Remember me in your pray

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Assala mu alykum My Name is saqib imran and I am the
student of b.tech (civil) in sarhad univeristy of
science and technology peshawer.
I have written this notes by different websites and
some by self and prepare it for the student and also
for engineer who work on field to get some knowledge
from it.
I hope you all students may like it.
Remember me in your pray, allah bless me and all of
you friends.
If u have any confusion in this notes contact me on my
gmail id: Saqibimran43@gmail.com
or text me on 0341-7549889.
Saqib imran.

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BUILDING MATERIALS
Advantages of using Stainless Steel Toilets
1. Light weight
As we all know, ceramic products are relatively heavy and hard to move, while stainless steel
toilets are mainly made of stainless steel, so they are lighter in weight.

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Steel toilet
2. Reliable quality, beautiful and durable
It is mainly made of 304 stainless steel, so its quality is guaranteed, it has strong and durable
features, and its appearance is more beautiful, decorative more outstanding.
Properties of steel

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Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and other elements. Because of its high tensile strength and
low cost, it is a major component used in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles,
machines, appliances and weapons
Chemical Composition: C=0.45%, Mn=0.75%, P=0.04% max, S=0.05% max
Density : 7.872* 10³ kg/m³
Modulus of elasticity : 201 GPa
Thermal expansion (20 ºC) : 11.7*10-6 ºCˉ¹
Specific heat capacity : 486 J/(kg*K)
Thermal conductivity : 50.9 W/(m*K)
Electric resistivity: 1.62*10-7 Ohm*m
Tensile strength (hot rolled) : 565 MPa

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Yield strength (hot rolled) : 310 MPa
Elongation (hot rolled) : 16%
Hardness (hot rolled) : 84 RB
False Ceilings
A false ceiling is nothing but a layer of insulation. It is the suspended ceiling between the main
ceiling and room. It gives beautiful appearance toy our interior home.
Purpose of false ceiling:-
 Improves the overall look of the home
 Insulation reduces heat from the roof
 Offers acoustical improvement
 It is a design element
 Sound proof
Types of False Ceilings
Exposed Grid
 Most common type
 Consists of long strips interconnected
Concealed Grid
 Clean, smooth as well as expensive
 Uses acoustic tiles to hide the grid system from view
Benefits of false ceilings:-
 Light Weight
 Waterproof
 Durable
 Fire Resistant Sound Proof
 Easy Installation
Varieties of False ceilings
 Gypsum Board false ceilings

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Gypsum ceilings are mainly choosed for decorating inside of industrial and office buildings.
These are cost effective and very easy to install. The advantage is that it reduces the impact of
heat.
 P.O.P false ceilings
POP ceiling or plaster ceiling a ceiling designer can create unique and creative ceiling designs.
These are popular from ancient time for the ceiling decoration
 Glass Ceiling
Glass ceilings are very popular in decorating offices. It is used for getting a contemporary look
and feel of ceiling design
 Metal Ceiling or Tin Ceiling Designs
Because of the lighting effect , durability and color & design varieties, tin ceilings are more
popular than any other ceiling. It offer an antique look to the room and are eye catching.
 Acoustic popcorn ceilings
Acoustic popcorn ceilings are widely used for decorating the home ceiling. Installation of
popcorn ceiling is very easy and it require little skill and experience. The main advantage of
popcorn ceilings is their ability to block noise between floors of a house.
 Vaulted Ceiling Design
Vaulted ceiling gives a striking look to the room and give theeffect of increased space. These are
commonly used in churchesand cathedral.
 Coffered Ceiling Design
Coffered ceiling make a traditional or contemporarylook for the room
 Skylight Ceiling Design
Residential skylight ceiling is a good way to reduce darkness in the room and provide healthy
living space
 Wooden Ceiling Design
Wooden Ceiling are popular and offer a warm feeling to any room

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Difference between cement mortar, cement concrete & RCC?
Cement Mortar:-
A paste obtained by adding water to a mixture of fine aggregates such as sand and binding
material. Building mortars are mixtures, used for the joining of bricks and stones.
Cement mortar
Plain Cement Concrete:-

