Розвідка нафти і газу (Petroleum exploration)

Petroleum Exploration – 01 Overview
Розвідка нафти і газу – 01 загальний вигляд

Вольфганг Нахтманн
Wolfgang Nachtmann — RAG — Wien
wolfgang.nachtmann@rag-austria.at

Petroleum Exploration – Content & Program
Розвідка нафти і газу – зміст та програма

• 01 – overview
• 02 – petroleum systems
• 03 – sedimentary basins
• 04 – sedimentary rocks
• 05 – seismic: from acquisition to prospect
• 06 – resources and reserves
• 07 – opportunity selection
• 08 – risk assessment
• 01 – загальний вигляд
• 09 – petroleum contracts
• 02 – Системи нафти та газу
• 10 – unconventionals – shale gas
• 03 – осадові басейни
Practical examples of Field Studies &
• 04 – осадові породи
Business Cases
• 05 – сейсміка
• 06 – Ресурси та резерви
• 07 – вибір перспективних площей
• 08 – Оцінка ризику
• 09 – Контракти по нафті та газу
• 10 – нетрадиционные ресурсы
Practical examples of Field Studies &
Business Cases
Petroleum Exploration – 01 Overview | 2011 | 2

World Consumes One Cubic Mile of Oil per Year
Світ споживає одну кубічну милю нафти за рік

1 cubic mile of oil
contains as much
energy as we would get
from 52 new nuclear
power plants working
for the next 50 years

Fossil versus or Fossil and Renewable Energy Sources?
Копалини у порівнянні або копалини та поновлювані джерела енергії


60% of OECD Petroleum Demand For Transportation
60% попиту ОЕСР на нафту і газ для транспорту
The transportation sector accounts for 60% of OECD petroleum demand, but is likely to
flatten out after years of steady growth.
“Petroleum for transportation has been the single driving force behind OECD oil demand for the
past two decades,” said Aaron Brady, IHS CERA director, global oil. “After the oil crisis of the early
1980s the non-transportation sector turned to readily available substitutes like coal, gas or nuclear
power. Now we are seeing the tempering of the last significant driver of oil demand in developed
countries—petroleum for transportation.” Future world oil demand growth will be driven almost
exclusively by emerging markets.

Petroleum based liquids consumption is projected to be flat as biofuels use grows


Global Energy Consumption
Глобальне споживання енергії

100

80
Percentage of total market

60 H/C<1
(Wood, Coal)

H/C~2
(Oil)
40
H/C>4
(Natural Gas,
Hydrogen, Nuclear,
20 Emerging)

0
1850 1900 1950 2000

U.S. Data: Annual Energy Review 1999 (EIA, 2000)
World Data: International Energy Annual 1999 (EIA, 2000)
Source: SWT, DPA Luncheon, 2006

The Oil Industry in the Media – Are There Any Good News??
Нафтова індустрія у ЗМІ – чи є хороші новини??

What gets immediately reported …
• oil price
• gas(oline) price
• environmental hazards
Macondo Spill 2010
• wars for oil
• the “Multis” in general and their profits

Gulf War 1991
Burning Oil Fields
in Kuwait

22.6.2008


Elevated Political Risk and Uncertainty
Підвищені політичний ризик та невизначенність

Shtokman
„Putinism“
Kovikta
Terrorist Sakhalin 2
Threats
754 Bbo

Civil
„Chavezism“ Unrest
Quasi-Nationalism
Nationalize the Faja


The Oil Industry in the Media – Are There Any Good News??
Нафтова індустрія у ЗМІ – чи є хороші новини??
BP‘s Thunder Horse Oil Platform
after Hurricane Dennis, 2005

… but who is talking about

• huge (private) investments
• risk taking
• secured global energy supply
• safety and environmental awarness
• technological and economic drivers

Hibernia – Grand Banks,
315 km off St. John‘s, Newfoundland


What is Petroleum
Що таке Петролеум

Glossary of Petroleum Industry Common Terms & Symbols

PETROLEUM
A generic name for hydrocarbons, including crude oil,
natural gas liquids, natural gas and their products.

Petroleum is crude oil, a naturally occurring liquid that can be
distilled or refined to make fuels, lubricating oils, asphalt, and other
valuable products. It is composed of many molecules of different
sizes. The word petroleum comes from the Latin petra, meaning
“rock,” and oleum, meaning “oil.” Used in a broad sense, petroleum
also refers to natural gas and solid asphalt, …


History and Development of Oil
Історія та розробка нафти

Petroleum has been known throughout historical time. It was used in mortar, for
coating walls and boat hulls, and as a fire weapon in defensive warfare. Native
Americans used it in magic and medicine and in making paints. Pioneers bought it
from the Native Americans for medicinal use and called it Seneca oil and Genesee
oil. In Europe it was scooped from streams or holes in the ground, and in the early
19th century small quantities were made from shale. In 1815 several streets in
Prague were lighted with petroleum lamps.
The modern petroleum industry began in 1859, when the American oil pioneer E. L.
Drake drilled a producing well on Oil Creek in Pennsylvania at a place that later
became Titusville. Many wells were drilled in the region. Kerosene was the chief
finished product, and kerosene lamps soon replaced whale oil lamps and candles in
general use. Little use other than as lamp fuel was made of petroleum until the
development of the gasoline engine and its application to automobiles, trucks,
tractors, and airplanes. Today the world is heavily dependent on petroleum for
motive power, lubrication, fuel, dyes, drugs, and many synthetics. The widespread
use of petroleum has created serious environmental problems. The great quantities
that are burned as fuels generate most of the air pollution in industrialized
countries, and oil spilled from tankers and offshore wells has polluted oceans and
coastlines.

Chronology of Oil
Хронологія нафти

1781 Borislav, Ukraine, first field development (hand dug shafts)
1821 Russia established mineral leasing system
1858 First oil well in Ontario, Canada (hand dug)
Trinidad – La Brea asphalt refinery


Chronology of Oil (continued)
Хронологія нафти (продовження)

August 28, 1859 – Titusville*, Pa.

