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Lecture 2.ppt
1. Disaster and Development
Course Number: HSS F363
Instructor: Mohan Kumar Bera
Office: A-313/6
Ph. ext. 204
Date: 5/9/2022
Class: Monday, Wednesday and Thursday
Time: 2:00 to 3:00 PM
12/9/2022 @ Mohan Kumar Bera, PhD, India 1
2. Before we proceed explanation of each of these theories, let us
understand what is a theory.
What is a Theory?
Theory is a plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle or
body of principles offered to explain phenomena.
Before we proceed…
3. A Social Theory refers to ideas, arguments, hypotheses, thought-
experiments and explanatory speculations about how and why human
societies - or elements or structures of such societies - come to be formed,
change, and develop over time or disappear.
Usually supported in research institutions as a core component of the
discipline of sociology, social theory most commonly encompasses the
range of explanatory concepts, analytical tools, and heuristic devices on
which sociologists and social scientists draw in their efforts to interpret
statistical or qualitative data about particular empirical social
phenomena.
What is a SocialTheory?
4. • Social theory suggests potential problems and produce new
investigative studies.
• Based on intuitive knowledge, historical analysis and observation,
theory predicts facts.
• Theory not only observed regularities and social uniformities but it
also simplifies law and establish order.
• It establishes link between empirical findings and general social
orientations.
Functions of Social theory
7. According to evolutionary theory, society moves through ‘systematically
defined stages’:
The theoretical structure of evolutionary theory has evolved
from hunting-gathering, horticulture, agrarian, and industrial.
The theory of evolution by Natural Selection, first formulated in Darwin's
book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859, is the process by which organisms
change over time as a result of changes in heritable physical or behavioral
trait.
Evolutionary Theory
8. Evolutionary theory implies society shall changes for something better,
more advanced for new civilization
Example:
How human being has evolved from ape to a civilized being.
Similarly, how technology evolved with change in occupation from
agriculture to information technology industry. Even within similar
occupation, technology has evolved.
Implications:
9. 1. Unilinear Evolutionary Theory
2. Multi-linear Evolutionary Theory
Let us discuss them one-by-one:
Types of Evolutionary Theory
10. Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, and Herbert Spencer
proposed unilinear evolutionary theories, which maintain that all
societies undergoes progressive and cumulative growth leading to some
final stage of perfection.
Auguste Comte saw human societies pass through three stages and
culminate in the inauguration of a scientific industrial society .
Societies thus moving from simple to complex social structures.
Unilinear Evolutionary Theory
11. Herbert Spencer compared society to a living organism. He does a
organic analogy. According to him both society and organism undergo
growth, development and decay. As they grow in size, complexity of
parts and structured become more differentiated.
Most significant part of the theory is that, society, as an organism,
must be studied as a whole with interdependent parts. Change in one
part likely to affect other parts of the society.
Emile Durkheim recognized that things like increased communication,
transportation, and interaction with others resulted in the social
change from a mechanical solidarity to organic. If societies evolve too
quickly from traditional to modern, a breakdown of norms and
collective consciousness occurs.
Otherthinkers supporting this perspective:
12. They abandoned grand theory of evolution and focus, instead, on the
processes and consequences of types of change in a given society.
Unilinear evolution specifically, were heavily criticized as racist;
instead of presuming that some peoples were more evolved than others,
the new trend was to regard all cultures as unique in time and place.
Multilnear evoutionary models consider different factors such as
culture, technology level available, or ecology, different cultures will
experience different stages of social change. Largely linear when first
theorized, evolutionary theory continues to be relevant in its
multilinear forms.
Multilinear Evolutionary Theory
17. Functionalism view all social institutions and arrangements as social
systems, and a system is considered to be more than sum of its parts.
The focus is on the relationships among its parts and the contribution of
its elements to the maintenance of the system.
Functionalism also see society as a relatively persistent structure of
elements with built-in mechanism for self-regulation. Thrust of the
functionalist position is that the dominant condition of society is order,
reinforced by stability and consensus.
Society is like an organism: It is perceived as a system of functionally
inter-related parts performs a function essential for the survival of the
system.
Functionalist Theory:
18. Talcott Parsons (1902–1979), a leading functionalist, saw society in its natural
state as being stable and balanced. Parson view the entire social system as
resting heavily upon shared values.
