Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

ERIK ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENTAL THEORY
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Psychosocial Development Theory
• Psychosocial development theory is based on eight
stages of development
• Erikson’s theory is based on the idea that development
through life is a series of stages which are each defined
by a crisis or challenge
• The early stages provide the foundations for later
stages so Erikson says that if a child does not resolve a
crisis in a particular stage, they will have problems in
later stages
• For example, if an adolescent does not establish their
own identity, they will have difficulty in relationships as
an adult

Erikson maintained that personality develops in a
predetermined order through eight stages of psychosocial
development, from infancy to adulthood. During each stage,
the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which could have
a positive or negative outcome for personality development.
For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial
nature because they involve psychological needs of the
individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the needs of society
(i.e., social).
According to the theory, successful completion of each
stage results in a healthy personality and the
acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are
characteristic strengths which the ego can use to resolve
subsequent crises.
Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a
reduced ability to complete further stages and therefore a
more unhealthy personality and sense of self. These stages,
however, can be resolved successfully at a later time.

What is psychosocial development??
So what exactly did Erikson's theory of psychosocial development entail?
Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality developed in
a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages,
Erikson's theory described the impact of social experience across the
whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social interaction and
relationships played a role in the development and growth of human
beings.
Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves
the way for following periods of development. In each stage, Erikson
believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development.In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either
developing a psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During
these times, the potential for personal growth is high but so is the potential
for failure.

If people successfully deal with the conflict, they
emerge from the stage with psychological strengths
that will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they
fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not
develop the essential skills needed for a strong sense
of self.
Erikson also believed that a sense of competence
motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in
Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming competent
in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the
person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes
referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is
managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of
inadequacy in that aspect of development.

Psycho-social
Stage
Age Psychosocial
Conflict
Major Question Ego strength or
ego quality
Important
Event(s)
Successful
outcome
1st 0-1 Trust vs. Mistrust "Can I trust the
people around
me?"
Hope Feeding Trust and
Optimism
2nd 2-3 Autonomy vs.
Shame and
Doubt
"Can I do things
myself or am I
reliant on the
help of others?"
Will Toilet Training Secure, Self
confidence
3rd 4-5 Initiative vs. Guilt “Am I good or
bad?”
Purpose Exploration Play Sense of
purpose,
Initiative
4th 6-11 Industry vs.
Inferiority
"How can I be
good?"
Competence School Feeling of
competence
5th Adolescence Identity vs.
Confusion
"Who am I?" Fidelity Social
Relationships
Indepencence,
Strong sense of
self
6th Young
Adulthood
Intimacy vs.
Isolation
"Will I be loved
or will I be
alone?"
Love Romantic
Relationships
Intimacy, Strong
relationships
7th Middle
Adulthood
Generativity vs.
Stagnation
"How can I
contribute to
the world?"
Care Parenthood and
Work
Activity,
Productivity
8th Late Adulthood Integrity vs.
Despair
"Did I live a
meaningful
life?"
Wisdom Reflecting on
life
Integrity,
Wisdom

Erik Erikson vs. Sigmund Freud
• Sigmund Freud's psychosexual theory and Erik Erikson's
psychosocial theory are two well-known theories of
development. While he was influenced by Freud's ideas,
Erikson's theory differed in a number of important ways.
• Like Freud, Erikson believed that personality develops in a
series of predetermined stages. Unlike Freud’s theory of
psychosexual stages, Erikson’s theory describes the impact
of social experience across the whole lifespan.
• Freud believed that this age served as more of a transitional
period between childhood and adolescence. Erikson, on the
other hand, believed that kids continue to forge a sense of
independence and competence.

MEPSI
• The Modified Erikson Psychosocial Stage Inventory (MEPSI) is designed
to measure the strength of psychosocial attributes that arise from
progression through Erik Erikson's eight stages of development. It evolved
in response to the apparent lack of a valid and reliable, yet easily
administered survey instrument to measure psychosocial attributes in the
adult population within the context of Eriksonian developmental theory.
• The MEPSI was developed by modifying the Erikson Psychosocial Stage
Inventory (Rosenthal, Gurney, & Moore, 1981) which assesses Erikson's
first six stages of life cycle development. This modified version was
administered to a sample of 168 adults, 112 women and 56 men, 19 to 86
years of age.
• Five positive and five negative items are used to describe attributes derived
from successful resolution and unsuccessful resolution, respectively, of a
given stage or crisis. This yields 10 items per subscale, corresponding to
the eight stages of development, and 80 items total.