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The mixture of cement, fine aggregate (sand) and coarse aggregate is called plain cement
concrete (PCC) PCC is mainly used for following purposes.
1.It is used as a protective layer for the RCC above so that water from the RCC is not absorbed by
the earth below.
2.Provides a base for the concrete and also helps workers to set out the structure above in a easier
way.
3.Act as a cover to reinforced cement concrete i.e. resist corrosion of steel bars in footings.
4.Moisture available in soil should not absorbed by R.C.C footings which causes corrosion of
reinforcement
Cement Concrete
Reinforced Cement Concrete:-
Reinforced concrete, or RCC, is concrete that contains embedded steel bars, plates, or fibers that
strengthen the material. The capability to carry loads by these materials is magnified, and
because of this RCC is used extensively in all construction. In fact, it has become the most
commonly utilized construction material.
Advantages of Reinforced Concrete

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1. Reinforced concrete has a high compressive strength compared to other building materials.
2. Due to the provided reinforcement, reinforced concrete can also withstand a good amount
tensile stress.
3. Fire and weather resistance of reinforced concrete is fair.
4. The reinforced concrete building system is more durable than any other building system.
5. Reinforced concrete, as a fluid material, in the beginning, can be economically molded into
a nearly limitless range of shapes.
6. The maintenance cost of reinforced concrete is very low.
7. In the structure like footings, dams, piers etc. reinforced concrete is the most economical
construction material.
8. It acts like a rigid member with minimum deflection.
9. As reinforced concrete can be molded to any shape required, it is widely used in precast
structural components. It yields rigid members with minimum apparent deflection.
10. Compared to the use of steel in structure, reinforced concrete requires less skilled labor for
the erection of the structure.
Disadvantages of Reinforced Concrete
1. The tensile strength of reinforced concrete is about one-tenth of its compressive strength.
2. The main steps of using reinforced concrete are mixing, casting, and curing. All of this affect the
final strength.
3. The cost of the forms used for casting is relatively higher.
4. For multi-storied building the RCC column section for is larger than steel section as the
compressive strength is lower in the case of .
5. Shrinkage causes crack development and strength loss.

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RCC Columns
Mortar & It’s Functions, properties

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Building mortars are mixtures, used for the joining of bricks and stones.
Definition:- A paste obtained by adding water to a mixture of fine aggregates such as sand and
binding material.
The pyramids of the have been built with clay-gypsum, gypsum-lime and lime mortar.
The safety, strength and durability of resulting wall or any structure depends upon quality of
mortar used as a binding medium.
F u n c t i o n s o f m o r t a r : -
 It provides force or cohesion between the structural unit.
 It acts as a medium for distributing the forces throughout the structure uniformly.
 Additional strength and resistance against the rain penetration and other such weathering agencies.
 In stone or brick masonry, it fills up empty joints, a thin liquid mortar used for such purposes is
termed as Grout.

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Cement mortar
Q u a l i t i e s or p r o pe r t i e s o f m or t ar : -
 The mortar mix should be workable- easily transported to the place of application.
 It should develop adequate strength in tension, compression and bond for the work for it is used.
 It should capable of retaining sufficient water during it’s application.
 It should be sufficiently plastic easily placed on the bed is construction in the form of thin, smooth
and uniform layer.
 It should be durable and strong in itself on drying and hardening at the same time. It should not
react in anyway with construction units.
 It should set and garden quickly construction could be done with speed.
 It should not develop any cracks on drying and should be able to maintain their appearance for
quite long period.
 It should capable of developing the designed stresses.
 It should be economical to make without compromising on any of the qualities.
Types of Construction Chemicals
These chemicals are used to enhance the performance of the concrete or used in concrete related
activities in the field of construction. such chemicals called construction chemicals or building
chemicals.