He viewed society as a system and argued that any social system has 4 basic
functional prerequisites:
1. Adaptation,
2. Goal attainment,
3. Integration and
4. Pattern maintenance.
Parson believed that society evolves from simple to various levels of
compound societies.
Thinkers supporting this perspective:
19. He emphasized 3 key concepts in the processes of evolutionary changes:
1. Structural differentiation,
2. Functional specialization, and
3. Social integration.
As society grows larger social units get divided and sub-divided.
A policy in disaster management is a combines multiple strategies adopted
by different communities and organisations as per the role and
responsibilities in a society
.
20. EMILE DURKHEIM:Theory of
Social Solidarity
Émile Durkheim (1858–1917) became interested in a
scientific approach to society very early on in his
career, which meant the first of many conflicts with
the French academic system—which had no social
science curriculum at the time. Durkheim found
humanistic studies uninteresting, turning his
attention from psychology and philosophy to ethics
and eventually, sociology. He graduated with a
degree in philosophy in 1882. He is widely regarded
as the founder of the French school of sociology and
as The First Professor of Sociology
21. It is obvious and generally accepted that, in one form or another, social solidarity
was always the focus of Durkheim’s attention. In fact, for him, it serves as a
synonym for the normal state of society, while absence of it is a deviation from that
normal state, or social pathology. The theme of solidarity permeates all his work.
He devoted to explain “Social Solidarity,” and demonstrated the basic role of the
division of labor in building, maintaining, and reinforcing social solidarity
Social Solidarity
22. He analyses the social phenomenon in terms of function they perform.
Society is a system on inter-related parts, change in one part leads to
imbalance and result in changes of other part.
Functionalist system is based on the model of the organic system found in
biological science.
Think of a human body parts. It includes:
Heart
Lungs
Kidney
Liver
Brain
Each of the parts are inter-related for full-functioning of the body
Durkheim: A Functionalist Theorist
23. The disturbance in one organ of the body, shall leads to disfunction of the total
body function.
To functionalist, hence its importance to rectify the difficulties for smooth
functioning.
The analogy is similar to how the society work with inter-relationship of the
institutions.
What if disequilibrium occur in the body?
24. Inter-relatedness of system parts.
State of equilibrium comparable to the normal state of an organism.
All parts of the system re-organize to bring things back to normal
Three elements of Functionalist theory
25. To restore equilibrium in the society and in social system functionalism use the
term ‘shared values’.
The term ‘shared values’ refers to the accepted standards, where individual is
expected to be morally committed to their society.
Shared Values
26. Functionalism theorist like Durkheim emphasized on the unity of society, or as
he called ‘social solidarity’.
Durkheim created proper subject matter of sociology -the realm of social facts.
Social facts is defined as what is general over the whole of a given society,
whilst having an existence of its own, independent of its individual
manifestations.
Unity of Society
27. Durkheim elaborated on the meaning of social facts.
It refers to the beliefs and modes of behaviour instituted by the collectivity.
Social Facts
28. Solidarity refers to the bond of unity between individuals, united around a
common goal or against a common enemy, such as the unifying principle that
defines the labor movement.
Cohesion: State of cohering, or of working together.
As part of his theory of the development of societies in, The Division of Labour in
Society (1893), sociologist Emile Durkheim characterized two categories of
societal solidarity: organic and mechanical.
Durkheim introduced the terms mechanical and organic solidarity as part of his
theory of the development of societies
1. Mechanical Solidarity
2. Organic Solidarity
Types of Social Solidarity
29. Volume- Degree to which the values, believes, and rules of the collective
conscience are shared by the members of a society.
Intensity- Extent to which collective conscience has power to guide person’s
thought and action.
Determinateness- Degree of clarity in the component of the collective
conscience.
Content- Refers to the ratio of religion to purely secular symbolism in the
collective conscience.
Four variables of Collective Conscience
30. Durkheim was most interested in the changed way in which social solidarity is
produced, in other words, the changed way in which society is held together
and how its members see themselves as part of a whole. To capture this
difference, Durkheim referred to two types of solidarity – mechanical and
organic.