Overview:
•This first stage of psychosocial development
consists of:
•Psychosocial Conflict: Trust versus mistrust
•Major Question: "Can I trust the people
around me?"
•Basic Virtue: Hope
•Important Event(s): Feeding
Trust versus Mistrust

Stage 1:Trust versus Mistrust
• At the first stage of
Erickson’s Psychosociaal
development, children learn
to trust others.
• Trust, in this convention,
refers to the ability to
expect certain things, from,
and depend on, other
people.
• This sense of trust is
derived principally from the
relationship an infant has
with his or her mother.

•The trust between an infant and his mother is usually
developed through the act of touching and physical interaction,
as this often fosters a sense of familiarity and is something that
the infant subconsciously remembers as he grows up.
• If the mother is unable to adequately care for the infant, such
as feeding him when he’s hungry or providing him with the
necessary amount of affection, then the infant will develop a
sense of mistrust not only towards his mother, but also towards
the world around him. The infant will not be willing to trust and
depend on other people, a tendency which may continue
throughout the remaining stages of his psychosocial
development.
Success or Failure

Trust vs. Mistrust
Infants: Age 0- 18 months
Positive Outcome:
• Develop secure
attachment and
trust people and
environment.
Negative Outcome:
• Develop mistrust
to people and
things in
environment, even
to themselves.

Comparison with Freud’s
Psychosexual Stages
Psychosexual Development
• Freud referred this as oral
stage.
• At this point in
development, a child's
primary source of pleasure
is through the mouth via
sucking, eating, and tasting.
• Problems with this stage can
result in what Freud referred
to as an oral fixation.
Psychosocial Development
• Erikson called this the trust
versus mistrust stage.
• Children learn to either trust or
mistrust their caregivers.
• The care that adults provide
determines whether children
develop this sense of trust in
the world around them.
• Children who do not receive
adequate and dependable care
may develop a sense of
mistrust of others and the
world.

Trust versus Mistrust
• For example, if the care has been harsh or
inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then
the infant will develop a sense of mistrust and will
not have confidence in the world around them or
in their abilities to influence events.
• This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust
with them to other relationships. It may result in
anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over
feeling of mistrust in the world around them.

Virtue
• The main virtue that is developed by a healthy
resolution to the crisis at this stage is the virtue of
“hope,” manifested by a deep faith and basic
conception that everything will be alright, the
possession of an inner calm and healthy
grounding.
• The secondary strength to be derived is identified
as “drive” which allows the individual to take
reasonable risks and demonstrate inner resolve
and determination when faced with uncertainty.

Research
• Consistent with Erikson's views on the
importance of trust, research by Bowlby and
Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the
early experience of attachment can affect
relationships with others in later life.

Stage 2:Autonomy versus Shame
and Doubt
Overview:
This second stage of psychosocial development
consists of :
• Psychosocial Conflict: Autonomy versus shame
and doubt
• Major Question: "Can I do things myself or am I
reliant on the help of others?"
• Basic Virtue: Will
• Important Event(s): Toilet training

Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
• As toddlers (ages 1–3 years)
begin to explore their world,
they learn that they can control
their actions and act on their
environment to get results.
• They begin to show clear
preferences for certain
elements of the environment,
such as food, toys, and
clothing.
• A toddler’s main task is to
resolve the issue of autonomy
vs. shame and doubt by
working to establish
independence. This is the “me
do it” stage.

Success or Failure
• Gaining a sense of personal control over the world is important at this stage
of development. Toilet training plays a major role; learning to control one’s
body functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
Successfully toilet training can help children at this stage of development
gain a greater sense of autonomy. Those who learn to use the toilet emerge
feeling confident in themselves.
• Problems with toilet training can leave kids feeling doubtful of their own
abilities and may even result in feelings of shame.
• Other important events include gaining more control over food choices,
toy preferences, and clothing selection.
• Children at this age are becoming increasingly independent and want to
gain more control over what they do and how they do it. Kids in this stage
of development often feel the need to do things independently, such as
picking out what they will wear each day, putting on their own clothes, and
deciding what they will eat. While this can often be frustrating for parents
and caregivers, it is an important part of developing a sense of self-control
and personal autonomy.
• Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident,
while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-
doubt.

Autonomy versus Shame/Doubt
Age: 2-3 years
Positive Outcome:
Children who successfully
complete this stage feel
secure and confident,
while those who do not
are left with a sense of
inadequacy and self-
doubt
Negative Outcome:
Problem in this stage can
leave kids feeling
doubtful of their own
abilities and may even
result in feelings of
shame.

