNA

309. Differences between RNA and
DNA
S.No. RNA DNA
1) Single stranded mainly except
when self complementary
sequences are there it forms a
double stranded structure (Hair
pin structure)
Double stranded (Except for
certain viral DNA s which are
single stranded)
2) Ribose is the main sugar The sugar moiety is deoxy
ribose
3) Pyrimidine components differ.
Thymine is never found(Except
tRNA)
Thymine is always there but
uracil is never found
4) Being single stranded structure-
It does not follow Chargaff’s rule
It does follow Chargaff's rule.
The total purine content in a
double stranded DNA is always
equal to pyrimidine content.

310. Differences between RNA and DNA
S.No. RNA DNA
5) RNA can be easily destroyed by
alkalies to cyclic diesters of mono
nucleotides.
DNA resists alkali action due to
the absence of OH group at 2’
position
6) RNA is a relatively a labile
molecule, undergoes easy and
spontaneous degradation
DNA is a stable molecule. The
spontaneous degradation is very
slow. The genetic information
can be stored for years together
without any change.
7) Mainly cytoplasmic, but also
present in nucleus (primary
transcript and small nuclear RNA)
Mainly found in nucleus, extra
nuclear DNA is found in
mitochondria, and plasmids etc
8) The base content varies from 100-
5000. The size is variable.
Millions of base pairs are there
depending upon the organism

311. S.No. RNA DNA
9) There are various types of RNA –
mRNA, r RNA, t RNA. These RNAs
perform different and specific
functions.
DNA is always of one type and
performs the function of
storage and transfer of genetic
information.
10) No variable physiological forms
of RNA are found. The different
types of RNA do not change their
forms
There are variable forms of
DNA (A, B and Z)
11) RNA is synthesized from DNA, it
can not form DNA(except by the
action of reverse transcriptase). It
can not duplicate (except in
certain viruses where it is a
genomic material )
DNA can form DNA by
replication, it can also form
RNA by transcription.
12) Many copies of RNA are present
per cell
Single copy of DNA is present
per cell.

314. • Organic (carbon-containing) compounds that
are essential in small amounts for body
processes
• Do not provide energy
• Enable the body to use the energy provided
by fats, carbohydrates, and proteins
• Mega doses can be toxic.

315. Classification of Vitamins

319. Vitamin A
Alternative Names:
Retinol; Retinal; Retinoic acid; Carotenoids
• Is a fat-soluble vitamin.
• Preformed vitamin A is found in animal
products .
• Pro-vitamin A is found in plant-based foods

320. Vitamin A (and carotenoids)
• Functions:
– Normal vision
– Protects from
infections
– Regulates
immune
system
– Antioxidant
(carotenoids)
• Food sources:
– Liver
– Fish oil
– Eggs
– Fortified milk or
other foods
– Red, yellow, orange,
and dark green
veggies
(carotenoids)

321. Excess
 Birth defects, hair
loss, dry skin,
headaches, nausea,
 dry mucous
membranes, liver
damage, and bone
and joint pain
Deficit
 Night blindness,
 dry, rough skin,
 increased
susceptibility to
infections

322. Vitamin D
Alternative Name: Calciferol
Regulation of Calcium metabolism

323. Vitamin D (the sunshine
vitamin)
Functions:
–Promotes absorption
of calcium and
phosphorus
–Helps deposit those in
bones/teeth
–Regulates cell growth
–Plays role in immunity
Sources:
– Sunlight (10 – 15
mins 2x a week)
– Salmon with bones
– Milk
– Orange juice
(fortified)
– Fortified cereals

324. Excess
 Deposits of calcium
and phosphorus in
soft tissues, kidney,
and heart damage.
Deficit
 Poor bone and tooth
formation, rickets which
causes malformed
bones and pain in
infants
 Osteomalacia
(softening of bones)
 Osteoporosis (brittle,
porous bones)

325. VITAMIN E
Alternative Name: Tocopherol
Functions:
 Antioxidant
Enhances immune system
Retards spoilage of commercial foods

326. Sources of Vitamin E
• Vegetable oils: corn,
soybean, and
products made from
them.
• Wheat and green
leafy vegetables

327. Excess
 Relatively
nontoxic, fat-
soluble vitamin
 Excess stored in
adipose tissue
 Avoid long-term
mega doses.
Deficit
 Serious
neurological
defects can occur
from mal
absorption.