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Construction chemicals are used on hardened concrete either as surface application, coating or as
repair materials.
Types:-
1. Concrete curing compound
2. Polymer bonding agents
3. Mould releasing agents
4. Protective and decorative coatings
5. Installation aids
6. Floor hardeners and Dustproofers
7. Non shrink high strength grouts
8. Surface retarders and sealers
9. Bond air for plastering
10. Ready to use plaster
11. Polymer modified mortar for repair and maintenance
12. Tile or cladding fixers
Plastering
De fi ni ti on: -
Plastering is a process of covering tough surfaces and uneven surfaces with plastic material
called plaster or mortar to obtain even, smooth, regular, clean & durable surface

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P l a s te r: -
A mixture of lime or gypsum, sand and water sometimes with fibre added, that hardened to a
smooth solid and used for coating walls and ceiling.
Ma te ri a l s us e d in pl a s te r: -
 Ordinary Portland cement (OPC)
 Lime or clay powder
 Aggregates
 Water
 Admixtures (Optional)
Tool s us e d i n pla s te ri ng: -
1. Plasterer’s trowel:- Tools to scoop the plaster and apply it on the wall.
2. Scraper:- To roughen the plaster surface for preparation of finishing plaster (sometime worker use
their trowels to roughen the plaster applied)
3. The hawk:- To hold or acts as a small reservoir for the pl;aster, while plasterer apply plaster to the
wall.
4. Large bucket:- For mixing of plaster to take place.
5. Angle bending:- for much easier and neater corner.
6. Mixture:- For mixing purpose, better if it is a electrical motorized mixture for best mixing process.

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O bje c ti ve of pl a s te ri ng: -
 To provide even, smooth, regular, clean and durable finished surface with improved appearance.
 To preserve and protect the surface.
 To cover up the use of porous materials of the masonry work.
 To conceal defective workmanship.
P rope rti e s of good pl a s te r: -
1. It should be hard and durable.
2. It should be possible to apply it during all weather conditions.
3. It should adhere to the background and it should remain adhere during all climatic changes.
4. It should be cheap and economical.
5. It should offer good sound insulation.
6. It should be high resistant to fire.
7. It should effectively check the penetration of moisture from the surface.
T ype s of pl a s te ri ng: -
There are different types of plasters are available such as:
1. Lime plaster
2. Cement plaster
3. Mud plaster
4. Stucco plaster
1 . Li m e p l a st e r : -
 When lime is used as a binding material it is called lime plaster.
 Lime plaster is a type of plaster composed of hydrated lime, sand and water.
 Lime plaster is similar to lime mortar, the main difference is based on use rather than composition.
 Mortar for lime plaster is usually prepared by mixing sand and lime in equal proportions, to improve
the strength small quantity of cement is added to it.

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2 . C e m e nt pl a s t er : -
 When cement is used as a binding material it is called cement plaster.
 It is specially suited for damp condition.
 Cement plaster is usually applied in one coat.
 Thickness of coat can be 12 – 15mm or 20mm depending upon site conditions and type of building.
 6mm thickness of plastering of 1:3 or 1:4 Ratio is recommended for cement plastering of RCC
surfaces.

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3 . M u d pl a s t er : -
 The surface to be prepared exactly in the same manner as that of for lime plaster or cement plaster.
 Mud plaster is generally applied in two coats, the first coat being 18mm thick while the thickness of
second coat kept 6mm.

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4 . S t u c c o p l as t e r : -
 Stucco is the name given to decorative type of plaster which gives an excellent finish.
 Stucco plaster can be used for interior as well as exterior surfaces.
 It is usually laid in three coats making the total thickness of plaster about 25mm. The first coat is
called scratch coat, the second coatis called fine coat, it is also known as brown coat and the third
coat is called white coat or finishing coat.

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T ype s of fi ni s hing: -
1. Smooth cast
2. Pebble dash
3. Rough cast
4. Texture finish
5. Scrapped finish
1 . S m o ot h c a st : -
 It is a finish which presents levelled and smooth surface.
 The mortar for finish is made by mixing of cement and fine sand in the ratio of 1:3.
2 . P e b b l e d a s h: -
 It is a finish in which the small pebbles or crushed stones of suitable size are throne on to a freshly
applied finish coat of plaster and left exposed.
 The mortar finish is made by cement and coarse aggregate of 1:3 ratio.
3 . R o u g h c a st : -
 It is a finish in which the mortar for the final coat contains a proportion of fairly big size coarse
aggregates.
 The mortar for finishing is made by mixing cement, fine sand and coarse aggregate in the ratio of 1:
1/2:3