Beginning of „modern“ oil drilling

„Colonel“ Edwin L. Drake drills the first
oil well down to 69 and a half feet

* before this date some 3 to 6 bbl of oil per day were skimmed from the surface of the Oil Creek


World Energy Demand and Economic Outlook 2007 – 2035
Світовий попит на енергію та економічна перспектива 2007-2035

From 2007 to 2035, growth in world real GDP (on a purchasing power parity basis) averages
3.2 percent per year in the reference case. In the long term, the ability to produce goods and
services (the supply side) determines the growth potential of each country’s economy.
Growth potential is influenced by population growth, labor force participation rates, capital
accumulation, and productivity improvements. In addition, for the developing economies,
progress in building human and physical capital infrastructures, establishing credible
regulatory mechanisms to govern markets, and ensuring political stability also are important
determinants of medium- to long-term growth potential.

Published: July 2010

http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/world.html


Population Driven Energy Demand
Попит на енергію, в залежності від населення

Courtesy: W. Schollnberger

Oil & Gas Provide 2/3 of Primary Energy
Нафта та газ забезпечують 2/3 первинної енергії

Coal Latin
Hydro America
Nuclear China

Gas

Oil


Value and Flexibility of Oil, Gas and Coal
Вартість та гнучкість нафти, газу та вугілля

Oil Gas Coal
Energy density GJ/m3 40 0,04 25
CO2 emissions 135 100 155
small – large small – large Large
Size of burners /
mobile immobile immobile
mobility of use
(cars – power plants) (household – turbines) (industrial)
Production unitised fields unitised fields independent in fields
Transport easy (ships) costly (pipeline, LNG) easy (ships)
Spare production
cheap cheap costly
capacity
Spare transport
cheap costly cheap
capacity
Place of storage production market consumption


Oil Price
Ціна на нафту


World Oil Price Scenarios 1990 – 2035
Сценарії розвитку світової ціни на нафту 1990 - 2035


Crude Oil Prices Since 1861
Ціна на сиру нафту з 1861

BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2010

How OPEC Governed Oil Price
Як ОПЕК регулював ціну на нафту


Oil Reserves
Резерви нафти

Oil Reserves


From Resources to Reserves (after Jean-Noël Boulard)
Від ресурсів до резервів (після Jean-Noël Boulard)

Resources: volumes of hydrocarbons which are present in an oil or gas field, without
reference to constraints as to their accessibility and/or cost
Reserves: volumes of hydrocarbons which are or will be recoverable.


Proved Oil Reserves by End 2009
Підтверджені резерви нафти на кінець 2009

Total: 1,206 billion bbl (~ 165 billion tons)


Hubbert’s Peak Oil Thesis – the Original
Ствердження Хубберта щодо піку видобутку нафти - оригінал

http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/1956/1956.pdf

The Growing Gap Between Production and Discoveries
Зростання розбіжності між видобутком та відкритими покладами

Weatherford, Annual Report 2007


Is the World Running Out of Oil??
Чи закінчується нафта у світі??

(When) Will the Oil Run Out?

According to published sources, the world has something like 1.258 trillion
barrels of oil reserves (that is, 1012) and consumes around 81 million (106)
barrels a day [data: BP 2010].
Therefore we will run out of oil in
1,258,000 / 81 = 15,530 days = ~ 42 years, which is in 2052 or thereabouts.

That's within the lifetime of most of us, so panic about a coming oil drought is
entirely appropriate.
Right ?


Oil Reserves-to-Production (R/P) Ratios
Співвідношення резервів нафти до видобутку (R/P)


R/P Model
R/P модель
Data:
2007 reserves 1283 bln bbls
2007 production 29,8 bln bbls / a
30
R/P 41,6 years

R/P model assumptions:
World Annual Oil Production (bln bbls)

25 Production stable at 2007 level until
reserves are fully depleted
20

15

10

5

0
2007 2017 2027 2037 2047 2057 2067 2077 2087 2097


R/P Model and More Realistic Expectation
R/P модель та більш реалістичні очікування
Data:
2007 reserves 1283 bln bbls
2007 production 29,8 bln bbls / a
30
R/P 41,6 years

R/P model assumptions:
World Annual Oil Production (bln bbls)

25 Production stable at 2007 level until
reserves are fully depleted
20 More realistic assumption:
Production from existing fields will
not remain stable but decline
15
annually by 3% (low value)
No new reserves (discoveries,
10 extensions etc.) assumed

5

0
2007 2017 2027 2037 2047 2057 2067 2077 2087 2097


R/P Key Observations
R/P – основні вихідні дані

R/P values have no practical meaning
Only relative comparison between countries or companies

R/P only refers to proven reserves
Realistic expectation of future producible amounts is
proven reserves plus
possible reserves plus
new discoveries.

Replenishment more important than reserves or R/P
Replenishment is possible through any combination of
New discoveries
Field extension
Increased recovery rate
Price increase
Technology application

Lack of replenishment has serious consequences
Significant shortage will occur very quickly (within a few years)
Price will likely shoot up ⇒ new reserves and replenishment

World Oil Reserves incl. Unconventional Reserves
Світові резерви нафти вкл. нетрадиційні резерви

A similar chart amended to include USGS estimates of ultimately recoverable oil reserves presents a
more accurate impression of overall world oil reserves.
The "unconventional" oil reserve of South America is the Venezuelan Orinoco heavy oil belt with one
to four trillion (with a "T") barrels of oil.

Rising & Future Hot Spots for Oil & Gas Exploration
Зростання та майбутні напрямки дії, щодо розвідки нафти і газу

the Arctic – Russia, Greenland, Canada, Alaska, Norway
South Atlantic – West Africa (Ghana, Liberia, Mauritania, Morocco)
Sub-Salt – Brazil, Gulf of Mexico
Rift Areas – East Africa (Sudan, Uganda; Tanzania, Moçambique)


One of the Future Hot Spots for Oil & Gas Search
Один з майбутніх напрямків дій, щодо пошуків нафти і газу
The U.S. Geological Survey estimates that 90 billion barrels of oil, 44 billion barrels of
natural gas liquids and 1,670 trillion cubic feet of natural gas are recoverable in the
frozen region north of the Arctic Circle.
And the fight over who owns those resources may turn out to be the most important
territorial dispute of this century. Russia, Canada, the United States, Denmark, Norway
and Iceland all have a stake in the Arctic's icy real estate.