• Freud called this the anal stage of
development.
• Children gain a sense of mastery
and competence by controlling
bladder and bowel movements.
• Children who succeed at this
stage develop a sense of capability
and productivity.
• Those who have problems at this
stage may develop an anal
fixation. As adults, they might be
excessively orderly or messy.
• Erikson called this the
autonomy versus shame and
doubt stage.
• Children develop self-
sufficiency by controlling
activities such as eating, toilet
training, and talking.
• Those who succeed at this
stage develop a sense of
independence while those who
struggle will be left doubting
themselves.

Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
• For example, we might observe a budding
sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who
wants to choose her clothes and dress herself.
Although her outfits might not be appropriate
for the situation, her input in such basic
decisions has an effect on her sense of
independence. If denied the opportunity to act
on her environment, she may begin to doubt
her abilities, which could lead to low self-
esteem and feelings of shame.

Virtue
The virtue that is developed at this stage is
“will” with the secondary strength of “self-
control.” Parents and caregivers who perceive
their children’s assertions of will and self-
control as a healthy striving toward
independence rather than as stubbornness and
defiance will help their children become self-
reliant, self-disciplined and responsible
individuals who have the confidence to decide
for themselves and exercise sound judgment.

Teaching Approaches
• Teach the parents to participate in their child’s
care.
• Give the child simple, direct, and honest
explanations just before treatment or surgery.
• Use puppets or coloring books to explain
procedures.
• Let the child play with equipment to reduce
anxiety.
• Let the child make appropriate choices, such as
choosing the side of the body for an injection.

Case
• A 35 year old computer specialist enters treatment for bipolar depression. Though
he adequately addresses trust versus doubt dynamics, he becomes stuck in the
shame aspects of his illness believing he is personally responsible for his disability,
should have control over his symptoms and can not lead a worthwhile life. He
focuses his frustration on the fact that his female psychiatrist of similar age knows
his “secrets” but he is not “allowed” to know hers. His anger becomes projected
onto the medication she prescribes leading him to self-discontinue numerous
medication trials due to minor side effects. When extensive, intrusive personal
inquiries towards the psychiatrist are addressed in session as boundary issues, the
computer specialist responds by hacking into the psychiatrist’s personal and
financial information. When he gleefully shares his new-found knowledge with her,
a more focused discussion of his boundary violations allows him to verbalize his
fear that the psychiatrist views him as “damaged goods”. He perceives her lack of
self-disclosure as confirming this. “You would never socialize with someone like
me”. Step-wise exploration of his internalized stigma about psychiatric disabilities
and anger over the loss of control during hypomanic episodes produced a gradual
diminution of side effect complaints and extinguished his unilateral discontinuation
of medication. Acceptance by the gentleman that his disability was not a character
flaw allowed him to embrace the hope that a meaningful life and recovery was
possible.

Stage 3:Initiative versus Guilt
Overview:
This third stage of psychosocial development
consists of :
• Psychosocial Conflict: Initiative versus Guilt
• Major Question: “Am I good or bad?”
• Basic Virtue: Purpose
• Important Event(s): Exploration, Play

Initiative versus Guilt
• Once children reach the
preschool stage, they are
capable of initiating activities
and asserting control over
their world through social
interactions and play.
• According to Erikson,
preschool children must
resolve the task of initiative
vs. guilt. By learning to plan
and achieve goals while
interacting with others.

Success or Failure
• If they have successfully completed the earlier two stages, kids now have a sense that the world is trustworthy and that they
are able to act independently. Now it is important for kids to learn that they can exert power over themselves and the world.
They need to try things on their own and explore their own abilities. By doing this, they can develop ambition and direction.
• How Do Kids Develop Initiative?
• Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment by taking initiative by planning activities,
accomplishing tasks and facing challenges. During this stage, it is important for caregivers to encourage exploration and to
help children make appropriate choices. Caregivers who are discouraging or dismissive may cause children to feel ashamed
of themselves and to become overly dependent upon the help of others.
• This stage can sometimes be frustrating for parents and caregivers as children begin to exercise more control over the things
that impact their lives. Such decisions can range from the friends they play with, the activities they engage in, and the way
that they approach different tasks. Parents and other adults might want to guide children toward certain friends, activities, or
choices, but children might resist and insist on making their own choices. While this might lead to some conflicts with
parental wishes at times, it is important to give kids a chance to make such choices.
• However, it is important that parents continue to enforce safe boundaries and encourage children to make good
choices through the use of modeling and reinforcement.
• As you might guess, play and imagination take on an important role at this stage. Children have their sense of initiative
reinforced by being given the freedom and encouragement to play. When efforts to engage in physical and imaginative play
are stifled by caregivers, children begin to feel that their self-initiated efforts are a source of embarrassment. Children who
are over-directed by adults may struggle to develop a sense of initiative and confidence in their own abilities.