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4 . T e xt u r e d f i ni sh : -
 In this finish ornamental patterns or textured surface are produced by working with various tools in
the freshly applied final coat.
De fe c ts i n pla s te ri ng: -
1. Cracking
2. Efflorescence
3. Falling out of plaster
4. Blowing of plaster
Cracking:- Appears on the plastered surface in the form of hair cracks or wider cracks, it is due
to old surface is not properly dressed, bad workmanship or due to expansion and shrinkage in the
plaster during drying.
Efflorescence:- It is soluble salts are present in the plaster making materials or bricks. They
appear on the plastered surface in whitish patches and produced ugly appearance.
Blistering:- Small patches well out beyond the plastered surface like boils.
Falling out of plaster:- Due to excessive thermal variation in plaster, inadequate bonds between
the coats of plaster and due to imperfect adhesion of the plaster to the background
P re ve nti on of d e fe c ts: -
Cracking:- it can be avoided by continuous damping of the plaster in order to slow down any
rapid drying, to prevent the cracking from happening.

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cracks in plastering
Efflorescence:- It may removed by brushing and washing of the surface for several times
Blistering:- usually caused due to uneven mixing of plaster, which would be prevented by
ensuring a sufficient mixing between cement and it’s components to form plaster.
Falling out of plaster:- thermal variation can be minimized by means of water sprinkling
method on the surface of the wall to reduce excessive thermal differences. For the case of
inadequate binding, it can be prevented by ensuring plaster are plastic (workable) enough to stick
into the wall. Imperfect adhesion can be minimized by art of good workmanship.
Ensure to apply enough pressure to the plaster while plastering, to ensure the plaster mortar goes
into any deep irregular surfaces and cover the the holes if any present in wall as much as
possible.
Difference between Wet and Dry process of cement

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W et p r o c e s s
1. Mixing of Raw materials in wash mill with 35 to 50% water.
2. Materials exiting the mill are called “slurry” and have flow-ability characteristics.
3. Size of the kiln needed for manufacturing of cement is bigger.
4. Raw material can be mixed easily, so a better homogeneous material can be obtained
5. Fuel consumption is high i.e., 350 kg of coal per tonne of cement produced.
6. Cost of production is high.

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Capital cost (Cost of establishment) is comparatively less.
D r y p r oc e s s
1. Mixing of raw material in dry state in blenders.
2. The dry materials exiting the mill are called “kiln feed”.
3. Size of the kiln needed for manufacturing of cement is smaller.
4. Difficult to control mixing of Raw materials, so it is difficult to obtain a better homogeneous
material.
5. Fuel consumption is low i.e., 100 kg of coal per tonne of cement produced.
6. Cost of production is less.
7. Capital cost is high due to blenders.
W h i c h o n e i s b et t e r ?
If we consider the quality and rate then wet process is better and if we
consider fuel consumption and time of process then dry process is better.
Difference between dry and wet process in table form:-

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D r y p r oc e s s
Wet process
1. Mixing of raw material in dry state in
blenders.
1. Mixing of Raw materials in wash mill with
35 to 50% water.
2. The dry materials exiting the mill are
called “kiln feed”.
2. Materials exiting the mill are called
“slurry” and have flowability characteristics.
3. Fuel consumption is low i.e., 100 kg of
coal per tonne of cement produced
3. Fuel consumption is high i.e., 350 kg of
coal per tonne of cement produced
4. Cost of production is less. 4. Cost of production is high
5. Capital cost is high due to blenders.
5. Capital cost (Cost of establishment) is
comparatively less
6. Size of the kiln needed for manufacturing
of cement is smaller.
6. Size of the kiln needed for manufacturing
of cement is bigger.
7. Difficult to control mixing of Raw
materials, so it is difficult to obtain a better
homogeneous material.
7. Raw material can be mixed easily, so a
better homogeneous material can be
obtained
Qualities of Good Bricks

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The good bricks which are used to be used for the construction of important structures should
posses the following qualities:
1. The bricks should be table-moulded. well burnt in kilns, Copper-coloured, free from cracks and
with sharp and square edged. The colour should be uniform and bright.
2. The brick should be uniform in shape and should be of standard size.