He argues that in pre-modern society the division of labour is relatively
undeveloped. Agrarian production close to home is the prevailing way of life,
and working relationships and other kinds of social dependence associated
with it are also largely immediate, local and uncomplicated. The most typical
trait of such primitive societies is their segmentary nature. Such societies
consist of clearly delimited collectivities or clans, characterized by
homogeneity and equality between individuals within these collectivities.
Collective Conscience
31. Role specialization and division of labour are rudimentary – with the
exception of some authority figures.
Individuals have little or no autonomy within the group. The bond among
people is that they are all engaged in similar activities and have similar
responsibilities. However, in this form of society the division of labour is not in
fact able on its own to provide enough in the way of social solidarity.
The remainder comes from what Durkheim calls the collective conscience,
‘the totality of beliefs and sentiments common to average citizens of the same
society’, which binds individuals together not so much in terms of their daily
activity but of the religious and cultural beliefs, the social and political
ideology, they share.
.
32. Mechanical solidarity is the term Durkheim uses for the association of actors
in simple society. This is the dominant foundation of cohesion in simple
societies where there is little differentiation. People may be similar in many
respects – in terms of housing, occupation and the use of tools, clothing,
customs, cuisine and lifestyle; they may be equal with regard to power;
experience the same emotions, needs, and ideas, and hold similar moral and
religious attitudes.
The more primitive a society, the more similarity will these be on all these
dimensions, and the more conspicuous is its mechanical solidarity. Such
societies are characterized by collectivism.
MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY
33. Organic Solidarity is engaged in modern societies. Individuals engage in different,
often highly specialized occupations. They are no longer so closely bound to
groups marked by a large degree of internal equality and homogeneity. They can
move within and between several social groups or circles, and no single group has
the kind of irresistible power – typical of collectivities in primitive societies – to
rigidly impose a particular way of life on the individual. This is the primary
reason why individuals in modern societies necessarily develop in different
directions. Differences of many kinds emerge between individuals, just as
differences also emerge between professions and trades. And because so many
differences emerge between individuals, groups, and occupations, many theorists
in Durkheim’s day thought that high levels of conflict were inevitable in modern
societies. Solidarity or a sense of collectivity would be weakened as a result of the
numerous conflicts of interest resulting from all the differences. Durkheim, on the
other hand, thought that in a modern society marked by increased division of
labour, a specifically modern form of solidarity would emerge, which he calls
organic solidarity.
ORGANIC SOLIDARITY
34. The law changes from repressive to restitutive as society modernise. The
progressive displacement of repressive by restitutive law is an historical trend
which is correlated with the degree of development of a society: the higher the level
of social development, the greater the relative proportion of restitutive law within
the judicial structure.” (Giddens, p. 76). For Durkheim, this form of law is
concerned with “a simple return in state. Sufferance proportionate to the misdeed
is not inflicted on the one who has violated the law or who disregards it; he is
simply sentenced to comply with it.” The judge “speaks of law; he says nothing of
punishment.” (Division, p 111).
Organic Solidarity: Modern systems of law tend to be restitutive or restorative,
according to Durkheim. While there are elements of penal or repressive law, such
as the death penalty for murder, that continue to exist in modern societies, modern
systems of law are primarily characterized by judgments that require the
offending party to restore the situation to the original state – eg. paying restitution
for theft or to victims.
Legal aid as Empirical Indicator of Solidarity
35. Mechanical Solidarity- In these early societies, Durkheim argues that legal codes
or the system of law tends to be repressive law or penal law. If there is a crime in
this society, then this crime stands as an offense to all, because it is an offense to
the common morality, the shared system of values that exists. A repressive law
system is one in which any law breaker is severely punished for their crimes. This
type of law exists in mechanical solidarity because the laws are based on the very
powerful collective conscience, or set of social norms, that the people in a
mechanical society all strongly believe in.
Example: For theft or crime like snatching one’s cattle; one’s finger is cut.
Legal aid in early society
36. Organic Solidarity- Modern systems of law tend to be restitutive or restorative,
according to Durkheim. While there are elements of penal or repressive law,
such as the death penalty for murder, that continue to exist in modern
societies, modern systems of law are primarily characterized by judgments
that require the offending party to restore the situation to the original state –
eg. paying restitution for theft or to victims.
Legal aid in modern society
37. How do you explain flood induced migration?
How do you explain riot?