328. Vitamin K
Alternative Name: Phylloquinone
 Made up of several compounds essential for
blood clotting.
Vitamin K is destroyed by light and alkalis.

329. Functions of Vitamin K
Formation of prothrombin for clotting of blood

330. Sources of Vitamin K
• Green leafy vegetables such as broccoli,
cabbage, spinach
• Bacteria in small intestine synthesizes some
vitamin K, but must be supplemented by
dietary sources.

331. Excess
 Anemia can result
from excessive
amounts of
synthetic vitamin K.
Deficit
 Defective blood
coagulation, which
increases clotting
time and makes
client prone to
hemorrhage.

332. Water-Soluble Vitamins
• Vitamin B complex and C
• Dissolve in water
• Easily destroyed by air, light, and cooking

333. Vitamin B1
Alternative Name: Thiamin
Function:
 Used in metabolism of
carbohydrates for energy.
muscle and nerve function,
and hydrochloric acid
production in the stomach

334. Sources of Vitamin B1
• Whole grains,
• Rice,
• Pasta,
• Fortified cereals,
• Meat and pork.

335. Deficiency
Rare- Beriberi
Loss of muscle function,
Nerve damage,
Mental confusion

336. Vitamin B2
Alternative Name: Riboflavin
Function:
Helps in energy production,
Making niacin( Vit. B3),
Red blood cell formation & human growth.

337. Sources of Vitamin B2
• Dairy,
• Eggs,
• Green leafy vegetables,
• Nuts, meat,
• Legumes, and
• Enriched flour

338. Deficiency
Uncommon-
anemia,
mouth sores,
sore throat,
swelled mucous membranes&
 skin disorders.

339. Vitamin B3
Alternative Name: Niacin
Function:
Used in metabolism, to produce
hormones, enzyme & nerve function &
reducing cholesterol

340. Sources of Vitamin B3
• Pork,
• Fish, beef,
• Peanut butter,
• Legumes,
• Enriched and fortified grains

341. Deficiency
Pellagra is characterized by the 4 D’s:
Dermatitis,
Diarrhea,
Dementia & Death

342. Vitamin B5
Alternative Name: Pantothenic Acid
Function:
Used to make blood cells, cholesterol,
hormones ,metabolize fat & carbohydrates

343. Sources of Vitamin B5
• Poultry, fish,
• Cereals,
• Unprocessed foods.

344. Deficiency
• Very rare- only seen in severe malnutrition.
Symptoms are:
• Headache,
• fatigue,
• burning & numbness of feet

345. Vitamin B6
Alternative Name: Pyridoxine
Function:
Protein metabolism,
Blood cell formation,
Immune system function, and
Niacin production

346. Sources of Vitamin B6
• Chicken,
• Pork, fish,
• Grains,
• Nuts & legumes

347. Deficiency
• Dermatitis
• Fatigue
• Anemia

348. Vitamin B7
Alternative Name: Biotin
Function:
Used in fatty acid synthesis, also other
functions.
Maintaining a strong immune system &
proper working of the nervous system.