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Standard size of bricks
3. The brick should give clear metallic ringing sound when struck with each other.
Striking of bricks with each other
4. the bricks when broken or fractured should show a bright homogeneous and uniform compact
structure free from voids.
5. The brick should not absorb water more than 20% by weight for first class bricks and 22% by
weight for second class bricks, when soaked in cold water for a period of 24 hours.
Bricks soaked in water
6. No brick should have crushing strength below than 5.50 N/mm²

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7. The brick when soaked in water for 24 hours, should not show deposits of white salts when
allowed to dry in shade.
8. It should not break into pieces when dropped flat on hard ground from a height of about one
meter.
9. It should be sufficiently hard. No impression should be left on brick surface, when it is scratched.
10. It should have low thermal conductivity and it should be sound proof.
Process Of Varnishing & characteristics of an ideal varnish
Process Of Varnishing
Application of varnish on wood work is carried out in the following steps
1. Preparation of surface: The wood surface is made smooth by thoroughly rubbing it by means of
sand paper or pumice stone.
2. Knotting: The process of knotting is carried out exactly in the same way as adopted
for painting wood work.
3. Stopping: Stopping is done by means of hot weak glue size so that pores on the surface are filled
up. Alternately, boiled linseed oil can be applied in two coats. The dry surface then be rubbed down
with sand paper.
4. Coat of varnish: On the cleaned surface, two or more coats of varnish are applied. Next coat is
applied only when the previous coat has dried up thoroughly.

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coating of varnish
The desirable characteristics of an ideal varnish are:
1. It should give glossy surface.
2. Should be durable.
3. It should dry rapidly after application.
4. It should not develop cracks after drying.
5. It is commonly used on wooden surfaces.
6. Colour of varnish should not fade away with time.
7. It should not hide the natural grain of inner surface of timber.
Types of Varnishes

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Based on the different solvents used, varnishes are classified under the following categories:
Water Varnish
They consists of lac dissolved in hot water with borax, ammonia, potash or soda just enough to
dissolve the lac. Varnish so made withstands washing. It is used for painting wall paper and for
delicate work.
They are used for varnishing wall paper, maps, pictures, book jackets for delicate work.

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Polyurethane Varnish
These varnishes are typically hard, Absorption resistant and durable coating.
They are popular for hardwood floors but are considered by some wood finishers to be difficult
or unsuitable for finishing furniture or other detailed pieces.
Oil Varnish

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These are made by dissolving hard resins like amber or copal in oil. They are slow to dry but are
hardest and most durable of all varnishes. There are suited for being used on exposed surfaces
requiring polishing or frequent cleaning and for superior works.
Turpentine Varnish
These are made from soft resins like mastic, common resin is dissolved in turpentine oil.
 These varnishes used as solvent in which soft resign such as Gun dammar, mastic and Rosin are
dissolved.
 They dry quickly but not so durable.
 These are cheaper than oil varnishes .

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Spirit Varnish
Varnishes in which spirit is used as a solvent as known as spirited varnish or French Polish. Shellac
is dissolved in spirit and the product is applied in a thin layer. This varnish gives a transparent
finish thus showing the grains of the timber. These however, do not weather well and as such are
used for polishing wood work not exposed to weather.

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Acrylic varnish or Gloss Varnish
Acrylic Varnishes, made from 100% acrylic polymer emulsions, form durable films when dry.
They have excellent flexibility and resistance to chemicals, water, abrasion and ultraviolet
radiation. Use them to provide lasting protection for artwork.