Proved natural gas reserves at end 2009
Підтверджені резерви нафти і газу у кінці 2009
Total: 187,5 TCM

Memo: 1 billion m³ Gas = 6.29 million BOE BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2010


Natural Gas Production by Region
Видобуток природного газу по регіонам

~ 150 BCM are annually flared - this equals some 5% of total production!!


Gas Flaring – A Still Ongoing Waste of Natural Resources
Спалювання газу – все ще наявні втрати природного газу

Shell flared over 30 per cent more gas in 2010 than it did in 2009 due to what it said was
“increased production in Nigeria and new activities in Iraq” (Daily Independent, April 25, 2011)


Gas reserves-to-production (R/P) ratios
Співвідношення резервів газу до видобутку (R/P)



The Impact of Upstream Technological Advances on Future Oil Supply
Вплив технологічних переваг апстрім на майбутні поставки нафти

“We are looking at more than four and a half trillion barrels
of potentially recoverable oil. That number translates into
140 years of oil at current rates of consumption, or to put it
another way, the world has only consumed about 18
percent of its conventional oil potential.”
Mr. Abdallah S. Jum'ah, President & Chief Executive Officer,

Saudi Aramco, address to OPEC, Vienna, Austria, Sept. 13, 2006.

•1 – знайти нові нафтові родовища
•1 – finding new oil fields

•2 – increasing recovery
•2 – збільшити витягання

•3 – reducing exploration and producing cost •3 – знизити витрат на розвідку та видобуток
•4 – unconventional oil
•4 – нетрадиційна нафта
•5 – environment
•5 – навколишнє середовище
http://www.opec.org/home/multimedia/videos/2006/opec%20seminar/mrabdullahsjumah.htm


The Search for Oil and Gas
Пошук нафти та газу
A Multiphase Process
Global Basin Analysis
Play Concept
Exploration Fairway
Drillable Prospect

Production Feasibility Analysis
Environmental Impact Study
Obtain Lease

Wildcat Drilled
Appraisal Wells
Field Facilities
Development Wells
Refining and Marketing

The Petroleum Geologist – A Detective
Геолог у нафтогазовій галузі - детектив

Data Search
Gravimetry, Magnetic
Development and
Distribution of Rocks

Seismic Acquisition & Processing
Interpretation & Visualization
Evaluation of Petroleum System

Project Generation
Estimation of Potential
Project Economics
Drilling Proposal
“Sell” Project and Drill

Petroleum Industry Scientists
Спеціалісти нафтогазової галузі

Geologists
Geophysicists
Hydrologists
Petroleum Engineers
Both
Chemical Engineers Research
Civil Engineers
Electrical Engineers
and
Mathematicians Applications
Chemists
Physicists


Petroleum Industry Breakthroughs
Важливі кроки нафтогазової індустрії

1883 Anticlinal Theory Concept of ‘Where-to-Drill’

1900’s Rotary Drilling Drill deeper

1914 Seismograph 1D Subsurface imaging

1924 Well Logging Subsurface rock and fluid properties

1930’s Offshore Drilling
Access to new areas and basins
1960’s Digital Computer 2D Subsurface imaging &
data management
1970’s Directional Drilling Access to areas with surface obstacles

1980’s 3D Seismic More precise subsurface imaging

1990’s 3D Simulation Predicting fluid movement
Basin and Reservoir
2000‘s Drilling Multilaterals More production per well head

JMA Petroleum Exploration – 01 Overview | 2011 | 43

E & P Creaming Curve
Р та В - Крива співвідношення успішних свердловин до усіх розвідувальних


ms
Syste
um
etrole
–P
r 02
hapte
hC
wit
ue
Contin


Petroleum Exploration – 02 Petroleum Systems
Розвідка нафти та газу – 02 Системи нафти та газу

Monterey Fmt, Gaviota Beach, California


Petroleum System Puzzle
Паззл нафтогазової системи

MIGRATION
PATHS

GEOLOGICAL MIGRATION
SITUATION RESERVOIR

SOURCE
ROCK TRAP
TRAP OVER
SEAL
TIME

MATURITY
OF SOURCE
ROCK

Petroleum Exploration – 02 Petroleum Systems | 2011 | 2

Exploration Tools
Інструменти розвідки

• Observation
• natural oil and gas shows – seeps
• morphology
• surface geology
• rocks
• structural elements
• Analogies
• interpretation
• mapping
• Measurements
• rock samples
• gravimetry
• magnetic
• seismic
• geochemistry
• Interpretation and Experiments
• modeling (seismic, reservoir, HC-system
• visualization


E & P Cycle
Цикл розвідки та вибодутку (Р та В)

Discovery

Prospect-
Appraisal
Definition
& Planning

E & P Cycle
Seismic, Field-
Gravimetry EXPLORATION Development

PRODUKTION
Basin-Analysis, Reservoir
(Play) Concept(s) Management
Regional Geology,
Data (Expl. History),
Analogies


E & P Cycle
Цикл розвідки та вибодутку (Р та В)

Відкриття

Визначення
Аналіз &
перспективи
планування

E & P Цикл
Сейсміка, Розробка
гравіметрія РОЗВІДКА родовища

ВИДОБУТОК
Аналіз басейну,
Пласт
(комплексу)
концепція(ї) Менеджмент
Регіональна геологія,
дані (іст. розвідка),
аналогії


Natural Oil & Gas Seeps
Природні нафто- і газопрояви

What Are Oil and Gas Seeps?

Oil and gas seeps are natural springs where liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons
(hydrogen-carbon compounds) leak out of the ground. Whereas freshwater springs
are fed by underground pools of water, oil and gas seeps are fed by natural
underground accumulations of oil and natural gas.

Oil that leaks to the Earth's surface is eventually transformed from a clear fluid
to a tar-like substance called asphaltum. The lighter components of the oil are
lost to evaporation, and the remaining heavier oil is oxidized and degraded by
bacteria until it becomes sticky and black.

Petroleum Exploration – 02 Petroleum Systems | 2011 | 6 http://seeps.wr.usgs.gov/seeps/what.html

Oil Seeps versus Oil Spills – Natural or Man Made
Порівняння проявів і розливів нафти – природних або створених людиною

A drop of
oil from a
seep in the
Gulf of
Mexico
bursts on
the surface
after rising
up through
560 meters
of water.