Age: 3-5 years
Positive Outcome:
• Initiative, a sense of
ambition and
responsibility, occurs
when parents allow a
child to explore within
limits and then
support the child’s
choice.
• These children will
develop self-
confidence and feel a
sense of purpose
Negative Outcome:
• Those who are
unsuccessful at this
stage—with their
initiative misfiring or
stifled by over-controlling
parents—may develop
feelings of guilt.

• Freud referred to this as the
phallic stage.
• The libido's energy is
focused on the genitals.
Children begin to identify
with their same-sex parent.
• Boys experience the
Oedipus complex while girls
experience the Electra
complex.
• Erikson's called this the
initiative versus guilt stage.
• Children begin to take more
control over their
environment.
• Those who are successful at
this stage develop a sense
of purpose while those who
struggle are left with
feelings of guilt.

• What to ask:
• Which self-care skills does the child perform at home?
• How does he/she keep busy at home?
• What is his/her reaction to schedules and routines?
• What would the child like to be when he/she grows up?
• What is his/her favorite activity?
• Can he/she state his/her name
• and identify family members?
• What to look
• Occupies free time independently
• Participates in self-care activities
• Evaluates disapproval of others
• Initiates activities rather than just
• imitating others’ actions

Virtue
• Success in this stage leads to the virtue of purpose, which is shown
by children’s style of decision-making, working with and leading
others, initiating projects and ideas, and courage to instigate
activities. Children also mature with “direction”, the secondary
strength that benefits them in this stage, manifested by their aims
and goals, and being able to take initiative and appropriate risks.
• On the other hand, if not resolved appropriately, negative behaviors
such as getting depressed easily, putting themselves down,
demonstrating slumped posture, and possessing low energy may be
developed by the children. These behaviors are results of the
frustration that they develop from not being able to accomplish
goals planned for themselves. They may become aggressive and
ruthless, and demonstrate actions such as throwing objects, hitting,
or yelling.

Teaching Approaches
• Each the parents to participate in their child’s care.
• Use simple, neutral words to describe procedures
and surgery to the child.
• Encourage the child to fantasize to help plan his/her
responses to possible situations.
• Use body outlines or dolls to show anatomic sites
and procedures.
• Let the child handle equipment before a procedure.
• Use play therapy as an emotional outlet and a way
to test the child’s sense of reality.

Research
A 52 year old male psychologist with severe obsessive-compulsive disorder
became more distant and passive over a 6 months period of multiple,
relatively minor relapses that none the less produced significant
employment problems. Without warning, he unsuccessfully overdosed with
the clear intent to end his life. After a prolonged period of intensive
inpatient treatment and support from his family, he verbalized regret about
the attempt, but admitted that he didn’t have the “nerve” to cope with this
disabling illness. With much encouragement from his recovering consumer-
provider peer group, he agreed to pursue outpatient therapy to develop a
recovery plan, and included a 6 months moratorium on further suicide
attempts. This allowed vital time for him to dissipate internalized anger and
grieve the loss of identity that occurred when he ceased working. While his
illness continued to progress, he verbalized less concern about his
occupation-significant disability and did not repeat the suicidal behavior
during 9 years of outpatient follow-up.

Stage 4: Industry versus Inferiority
Overview:
This fourth stage of psychosocial development
consists of :
• Psychosocial Conflict: Industry versus
Inferiority
• Major Question: “How good can I be?”
• Basic Virtue: Competence
• Important Event(s):School

Industry vs. Inferiority
• During the elementary school stage
(ages 6–12), children face the task
of industry vs. inferiority.
• Children begin to compare
themselves with their peers to see
how they measure up.
• They either develop a sense of pride
and accomplishment in their
schoolwork, sports, social activities,
and family life, or they feel inferior
and inadequate because they feel
that they don’t measure up.
• If children do not learn to get along
with others or have negative
experiences at home or with peers,
an inferiority complex might develop
into adolescence and adulthood.

Industry Versus Inferiority
Age: 5-12 years
Positive Outcome:
• If the child cannot
develop the
specific skill they
feel society is
demanding (e.g.,
being athletic) then
they may develop a
sense of inferiority.
Negative Outcome:
• Some failure may be
necessary so that the
child can develop
some modesty. Again,
a balance between
competence and
modesty is necessary.
Success in this stage
will lead to the virtue
of competence.