349. Sources of Vitamin B7
• Generally produced in the intestine, in the
presence of healthy intestinal flora.
• Cereals,
• Pulses & legumes,
• Vegetables, nuts

350. Deficiency
Pain,
Tiredness,
Lack of appetite,
Muscular weakness,

351. Vitamin B9
Alternative Name: Folic Acid
Function:
For synthesis of glycine, methionine,
nucleotides etc..
Important for rapidly dividing cells

352. Sources of Vitamin B9
• Broccoli,
• Citrus Fruits,
• Beans, Peas
• Avocado,
• Spinach

353. Deficiency
Linked to neural tube defects in fetus,
Inflammation of mouth & tongue, poor
growth, depression & mental confusion,
Megaloblastic anemia

354. Vitamin B12
Alternative Name: Cyanocobalamin
Function:
B12 is also used in regenerating folate
Helps in the formation of red blood cells

355. Sources of Vitamin B12
• Meats (beef liver)
• Meat,
• Poultry,
• Eggs,
• Milk and other dairy foods

356. Deficiency
Sore tongue,
Stomach upset and weight loss
Rapid heartbeat and breathing
Weakness, tiredness

357. Vitamin C
Alternative Name: Ascorbic Acid
Function:
An antioxidant vitamin,
For healthy teeth, gums and blood vessels;
Improves iron absorption and resistance to
infection

358. Sources of Vitamin C
• Fresh vegetables & fruits,
• Broccoli,
• Cauliflower, lemon, cabbage, pineapples,
strawberries, citrus fruits.

359. Deficiency
Sore tongue,
Stomach upset and weight loss
Rapid heartbeat and breathing
Weakness, tiredness

360. ENZYMES

361. What Are Enzymes?
• Most enzymes are
Proteins (tertiary
and quaternary
structures)
• Act as Catalyst to
accelerates a
reaction
• Not permanently
changed in the
process

362. Enzymes
• Are specific for what
they will catalyze
• Are Reusable
• End in –ase
-Sucrase
-Lactase
-Maltase

364. How do enzymes Work?
Enzymes work by:
weakening bonds
which lowers
activation energy

365. Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction
Final energy state of
products
Initial energy state
of substrates
Activation
energy
of uncatalysed
reactions
Activation energy
of enzyme catalysed
reaction
Progress of reaction (time)
Energylevelsofmolecules

366. Enzyme-Substrate
Complex
The substance
(reactant) an
enzyme acts on
is the substrate
Enzyme
Substrate Joins

367. Active Site
• A restricted region of an enzyme
molecule which binds to the substrate.
EnzymeSubstrate
Active Site

368. Enzymes lower activation energy by forming an
enzyme/substrate complex
Substrate + Enzyme
Enzyme/substrate complex
Enzyme/product complex
Product + Enzyme

369. Classification of Enzymes

371. EC 1. Oxidoreductases

372. EC 2. Transferases

373. EC 3. Hydrolases

374. EC 4. Lyases

375. EC 5. Isomerases

376. EC 6. Ligases

377. Theories for Enzyme- Substrate
Binding
Two Theories have been proposed to explain the
interaction of enzyme and substrate
 LOCK & KEY MODEL
INDUCED – FIT THEORY

378. Lock and Key

379. Lock-and-key hypothesis assumes the
active site of an enzyme is rigid in its
shape
How ever crystallographic studies indicate proteins are flexible.

380. 380
Induced Fit
• A change in the
shape of an
enzyme’s active
site
• Induced by the
substrate

381. The Induced-fit hypothesis suggests the active
site is flexible and only assumes its catalytic
conformation after the substrate molecules
bind to the site.
When the product leaves
the enzyme the active site
reverts to its inactive state.

382. What Affects Enzyme
Activity?

383. Enzyme activity
How fast an enzyme is working
Rate of Reaction
Rate of Reaction = Amount of
substrate changed (or amount product
formed) in a given period of time.

384. Enzyme activity
Four Variables
Temperature
pH
Enzyme Concentration
Substrate Concentration

385. RateofReaction
Temperature
0 20 30 5010 40 60
40oC - denatures
5- 40oC
Increase in Activity
<5oC - inactive

386. Effect of heat on enzyme activity
If you heat the protein above its optimal
temperature
bonds break
meaning the protein loses it secondary and
tertiary structure

387. Effect of heat on enzyme activty
Denaturing the protein
ACTIVE SITE CHANGES SHAPE
SO SUBSTRATE NO LONGER FITS
Even if temperature lowered – enzyme can’t regain its
correct shape