Gulf of Mexico Oil Spill Observed From the International Space
Station
May 10, 2010


“Outcropping Oil Field” – Gaviota Beach, California
“Нафтове родовище, що вийшло на поверхню” – Гавіота Біч, Каліфорнія

Asphaltum like this from a cliff-side seep at Gaviota Beach near Santa Barbara,
California, forms a hard, rolling surface that looks like old, worn pavement.
Asphaltum from this and similar seeps may have been collected by the Chumash Indians to
caulk their canoes.


Gas Seeps from the Bottom of the Black Sea
Газопрояви з дна Чорного моря
Distribution of seabed seeps
Methane seepage is extremely intense on the shelf and
on the slope of the Black Sea. Intense seepage areas
have been identified particularly on the western and
north-western shelf and slope, as well as on the
northern and north-eastern slope.
In some areas of the north-western shelf the density of
seeps is very high.

Petroleum Exploration – 02 Petroleum Systems | 2011 | 9 www.crimea-info.org/

Gas Seeping in the Subcrop – Chimney
Прояви газу у розрізі - трубі

A gas chimney characterized
by relatively high seismic
amplitudes and maintained
coherency over a southern
North Sea salt dome
(blocks F3 and F6).

Petroleum Exploration – 02 Petroleum Systems | 2011 | 10 www.searchanddiscovery.com/.../thumbs/03.jpg

Oil Seep – Rancho La Brea Tar Pit, Los Angeles, California
Нафтопрояви – Ранчо Ля Бре Тар Піт, Лос Енджелес, Каліфорнія

The Rancho La Brea Tar Pits is one of the world's most famous fossil localities,
located 5 miles west of downtown Los Angeles. Near the end of the Ice Age, about
40,000 to 10,000 years ago, sabertoothed tigers and woolly mammoths roamed the
Los Angeles Basin. Some of these animals, along with countless other animals and
plants, became mired in pools of natural tar - a tragic ending for many prehistoric
creatures, but a boon for today's paleontologists studying the Ice Age.

The Petroleum System – Elements and Processes
Нафтогазова система – елементи та процеси


Main Questions in Hydrocarbon Exploration
Основні питання розвідки вуглеводнів


Petroleum System Definition
Визначення нафтогазової системи
The essential elements and processes and all genetically-related hydrocarbons that occur in
petroleum shows, and accumulations whose provenance is a single pod of active source rock.

Elements
Processes
Source Rock
Migration Route Generation
Reservoir Rock Migration
Seal Rock Accumulation
Trap Preservation

Елементи Процеси
Материнська порода Формування
Шлях міграції Міграція
Пластова порода Накопичення
Непрониклива порода Збереження
Пастка

Petroleum Exploration – 02 Petroleum Systems | 2011 | 14 Source: JMA 2000

Petroleum System Elements
Елементи нафтогазової системи

Anticlinal Trap
Top Seal Rock
(Impermeable)
Reservoir Rock
(Porous/Permeable)
Potential
Migration Route

Source Rock
(Organic Rich)

24803


Petroleum System Processes
Процеси нафтогазової системи

Gas
Cap
Oil
Accumulation
Entrapment Water Seal Rock
Reservoir
Rock

Migration
120° F
Source Rock
350° F
Generation
24803


Petroleum System Elements
Елементи нафтогазової системи

• Source Rock - A rock with abundant hydrocarbon-prone
organic matter
• Reservoir Rock - A rock in which oil and gas accumulates:
- Porosity - space between rock grains in which oil
accumulates
- Permeability - passage-ways between pores through
which oil and gas moves
• Seal Rock - A rock through which oil and gas cannot move
effectively (such as mudstone and claystone)
• Migration Route - Avenues in rock through which oil and gas
moves from source rock to trap
• Trap - The structural and stratigraphic configuration that
focuses oil and gas into an accumulation


Petroleum System Processes
Процеси нафтогазової системи

• Generation - Burial of source rock to temperature and
pressure regime sufficient to convert organic matter
into hydrocarbon
• Migration - Movement of hydrocarbon out of the source
rock toward and into a trap
• Accumulation - A volume of hydrocarbon migrating into a
trap faster than the trap leaks resulting in an
accumulation
• Preservation - Hydrocarbon remains in reservoir and is
not altered by biodegradation or “water-washing”
• Timing - Trap forms before and during hydrocarbon
migrating

Hydrocarbon Trap Types
Типи вуглеводневої пастки

Anticline
Fault
Salt Dome

Pinchout

Unconformity

Petroleum Exploration – 02 Petroleum Systems | 2011 | 19 American Petroleum Institute, 1986

Trap Types
Типи пасток
A trap is a geologic
structure or a
stratigraphic feature
capable of retaining
hydrocarbons.
Stratigraphic traps
hydrocarbon traps that
result from changes in
rock type or pinch-outs,
unconformities, or
other sedimentary
features such as reefs
or build-ups.
Structural traps
hydrocarbon traps that
form in geologic
structures such as folds
and faults.
Combination trap
any mixture of
structural and
stratigraphic elements.

Trap – a Matter of Reservoir Discontinuity Reasons
Пастка – причини уривчастості пласта

Petroleum Exploration – 02 Petroleum Systems | 2011 | 21 Source: McMoRan, 2010

Traps Related to a Salt Dome
Пастки, спричинені соляним куполом


HC Loss During Migration
Винесення вуглеводнів, упродовж міграції


Reservoir
Пласт

A subsurface body of rock having
sufficient porosity and permeability to
store and transmit fluids.
• sedimentary rocks are the most
common reservoir rocks because
they . have more porosity than
most igneous and metamorphic
rocks and
• they form under temperature
conditions at which hydrocarbons
can be preserved.

A reservoir is a critical component of a
complete petroleum system.