Psychosexual Development:
• Freud referred to this as the
latent period.
• The libido's energy is
suppressed and children are
focused on other activities
such as school, friends, and
hobbies.
• Freud believed this stage
was important for
developing social skills and
self-confidence.
Psychosocial Development:
• Erikson called this the
industry versus inferiority
stage.
• Children develop a sense of
competence by mastering
new skills.
• Kids who succeed at this
stage develop pride in their
accomplishments while
those who struggle may be
left feeling incompetent.

Examples
• For example, Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read
and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an
important role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills.
• the best way to visualize how the industry vs inferiority stage might impact
a child is to look at an example. Imagine two children in the same 4th-grade
class.
• Olivia finds science lessons difficult, but her parents are willing to help her
each night with her homework. She also asks the teacher for help and starts
to receive encouragement and praise for her efforts.
• Jack also struggles with science, but his parents are uninterested in assisting
him with his nightly homework. He feels bad about the poor grades he
receives on his science assignments but is not sure what to do about the
situation. His teacher is critical of his work but does not offer any extra
assistance or advice. Eventually, Jack just gives up, and his grades become
even worse.

Examples
• While both children struggled with this aspect of school,
Olivia received the support and encouragement she
needed to overcome these difficulties and still build a
sense of mastery. Jack, however, lacked the social and
emotional encouragement he needed. In this area, Olivia
will likely develop a sense of industry where Jack will be
left with feelings of inferiority.
• At this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater
significance and will become a major source of the child’s
self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval
by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued
by society and begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments.

Virtue
The main virtue that is developed by resolved conflicts
at this stage is the virtue of “competence”, displayed by
making things and creating results, applying skills and
processes productively and having the sense of being
capable. The secondary virtue that a child develops
from success at this stage is “method”, which is shown
by the individual who has the capacity to utilize process
and method in the quest of fulfilling ideas or goals, is
able to demonstrate confidence that is enough to enable
him to seek and respond to challenges and learning, and
who possesses an active and busy productive outlook.

Teaching Approaches
• At this stage, it is important for both parents and teachers to offer
support and encouragement. However, adults should be careful not
to equate achievement with acceptance and love.
• Unconditional love and support from adults can help all children
through this stage, but particularly those who may struggle with
feelings of inferiority.
• Children who are overpraised, on the other hand, might develop a
sense of arrogance. Clearly, balance plays a major role at this point
in development.
• Parents can help kids develop a sense of realistic competence by
avoiding excessive praise and rewards, encouraging efforts rather
than outcome, and helping kids develop a growth mindset. Even if
children struggle in some areas of school, encouraging kids in areas
in which they excel can help foster feelings of competence and
achievement.

Research
The study examined the relationship between Inferiority complex and
Academic achievement of high school students in Vellore district. The
study adopted survey method of research. Participants were 200 high
school students randomly selected in various schools in Vellore district. The
research instrument used for data collection was Inferiority complex
developed by Sorenson tested at 0.05 and 0.01 level of significant. The
findings indicated that there is a positive relationship between inferiority
complex and academic achievement of high school student. The level of
inferiority complex and academic achievement of high school student is
high in nature. There exist significant impact with respect to gender,type of
family and medium of instruction. And there is no significant on subject
and location on the inferiority complex and academic achievement of high
school students.
G. Kalaivani, A study on inferiority complex of high school students in relation to their academic achievement in Vellore
District, International Educational Scientific Research Journal,Volume : 3, Issue : 5, MAY 2017

Stage 5:Identity versus Role
Confusion
Overview:
This fifth stage of psychosocial development
consists of :
• Psychosocial Conflict: Identity Versus
Confusion
• Major Question: "Who am I?"
• Basic Virtue: Fidelity
• Important Event(s): Social Relationships

Identity vs. Identity Confusion
Identity
• • Defining who you are, what you value and direction in
life.
• • Commitments to vocation, personal relationships, sexual
orientation, ethnic group, ideals.
• • Resolution of “identity crisis” or exploration
Identity Confusion
• Lack of direction and definition of self.
• • Restricted exploration in adolescence – Earlier
psychosocial conflicts not resolved – Society restricts
choices
• • Unprepared for stages of adulthood

Identity Versus Role Confusion
• In this stage, there is a difficult transition
from childhood to adulthood on one hand,
and sensitivity to social and historical change
on the other.
• During adolescence, youngsters go through
major physical, intellectual, and emotional
changes. The magnitude of physical change
in early adolescence exceeds other stages
except infancy.
• Adolescents are frequently confused as they
are unaware of how to respond to the new
sexual feelings that they experience.
• They are also concerned with what others
think of them; hence concentrate more on
their looks, attitude and mannerisms. Some
adolescents are found to be shy whereas some
are very outspoken.
• Adolescents do want to assert their
independence, yet long for the stability of
structure and discipline.