388. RateofReaction
pH

389. RateofReaction
pH
1 3 42 5 6 7 8 9

390. RateofReaction
Enzyme Concentration

391. RateofReaction
Enzyme Concentration
Enzyme Concentration

392. RateofReaction
Substrate Concentration

393. RateofReaction
Substrate Concentration
Substrate Concentration

394. RateofReaction
Substrate Concentration
Substrate Concentration
Active sites full- maximum turnover

395. Cofactors and Coenzymes
• Inorganic substances (zinc, iron) and vitamins
(respectively) are sometimes need for proper
enzymatic activity.
• Example:
Iron must be present in the quaternary structure -
hemoglobin in order for it to pick up oxygen.

396. Two examples of Enzyme Inhibitors
a. Competitive inhibitors: are chemicals
that resemble an enzyme’s normal
substrate and compete with it for the
active site.
Enzyme
Competitive inhibitor
Substrate

397. Inhibitors
b.Noncompetitive inhibitors:
Inhibitors that do not enter the active
site, but bind to another part of the
enzyme causing the enzyme to change its
shape, which in turn alters the active site.
Enzyme
active site
altered
Noncompetitive
Inhibitor
Substrate

398. Applications of
Enzymes

399. Enzymes in industry
• There are many uses of enzymes in industry.
Examples of these are:
• Clothes/dishwashing detergents
• Baby food
• Starch(HFCs)
• Glucose(Fructose-Slimming Aid)
• Medical Diagnosis
• Diabetes Control
• Curing Disease

400. Enzymes in Clothes/Dishwasher
Detergents
• People use biological detergents to remove stains.
• Biological washing powders contain proteases and
lipases.
• These enzymes break down proteins and fats in the
stain.
Advantages
Enzymes give you a
cleaner wash.
Work at lower
temperatures-this
means you use less
electricity.
Disadvantages
If water too hot,
enzymes become
denatured.

401. Enzymes in baby food
• Proteases are used to make baby food.
• Proteases ‘pre-digest’ some of the protein
in the food.
Advantages
Treating food with protease
enzymes make it easier for a
baby’s digestive system to
cope with it.

402. Starch(HFCS)
• Carbohydrases are used to convert starch
into sugar (glucose) syrup.
Did You Know?
HFC stands for High
Fructose Corn
Syrup.

403. Enzymes In Slimming Aids
• The enzyme, isomerase, is used to change
glucose syrup to fructose syrup. Glucose
and fructose contain exactly the same
amount of energy.

404. Enzymes To Diagnose
Disease

405. Enzymes To Diagnose and
Control Disease
• A common test for sugar in the urine relies on a
color change on a test strip. The test strip
contains a chemical indicator and an enzyme.

406. Enzymes to cure disease
If you have a heart attack. An enzyme called
streptokinase will be injected into your blood as
soon as possible.

408. Introduction

409. Functions of
Hormones

410. Characteristics of
Hormones

411. Mechanism of
Hormones

413. All hormones in the human body
can be divided into lipid-derived,
amino acid-derived, and peptide
hormones.

414. Key Points
• Most lipid hormones are steroid hormones, which
are usually ketones or alcohols and are insoluble in
water.
• Steroid hormones (ending in '-ol' or '-one')
include estradiol, testosterone, aldosterone, and
cortisol.
• The amino acid-derived hormones (ending in '-ine')
are derived from tyrosine and tryptophan and
include epinephrine and norepinephrine (produced
by the adrenal medulla).

415. Key Points
• Amino acid-derived hormones also
include thyroxin (produced by the thyroid gland)
and melatonin (produced by the pineal gland).
• Peptide hormones consist of a polypeptide chain;
they include molecules such as oxytocin (short
polypeptide chain) or growth hormones (proteins).
• Amino acid-derived hormones and protein hormones
are water-soluble and insoluble in lipids.

416. Plant & Animal
Hormones

417. Plant Hormones
• AUXIN
• CYTOKININ
• GIBBERELLIN
• ETHYLENE

419. Animal Hormones