Reservoir Filling – East Texas Oil Field (1930)
Заповнення пласта – нафтове родовище у Східному Техасі (1930)

Unconformity Trap
West East

Sea Level
1,000 Reservoir
2,000 Seal
Seal unconformity
3,000

120°
F

• Largest “lower-48” field Kitchen
• More than 5 billion barrels recoverable
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 1990


Reservoir Filling – Prudhoe Bay Oil Field (1968)
Заповнення пласта – нафтове родовище у Прудо Бей (1968)

Anticlinal/Unconformity
Anticlinal Trap
Combination Trap
South North
Brooks Beaufort
Range Sea

Sea Level

10,000
Seal
unconformity Reservoir
20,000 120°
F
Barrow
Arch
30,000
Kitchen

• Largest North American field
• More than 8 billion barrels recoverable
American Association of Petroleum Geologists, 1990

Reservoir Generated by Fractured Porosity
Пласт, утворений роздрібленою пористістю


Georgia: Basin Edge Play
Грузія: комплекс басейну грані

Basin edge Play Concept

25km

U Jr
Proposed location
Kirsa Well

0---
U Jr Q
M Jr

2000--- Shiraki

4000---
Upper Jr

6000---
Middle Jr ??
Sarmath
Maycop
8000---


Petroleum System at Critical Moment – Oil Window
Нафтогазові системи у критичний момент – головна зона нафтоутворення

Critical Moment = Time of Expulsion/Migration

GEOGRAPHIC EXTENT OF PETROLEUM SYSTEM
A Trap 250 Ma Trap Trap A’

STRATIGRAPHIC
EXTENT OF
PETROLEUM SYSTEM t
en
m
a se
B
Overburden

Sedimentary
Essential

basin-fill
elements of Seal
POD OF ACTIVE petroleum
SOURCE ROCK system Reservoir
Source
Petroleum accumulation Underburden
Top of oil window
Bottom of oil window
Location for burial history chart

Petroleum Exploration – 02 Petroleum Systems | 2011 | 29 Magoon and Dow, 1994

Present Day Petroleum System
Нафтогазова система на даний час

GEOGRAPHIC EXTENT OF PETROLEUM SYSTEM
Present-Day
A Trap Trap Trap A’

STRATIGRAPHIC
EXTENT OF
PETROLEUM SYSTEM

t
men
se
Ba
Overburden
Seal
Petroleum accumulation Reservoir
Top of oil window
Source
Bottom of oil window
Underburden


Burial History Chart
Графік накопичення осідання

Overburden
400 300 200 100

Depth (Km)

Reservoir
Lithology

Source
Rock

Seal
Paleozoic Mesozoic Cen.
Unit
D M P P TR J K P N

Thick 1
Fm
Generation

2
Placer Fm
George Sh
Top oil window Boar Ss
Top gas window Deer Sh 3
Elk Fm

Critical Moment
Time of Expulsion and Migration (Trap must already exist)

Thermal Maturation History
Динаміка термічної зрілості
Is any chemical, physical, or Less Hydrogen More Hydrogen
biological change undergone
by a sediment after its initial Diagenesis K Kerogen

Burial to Greater and Hotter Depths
deposition and during and after
its lithification, exclusive of Ro = 0.5% Onset of Oil
surface alteration (weathering) Generation
and metamorphism. These K
changes happen at relatively
Oil Gas
low temperatures and
pressures and result in K1
changes to the rock's original
mineralogy and texture. The Catagenesis Oil Gas
boundary between diagenesis
and metamorphism, which K2
occurs under conditions of
higher temperature and Oil Gas
pressure, is gradational.
K3
Oil Phase- Con Gas
Cracking (= pyrolysis) process Ro = 2.0% Out d
which results in the conversion K4
of organic kerogens into
hydrocarbons. The rate of Gas
cracking and the end products
are strongly dependent on the
Metagenesis
temperature and presence of
any catalysts.

Petroleum Exploration – 02 Petroleum Systems | 2011 | 32 Horsfield and Rullkotter, 1994
Rullkotter,

Thermal Maturation History and its Products
Динаміка термічної зрілості та її продукт

Conversion of organic matter to petroleum occurs within a specific range of temperatures and pressures


Petroleum System – A Dynamic Entity
Нафтогазова система – динамічна структура

1) Early Generation Spill Point
Spill Point

Seal Rock
Reservoir Rock (Mudstone)
Migration from (Sandstone)
‘Kitchen’
Gas beginning to
2) Late Generation displace oil

Displaced oil
accumulates
Gas displaces all oil


Types of Petroleum
Типи нафти і газу

Oil and gas are formed by the thermal
cracking of organic compounds buried in
fine-grained rocks.

Algae = Hydrogen rich = Oil-prone

Wood = Hydrogen poor = Gas-prone


Natural Gas – Chemical Composition
Природний газ – хімічна композиція

The primary component of natural gas is methane (CH4), the shortest and lightest
hydrocarbon molecule. It also contains heavier gaseous hydrocarbons such as
ethane (C2H6), propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10), as well as other sulphur
containing gases, in varying amounts, see also natural gas condensate. Natural
gas also contains and is the primary market source of helium.

Component wt. %
Methane (CH4) 80-95
Natural Gas – CH4
Ethane (C2H6) 5-15
Propane (C3H8) and Butane (C4H10) < 5

Nitrogen, helium, carbon dioxide and trace amounts of hydrogen sulfide, water and
odorants can also be present. Mercury is also present in small amounts in natural
gas extracted from some fields. The exact composition of natural gas varies
between gas fields.

Petroleum Exploration – 02 Petroleum Systems | 2011 | 36 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gas

„Never Say Never“ to an Exploration Area
“Ніколи не говори ніколи” щодо розвідувальної площі

New Ideas

New Tools New Discoveries
in ‘Old’ Areas
Changed
Economics


asins
B
ary
ent
Sedim
–
r 03
hapte
with C
ue
Contin


Petroleum Exploration – 03 Sedimentary Basins
Розвідка нафти і газу – 03 осадові басейни


Main Types of Sedimentary Basins
Основні типи осадових басейнів

• Sedimentary basins are the subsiding areas where sediments
accumulate to form stratigraphic successions

• The plate tectonic setting is the premier criterion to distinguish different
types of sedimentary basins
• Rift-type Basins form at extensional plate boundaries, are associated with increased
heat flow due to hot mantle plumes. They occur, for example, at continental margins.

• Foreland-type Basins form at compressional plate boundaries in front of migrating
fold and thrust belts.

• Transtensional Basins occur where plates move
in a strike-slip fashion relative to each other

Petroleum Exploration – 03 Sedimentary Basins | 2011 | 2

Basin Evolution
Еволюція басейну


Types of Sedimentary Basins
Типи осадових басейнів

or the Vienna Basin.