Factors affecting Identity
Development
• Personality – Flexible, open-minded.
• Child-rearing practices – Authoritative,
attached.
• Peers, friends to interact with.
• Schools and communities – Offer rich/varied
opportunities for exploration also supports
identity development.
• Larger context – Culture – Historical time
period.

Identity versus Role Confusion
Age: 13-21 years
Positive Outcome:
• The adolescent must
make a conscious
search for identity. This
is built on the outcome
and resolution to
conflict in earlier
stages.
Negative Outcome:
• If the adolescent can
not make deliberate
decisions and choices,
especially about
vocation, sexual
orientation, and life in
general, role
confusion becomes a
threat.

• Freud referred to this point in
psychosexual development as
the genital stage.
• Children begin to explore
romantic relationships.
• The goal of this stage is to
develop a sense of balance
between all the areas of life.
Those who have successfully
completed the earlier stages
are now warm, caring and
well-adjusted.
• Erikson's called this point in
psychosocial development
the identity versus role
confusion stage.
• Children develop a personal
identity and sense of self.
• Teens explore different
roles, attitudes, and
identities as they develop a
sense of self.

Virtue
The main virtue that is developed by a resolution to the
crisis at this stage is the virtue of “fidelity” which is
characterized by self-esteem and self-confidence that are
requisite to associating freely with people and ideas on the
basis of their value, loyalty, and interpersonal and social
integrity. The second strength that may be developed at this
stage is “devotion,” defined as discretion and includes
personal identity and pride, dignity and standards, and
appreciating useful personal roles and reasons for being.
However, unsuccessful resolution in this stage may lead to
maladaptations which are “fanaticism” and “repudiation.”
Fanaticism is manifested by being self-important and
extremist, while repudiation is characterized by being
socially disconnected and cut off from others.

Research
A 27 year old psychiatry resident develops severe major depression during
the third year of training. Despite a long history of chronic, untreated
anxiety and a strong family history of affective disorder, the resident
refuses pharmacotherapy from a psychiatrist and consults a masters-level
therapist for cognitive-behavioral interventions while self-prescribing a
selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor anti-depressant. During later periods
of severe depressive symptoms, the resident crisis calls other house staff in
the middle of the night. The residency training director becomes involved
in the last few months of training due to performance issues and after
residents became alarmed by these cries for help. Unable to accept a new
identity that incorporates the depressive illness, the resident continues to
reject more aggressive treatment and refuses to embrace a recovering
role—“I will not surrender my keys”. The issue is dropped when the
resident graduates and moves out of state. Outside the supervision of an
academic setting where a vital recovering practitioner identity and skill
repertoire could have been acquired, the graduated resident develops job
failure and attempts suicide.

Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Psychosocial Conflict: Intimacy versus Isolation
This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of
approximately 19 and 40. During this period, the major conflict centers on
forming intimate, loving relationships with other people.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed
relationships with other people. Such relationships are often romantic in
nature, but Erikson believed that close friendships were also important.
Intimate Relationships
• Erikson described intimate relationships as
those characterized by closeness, honesty, and love.
• They were not restricted to sexual relationships
but also encompassed feelings of caring and
commitment.

Major Question:"Will I be loved or will I
be alone?"
Important Event(s): Romantic Relationships
• Success: People who are successful in resolving the conflict of the intimacy versus
isolation stage are able to develop deep, meaningful relationships with others.
They have close, lasting romantic relationships, but they also forge strong
relationships with family and friends
• Failure: Failure at this stage results in loneliness and isolation. Adults who struggle
with this stage experience poor romantic relationships. They might never share
deep intimacy with their partners or might even struggle to develop any
relationships at all.
Basic Virtue/ strength: Love
• The basic strength that emerges from the intimacy
of the young adult years is love,
which Erikson considered the greatest human virtue.