Types of Sedimentary Basins
Типи осадових басейнів


Intracratonic Basin
Інтракратонічний басейн


Intracratonic Basin – Onshore Brazil
Інтракратонічний басейн – оншор, Бразілія
Onshore Opportunities in Brazil
Covering an area about half the size of Europe,
Brazil's onshore basins could hold large quantities
of oil and gas like their Northern Hemisphere
counterparts. Yet they have remained barely
explored, overshadowed by the huge successes in
the offshore.

Brazil’s four primary intracratonic onshore basins
are surrounded by large exposures of three major
Precambrian shields (Guyanas Central Brazil, and
Atlantic). © HRT Ten oil and gas accumulations have been found in the Solimões basin. Hydrocarbons
http://www.geoexpro.com/country_profile/onshorebrazil/ are trapped along wrench faults in Carboniferous aged sandstone reservoirs. © HRT

Extensional Basins
Протяжні басейни

Extension

• Rift basins develop in continental crust and constitute the incipient extensional basin
type; if the process continues it will ultimately lead to the development of an ocean
basin flanked by passive margins, alternatively an intracratonic basin will form
• Rift basins consist of a graben or half-graben separated from surrounding horsts by
normal faults; they can be filled with both continental and marine deposits
• Intracratonic basins develop when rifting ceases, which leads to lithospheric cooling
due to reduced heat flow; they are commonly large but not very deep


Rift Basins – Half Graben
Рифтовий басейн – напівграбен


East African Rift Valley – Albert Graben
Східно-Африканська Долина – Альберт грабен

Tullow et al discovered
> 1 billion bbl of proved
oil reserves since 2005


Collision
Зіткнення

Collision
• Subduction is a common process at active margins where plates collide and at least one oceanic plate
is involved; several types of sedimentary basins can be formed due to subduction, including trench
basins, forearc basins, backarc basins, and retroarc foreland basins
• Forearc basins form between the accretionary prism and the volcanic arc and subside entirely due to sediment
loading; like trench basins, their fill depends strongly on whether they are intra-oceanic or proximal to a continent
• Backarc basins are extensional basins that may form on the overriding plate, behind the volcanic arc
• Retroarc foreland basins form as a result of lithospheric loading behind a mountainous arc under a compressional
regime; they are commonly filled with continental deposits
• Trench basins can be very deep, and the sedimentary fill depends primarily on whether they are intra-
oceanic or proximal to a continent
• Accretionary prisms are ocean sediments that are scraped off the subducting plate; they sometimes
form island chains

Active Margin
Активна околиця


Molasse Basin – Transalp Seismic Section
Басейн моласси – секція трансальп. сейсміки

North Edge of Alps
Munich
near Tegernsee
N
S

75 km


Molasse Basin – Geological Cross-Section
Басейн моласси – геологічний профіль


Rocks
ary
ent
Sedim
r04–
e
Chapt
w ith
ue
Contin

Zion National Park


Petroleum Exploration – 04 Sedimentary Rocks
Розвідка нафти і газу – 04 осадові породи

Zion National Park, Utah


Sedimentary Rocks – Clastics vs. Non Clastics
Осадові породи – порівняння теригенних і нетеригенних

Petroleum Exploration – 04 Sedimentary Rocks | 2011 | 2

Sedimentary Rocks
Осадові породи

Clastic (siliciclastic) rocks (80-85% of the
stratigraphic record)

Carbonate sediments and rocks (10-15% of the
stratigraphic record)

Organic (carbonaceous) sediments and rocks

Evaporites

Volcaniclastic sediments and rocks


Environments of Clastic Deposition
Середовище теригенних відкладів


Low-Sinuosity Fluvial Systems
Річкові системи низької звивистості

Conceptual model of sandy low sinuosity stream system. Note incipient meandering & point bar.
High bedload low sinuosity channels are flanked by extensive crevasse splays that funnel sediment
onto the surrounding floodplain

Rio Negro Floodplain, Patagonia, Argentina
Ріо Негро, заплава річки, Патагонія, Аргентина
The Rio Negro is recognizable by astronaut crews
from orbit as one of the most meandering rivers in
South America. In this astronaut photograph, the
entire floodplain (mostly ~10 kilometers wide) is
covered with curved relicts of channels known as
meander scars. Meander scars show the past
positions of river bends. The Rio Negro is a
dramatic example of how mobile a river can be;
these meanders were produced as the river
snaked across the plain in the very recent
geological past, probably during the last few
hundred years.

When meander scars contain water they are
known as oxbow lakes.

http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=42640

Deltas
Дельта
Delta definition: Coastal accumulations, both subaqueous and subaerial, of river-derived sediments adjacent
to, or in close proximity to, the source stream, including the deposits that have been secondarily molded by
various marine agents, such as waves, currents, or tides.


False-color Image of the Larger Mississippi Delta
Штучне кольорове зображення, Міссисиппі Дельта


Mississippi Delta Lobes
Западина Міссисиппі Дельта

http://www.answers.com/topic/mississippi-delta-lobes-jpg


Meandering (Fluvial) Systems
Система звивистості (річкова)

Plan-view of the Mississippi, showing the various genetic elements such as point bars,
oxbow lakes and crevasses that together form a meandering system

10 km


A model of Subaqueous Slope Channel and Deep-Water Fan
Модель підводного похилого каналу та глибоководний конус виносу


Deep water Fan Shapes
Глибоководні конусні виноси

(SCHOLLNBERGER et al 1974)


Turbidite Slope Channels off West Africa
Турбідітові похилі канали Західної Африки


West Africa: Turbidite Reservoirs (3D View)
Західна Африка: турбідітові пласти (зображення 3D)


„Classic Eastern Carpathian hydrocarbon accumulations“
“Класичне накопичення вуглеводнів у Східних Карпатах”

Boryslav–Pokuttya
Zone
the Paleogene
reservoirs contain
almost 95% of the
total recoverable
hydrocarbons.
These deep-marine
deposits form the
bodies of genetically
related mass-flow
and turbidity
currents.

Maniava Formation (early Eocene) reservoir rock areal distribution (Picha, 2006)

Sedimentary Rocks – Classification
Осадові породи - класифікація


Sandstones
Пісковики

Sandstones (20-25% of the stratigraphic record) can be
subdivided according to the Pettijohn classification, based on
texture and composition (relative proportions of quartz,
feldspar, and lithic fragments)
Quartz arenite: quartz-dominated
Arkosic arenite: feldspar-dominated
Lithic arenite: dominance of lithic fragments
Wacke: significantly matrix-supported (>15% mud)
Quartz wacke
Greywacke (feldspathic or lithic wacke)

Conglomerates
Конгломератні відклади

Conglomerates are consolidated gravels;
Breccias are conglomerates with dominantly
angular clasts
• Clast-supported conglomerates
• Matrix-supported conglomerates

Mudstone
Аргіліти

Mudstones (60% of the stratigraphic record)
are also known as mudrocks or shales and
commonly exhibit a distinct fissility
Claystone
Siltstone

Mud – Sand – Gravel
Аргіліт – Пісок - Гравій


Studying Cores
Вивчення керну


Core of a Good Quality Reservoir Rock
Керн породи якісного пласту


Sandstone Reservoir – Good Porosity
Пласт пісковика – добра пористість

Good Porosity = plenty of space for Gas/Oil

Pore
Space


Sandstone Reservoir – No Porosity
Пласт пісковика – ніякої пористості

Pore space filled with Calcite-cement

= no room for oil/gas

Carbonate Rocks
Карбонатні породи

Carbonate sediments and rocks
Carbonate sand usually consists either of (fragmented) skeletal remains or non-skeletal
grains. Biogenic carbonate formation occurs by a wide range of organisms (e.g.,
molluscs, corals, forams, algae, bacteria, and many others)
Most organisms initially form unconsolidated carbonate sediments
Coral reefs and microbial mats (e.g., stromatolites) are examples of more
solid carbonate structures
Carbonate mud (micrite) is commonly the product either of chemical precipitation or
algal/bacterial activity. Chemical precipitation produces non-skeletal carbonate grains
of various sizes (e.g., ooids, pisoids, micrite)
Dunham classification of carbonate rocks:
Texturally-based subdivision (cf. clastics): mudstone, wackestone,
packstone, grainstone, rudstone
Organically bound framework during formation: boundstone Crimea, Ukraine

Tropical Carbonate Platforms: Facies Belts
Тропічні карбонатні платформи: фаціальні зони


Carbonates – Depositional Texture
Карбонати – літологічна структура

Eocene, Crimea, Ukraine

Carbonate Building Micro-Organisms
Мікроорганізми, утворюючі карбонати


Ooids – Onkoids
Ооїди - онкоїди


Fractured Carbonate Rock
Роздроблена карбонатна порода

Cretaceous, Georgia


Evaporites
Евапорити

Evaporites

Dissolved salts precipitate out of sea water due to
concentration (brine formation) during evaporation
(1 km of sea water --> 12 m of evaporites)
Evaporites commonly lithify into consolidated rocks
upon formation
Least soluble compounds precipitate first:
CaCO3 (calcium carbonate)
CaSO4 (calcium sulphate: gypsum or anhydrite)
NaCl (halite: rock salt)
Other, less stable (highly soluble) chlorides


Marine Evaporites
Морські евапорити


Marine Evaporites – Death Valley, California
Морські евапорити – Долина смерті, Каліфорнія

Petroleum Exploration – 04 Sedimentary Rocks | 2011 | 33 Death Valley, California

Volcaniclastic Sediments
Вулканокластичні відклади

Volcaniclastic sediments and rocks
Lava (cooled magma flows) produces volcaniclastic sediment upon
weathering
Pyroclastic material or tephra (ejected particulate material) can be
subdivided into different compositional categories:
Mineral grains
Lithic fragments
Vitric material (volcanic glass or pumice)


Volcaniclastic Sediments
Вулканокластичні відклади


Volcaniclastic Sediment Example
Приклад вулканокластичних відкладів

Fractured volcanoclastic sediment with tar (Tertiary, Georgia)


Reservoir Quality of Sandstone
Пластова якість пісковика

uartz

eldspar ithic Grains


mic
eis
–S
r 05
hapte
hC
wit
ue
Contin


Petroleum Exploration – 05 Seismic 1/2 (Acquisition)
Розвідка нафти і газу – 05 сейсміка 1/2 (виміри)


Introduction – Geophysical Methods

- Gravity (reconnaissance tool)
- Magnetics -“-
- Radar (10m?) (details)
- Geo-Electric -“-

- SEISMIC
- wave theory
- refraction
- reflection
2D / 3D

Petroleum Exploration – 05 Seismic | 2011 | 2

Scheme – Seismic Acquisition to Interpretation
Схема – сейсміка від вимірів до інтерпретації


The Challenge
Виклик

?


One Possibility ……
Одна можливість .....


…….Or
.....Або

(2D)
Reflexion Seismic

Petroleum Handbook 1948 (Shell)


Seismic Acquisition – Physical Principles
Сейсмічні виміри – фізичні принципи


Equipment for Acquisition
Обладнання для вимірів


3D Seismic Acquisition – Registration Truck
3D сейсмічні виміри – реєстраційна вантажівка


Seismic Sources
Сейсмічні джерела

vibrators as energy source

explosives


2D or 3D Reflection Seismic – Planning (1)
2D або 3D метод відбитих хвиль – планування (1)

Area / Surface / Restrictions

Geology / Subsurface / Data = Logs, Seismic Data

Targets: depth of target horizons
structure/areal extension/dip
horizontal resolution = structure details
vertical resolution = thickness of horizons
expected quality of seismic data


Limits and Uncertainties for Seismic Activities in Austria
Обмеженості та невизначеність сейсміки в Австрії

Access
Due to forests, agricultural activities, growing villages and
infrastructure distances to energy sources get often reduced which
cause unwanted modifications of acquisition patterns and partially
lower coverage
Environmental conditions
Snow and ice in winter
Continuous agricultural activities from March through October
Hunting seasons
Surface and near surface geology
Glacial sediments (gravels) and valley fills (lacustrine clays) have an
influence on strength and transmission of acoustic signals – only
solved by work intensive static correction before and during data
processing