Intimacy in Young Adulthood as a Predictor of Divorce in Midlife
(2008)
Research and Application
• A longitudinal U.S. study by Mark I.
Weinberger, Yariv Hofstein, and Susan
Krauss Whitbourne explored the extent to
which an individual’s potential for intimacy
in young adulthood predicted divorce by
midlife. Intimacy was defined as the
potential to establish close relationships
involving high levels of communication,
closeness, and commitment.
• Marital status 34 years after college
graduation was obtained from 167
participants (M age = 55.1 years, 60% male,
30% divorced) originally tested in college in
1966–68 in the United States.
• The study showed that women but not
men with low intimacy in college had
higher risk of divorce in midlife in the
sample.
Source:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC
2733523/

• Since communication and openness are crucial to forming intimate relationships,
individuals who fail to resolve satisfactorily the Intimacy vs. Isolation psychosocial
crisis, particularly women, may put themselves at risk for being unable to maintain
a stable marital relationship.
• It can be useful for professionals and couples to identify and reverse destructive
processes currently existing in a relationship by examining levels of intimacy within
couples, particularly for female partners. For example, working on active
communication between couples.

The Continuing Benefits of Education: Adult Education and Midlife Cognitive Ability
• Researchers have given little
attention to the potential impact of
adult education on cognitive
ability, still malleable in midlife.
• Hatch et al, conducted a research
to examine whether there were
continuing effects of education
over the life course on
cognitive ability in midlife with
specific attention to the
relationship between adult
education by 43 years and
cognitive ability at 53 years.
• The study used multivariate
regression to estimate the
continuing effects of adult
education on multiple measures
of midlife cognitive ability.
Source -
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC3159532/

• Educational attainment completed by early adulthood was associated with all
measures of cognitive ability in late midlife. The continued effect of education was
apparent in the associations between adult education and higher verbal ability,
verbal memory, and verbal fluency in late midlife. No association between adult
education and mental speed and concentration was found.
• Associations between adult education and midlife cognitive ability indicate wider
benefits of education to health that may be important for social integration, well-
being, and the delay of cognitive decline in later life.

Stage 7: Generativity vs.
Stagnation

Psychosocial Conflict: Generativity
vs. Stagnation
This stage takes place during middle adulthood between the ages of approximately
40 and 65.
• During this time, adults strive to create or nurture things that will outlast them;
often by parenting children or contributing to positive changes that benefit other
people. Contributing to society and doing things to benefit future generations are
important needs at the generativity versus stagnation stage of development.
• Generativity refers to "making your mark" on the world through caring for others
as well as creating and accomplishing things that make the world a better place.
• Stagnation refers to the failure to find a way to contribute. These individuals may
feel disconnected or uninvolved with their community and with society as a whole.

Major Question: "How can I contribute to
the world?“
• Success: Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they
are contributing to the world by being active in their home and
community.
• Failure: Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world.
• Midlife crisis: It is at this point in life that some people might experience
what is often referred to as a "midlife crisis." People might reflect back on
their accomplishments and consider their future trajectory and feel regret. In
some cases this might involve regretting missed opportunities such as going
to school, pursuing a career or having children.
Basic Virtue: Care
Care is the basic virtue that emerges from generativity
in adulthood. Erikson defined care as a broad concern
for others and believed it was manifested in the
need to teach, not only to help others but also
to fulfill one’s identity.

• The research shows that individuals who cultivate satisfying and
successful engagement with their careers, intimate relationships, and then
invest in the nurturance of others in midlife, may in fact be setting the stage
for better emotional and cognitive health in old age.
• For example, generativity requires the use of sophisticated
communication, emotional capacities, and systematic thought as one
reflects on his or her own achievements and then coherently conveys this to
another person to whom they are investing in. These can be worked on
through counselling.

Benefits of higher education in mid-life: A life course agency perspective
• The argument developed in this
study is that people do exercise
agency and make space for
alternative ageing experiences
via participation to education.
• This study conducted by purpose
of this study is to investigate the
benefits of higher education in
mid-life from the perspective of
life course agency.
• The inquiry is based on the life
history interviews of mid-life
professionals who pursued
Master’s degrees from well-
established Finnish universities in
their fifties. A thematic narrative
approach was used to analyze
the data.
Source-
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/1
0.1177/1477971416672807

• The findings indicate that older graduates enjoy obvious benefits from attaining
higher education and pursuing a new Master’s degree.
• However, there is much variation between graduates and the significance of
experienced benefits depends on the overall life plan and expectations of the
person concerned.
• The conclusion considers higher education attainment in mid-life in a wider
societal context and suggests directions for future research.