Seismic Acquisition – Procedures & Involved Parties
Сейсмічні виміри – порядок та залучені сторони

Stakeholders
Ordering company
Seismic contractor
Authorities (mining, water, environment, local)
Abutting owners, land owners
Procedure
Selection of acquisition area (incl. estimation of potential, economics)
Specification of technical parameters
Bidding process: EU wide announcement, evaluation, negotiations,
awarding
Public hearing and negotiation – official notification (mining authority)
Mobilisation of seismic crew – technical and HSE audit
Notification of land owners, communities etc.
Surveying
Acquisition
Reimbursement for damages
Demobilisation of seismic crew
Delivery of raw data to processing


Surveying with Digital Topography by Laser Scanning
Дослідження з дігітальною топографією лазерним скануванням

Digitale Geländehöhen
Nussdorf 3D (70 km2)
400 - 800 m NN

3D Reflection Seismic – Planning (2)
3D метод відбитих хвиль – планування (2)

Technical Issues
- energy source (explosives vs. vibrators)
- geophone array
- horizontal resolution (bin size) – 5 m to 25 m)
- vertical resolution (sample rate – ½ to 2 msec)
- data quality: subsurface coverage (10 to 48?times)

Economic Issues
- cost estimate / economics
- project specification / tender
- selection of contractor – based on cost, quality,
equipment, experience, reputation


2D Acquisition Scheme
2D схема проведення виміру

Bis zu 10,000 Kanäle

Messwagen
Stationsinterval
12 - 25 m
Kabel
1 - 3 km lang
Energie- Pattern String
quelle Anregung:

Geophon

2D Seismic – Single Shot Record
2D сейсміка – однократна сейсмограма

Receiver Source

Offset Offset (m)
0

Offset (m)
2-Way
Travel Time
Reflection
Time
(msec)
Time
(msec)

1000


Seismic Data Processing
Обробка сейсмічних даних

„Shot Points“

„Stacked Line“

Final „migrated“ Time-Seismic

3D Acquisition Principle
3D принцип проведення вимірів

Vibrator source
Receivers

(NAM drawing)

3D Seismic – Ideal Pattern of Inlines and X-lines
3D сейсмика – ідеальна модель вертикальних та горизонтальних ліній

Orthogonal
acquisition
scheme

vibrator lines

receiver lines


3D Seismic – Subsurface Coverage Model
3D сейсміка – модель перекриття границі у геол. розрізі


HSE Considerations During Seismic Acquisition
Охорона праці та навк. середовища під час сейсмічних вимірів

Moving site
Consistent outside impact by
environment and weather
High power of concentration
needed (traffic, terrain)
Healthy and physically fit people
needed
Choice of right people for
respective work
Well rested, don‘t start work with
any residual alcohol from previous
night
Personnel turnover due to rotation
Group dynamic processes with
international character


t ion
eta
rpr
– Inte
Part 2
r 06
pte
Cha
w ith
ntinue
C o


Petroleum Exploration – 05 Seismic 2/2 (Interpretation)
Розвідка нафти і газу – 05 сейсміка 2/2
(Інтерпретація)


Scales of (Seismic) Resolution
Масштаб (сейсмічної) роздільної здатності

γ-ray ρv Well reflectivity seismic

Outcrop: detailed but limited extent
Wells: detailed vertically but limited laterally
Seismic: limited vertically but unlimited laterally

Seismic Resolution (1)
Сейсмічна роздільна здатність (1)

... m ?


Seismic Resolution (2)
Сейсмічна роздільна здатність (2)

Frequencies
8-50Hz velocity
• wavelength =
frequency

Velocities • f=35Hz, v=2700m/s
1500m/s water
4500 m/s salt

77m


Interpretation – General
Інтерпретація – загальна інформація

Interpretation
General
Regional
Prospect
Special


Interpretation Set-Up
Порядок інтерпретації

What do you get to work with …
Hardware
PC
Workstation Dual Screen (PC)
Network Storage, Visualization Room
Software
Geoframe Interpretation System (Schlumberger Geoquest),
Petrel; Kingdom
Geostatistics, Petrophysics, Inversion
Database
FINDER, RECALL (Schlumberger, Geoquest)


Work Flow (1)
Послідовність робіт (1)

Way to go …
Geoframe PETREL survey
Inlines, crosslines, slices, random lines
Geoviz

Well data:
Sonic & density logs, synthetics, markers

Regional interpretation (Geoframe, PETREL, Kingdom)
(Auto-)tracking
• Horizons in selected areas
• Gridded Time maps
• Seismic attributes (amplitude, dip, etc.)
• Depth map conversion using smoothed well information
(Vel/Depth)


Interpretation Basics
Основи інтерпретації

Mapping of horizons (structure)
Mapping of faults
Stratigraphy

Auto tracking


3D Visualization at Work Station
3D Візуалізація на робочій станції


3D Visualization Room
3D кімната візуалізації


3D Data Cubes
3D масив даних


3D Visualization
3D Візуалізація


Interpretation Work Flow (2)
Послідовність інтерпретації (2)

A Lead/Prospect has been identified:
Log correlation
Seismic and geologic analogs
Risking:
• Structure/Trap (Sealing), Reservoir, Source, Timing
Extensive documentation

Prospect presentation:
In-house peer review
External technical experts review
Management

Time frame:
3-6 months


Interpretation – Regional
Інтерпретація - регіонально

Interpretation
General
Regional
Prospect
Special


Geology
Геологія

General structure and trap style:
largely structural-stratigraphic for gas
mostly structural (faults) for oil
Source:
biogenic for gas
Eocene Lattdorf shales for oil
Reservoir:
sandstone (lacustrine, turbidite)
seal rock:
shale
hydrocarbon type:
gas (main target)
oil (secondary)


Interpretation – Austrian Molasse
Інтерпретація – австрійська моласса


Austrian Molasse – Geological N – S Cross Section
Австрійська моласса – геологічна N – S перехресна секція

Imbricated Flysch
Molasse Sediment Basin Molasse Overthrust

Target Areas

Length of cross-section about 80 km


Stratigraphy
Стратиграфія

Target 1

Target 2


Розвідка нафти і газу (Petroleum exploration)

Розвідка нафти і газу (Petroleum exploration)

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