Stage 8: Ego Integrity vs.
Despair

Psychosocial Conflict: Ego
Integrity versus Despair
• This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death.
• The onset of this stage is often triggered by life events such as retirement,
the loss of a spouse, the loss of friends and acquaintances, facing a
terminal illness, and other changes to major roles in life.
• During this period, people reflect back on the life they have lived and come
away with either a sense of fulfillment from a life well lived or a sense of
regret and despair over a life misspent.

Major Question: "Did I live a
meaningful life?“
Important Event(s): Reflecting back on life
• Success: Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few
regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. This stage leads to the
development of what Erikson referred to as ego integrity. These individuals
will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.
• Failure: Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their
life has been wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will
be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Basic Virtue: Wisdom
The basic strength that emerges from ego integrity
at this stage is wisdom. Erikson defined this wisdom
as an "informed and detached concern with life
itself even in the face of death itself.“

Ego Integrity vs. Despair in a Movie
• In the recent movie- 102 not out, Amitabh Bachan and Rishi
Kapoor play father and son, who are both seen in the last stage of
Erikson’s theory-Ego Integrity vs. Despair. However both lie at the
opposite ends of the spectrum.

Education for the elderly
A school for the elderly in north of Bangkok,
Thailand

Prem Lakshmi Mandir, an exclusive, one of a kind school in Surat Gujrat, that
admits senior citizens only.
Here senior citizens engage in activities like reading, watching informative
CDs, listening to poetry of famous poets, and watching Ramayan and
Mahabharata.
Education for the elderly

Difficulties faced by older adults in higher education
A 2011 research by Lin Yi Yun in the University of Georgia, Older Adults’
motivation to learn in higher education, discussed the difficulties and
barriers faced by older adults in higher education.
• Demographic barriers- poor memory,
low energy and time
• Attitudinal barriers- Age bias
• Structural barriers- lack of transportation,
support services and financing;
lack of flexibility in courses.

Accepting the past scale
1. Thinking about my past brings more pain than pleasure. ____
2. I feel comfortable talking about things I’ve done in the past. ____
3. Sometimes I have the feeling that I’ve never had the chance to live. ____
4. There are things from my past that I will have to set right, before I will be truly
happy. ____
5. All in all, I am comfortable with the choices I’ve made in the past. ____
6. There are some disappointments in life that I will never be able to accept.
Some personal experiences from earlier on are still too difficult to think
about. ____
8. Generally, I feel contented with the way my life has turned out. ____
9. There are things about my life that I have difficulty accepting. ____
10. I have not led a very meaningful life. ____
11. I look back on the things I’ve done with a sense of satisfaction. ____

12. There are things from my past that frighten me. ____
13. When I look back on my past, I have feeling of fulfillment. ____
14. I still feel angry about certain childhood experiences. ____
15. I don’t worry abut things that happened a long time ago. ____
16. I generally feel contented with what I have done so far in my life.
Accepting the past scale

Accepting the past and Ego
Integrity
Participant 1
• Age 78
• Had poor relationships in childhood
and early and middle adulthood
• No specific interests that she
currently follows
• No new significant learning in the
past 5 years.
• Score: 28
Participant 2
• Age 83
• Had poor and dysfunctional
relationships in childhood and
early and middle adulthood.
• Has had a meaningful life. She is
a writer, avid reader, and has
been learning Hindustani classical
music for years.
• Her grandchildren keep teaching
her new things in technology like
using Whatsapp and Facebook.
• Uses her cognitive abilities more
• Score: 51
Score
Range:
16 to 80

Education and learning in old age

Implication
The strengths of Erikson’s theory are:
Stage theory - development took place in stages
• Ego identify - formation of ego identity right from birth
• Crisis – every individual has to go through crisis in his/her life
The weaknesses of Erikson’s theory are:
• Focus on the competing forces rather than emotional
development of individuals
• Difficult to be tested scientifically as it is not possible to
measure some of the concepts upon which the theory is
based
• Fails to specify the effect of failure in one stage impacts which
other stages

Implication
Various educational implications of Erikson’s theory are possible depending upon
the age group of the learner and the tasks they are expected to perform. For
example,
Allowing the child to play with various natural, simple materials, and role-playing
for the expression of fantasy and imagination.
Games, stories and songs can be used. Real-life activities like serving food,
chopping vegetables or making chapattis, prepare children for participation in the
community around them.
Child-directed activities where the child chooses his or her activity and repeats it as
often as they want must be encouraged.
Erikson’s psychosocial theory is a very powerful way for building self-
awareness and for improving oneself, as it helps to understand a person’s
learning according to his or her personal differences

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

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