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General Uses of Varnish

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Uses of varnish:
1. Varnishes can be used to protect wooden surfaces like windows, doors, floors and roof trusses from
atmosphere.
2. Different varnishes exist for specific needs. Oil varnish, consisting of a solvent and a drying oil, is the
preferred choice for woodwork.
3. Spirit varnish, partially comprised of alcohol that creates a protective film upon evaporation, is most
often used on musical instruments.
4. Natural varnish, made from tree sap, is routinely used as a maintenance coating to previously
varnished items.
Difference between Distemper and Paint
5. Distemper is an early form of whitewash, also used as a medium for artistic painting,
usually made from powdered chalk or lime and size (a gelatinous substance). Alternatives
to chalk include the toxic substance white lead.
6. Distempered surfaces can be easily marked and discoloured, and cannot be washed down,
so distemper is best suited to temporary and interior decoration. The technique of
painting on distempered surfaces blends watercolors with whiting and glue.
7. Paint is a liquid, liquifiable, or mastic composition which after application to a substrate
in a thin layer is converted to an opaque solid film.
8. Paint is used to protect, decorate (such as adding color), or add functionality to an object
or surface by covering it with a pigmented coating. An example of protection is to retard
corrosion of metal. An example of decoration is to add festive trim to a room interior. An
example of added functionality is to modify light reflection or heat radiation of a surface.

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Types of paints Used in Construction
Depending upon their constituents there are various types of paints. A brief description of some of
them which are commonly used are given below:
1. Oil Paint:
2. These paints are applied in three coats-primer, undercoat and finishing coat. The presence of
dampness while applying the primer adversely affect the life of oil paint. This paint is cheap and
easy to apply.

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3. Enamel Paint:
It contains white lead, oil, petroleum spirit and resinous material. The surface provided by it resists
acids, alkalies and water very well. It is desirable to apply a coat of titanium white before the coat of
enamel is applied. It can be used both for external and internal walls.
4. Emulsion Paint: It contains binding materials such as polyvinyl acetate, synthetic resins etc. It dries
in 1 1 2 2 hours and it is easy to apply. It is more durable and can be cleaned with water. For
plastered surfaces, first a coat of cement paint should be applied and then the emulsion point.
Emulsion paint needs sound surfaces.

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5. Cement Paint: It is available in powder form. It consists of white cement, pigment and other additives.
It is durable and exhibits excellent decorative appearance. It should be applied on rough surfaces
rather than on smooth surfaces. It is applied in two coats. First coat is applied on wet surface but free
from excess water and allowed to dry for 24 hours. The second coat is then applied which gives good
appearance.
6. Bituminous Paints: This type of paint is manufactured by dissolving asphalt or vegetable bitumen in
oil or petroleum. It is black in colour. It is used for painting iron works underwater.

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7. Synthetic Rubber Paint: This paint is prepared from resins. It dries quickly and is little affected by
weather and sunlight. It resists chemical attack well. This paint may be applied even on fresh
concrete. Its cost is moderate and it can be applied easily.
8. Aluminium Paint: It contains finely ground aluminium in spirit or oil varnish. It is visible in darkness
also. The surfaces of iron and steel are protected well with this paint. It is widely used for painting
gas tanks, water pipes and oil tanks.
9. Anti-corrosive Paint: It consists essentially of oil, a strong dier, lead or zinc chrome and finely ground
sand. It is cheap and resists corrosion well. It is black in colour. Application of Paint Preparation of
surface for application of paint is the most important part in painting. The surface to be painted
should not be oily and it should be from flakes of the old paint. Cracks in the surface should be filled
with putty and then with sand paper. Then primer is applied. Painting work should be carried out in

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dry weather. The under coats and first coats must be allowed to dry before final coat is applied.
LAMINATED GLASS PROPERTIES & MANUFACTURING PROCESS
In 1909, a French chemist Edouard Benedictus, invented laminated glass and called it
“Triplex”. The process bonds two sheets of glass using a sheet of transparent plastic, producing
a safety glass. If the glass is broken by an impact, the plastic retains the fragments. The process
is used for automobile windshields but can be also applied for laminated sidelites and
laminated backlites.
Applications Mandatory for Windshields and available for the rest of the car.
Features If struck or impacted, the glass cracks in the shape of a spider’s web.
The interlayer PVB holds the glass fragments together.
Here are some features of laminated glass :

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Security : This is the biggest reason why people want to install laminated glass. It is simply
harder to break and therefore more secure.
Safety : In the event that a child in your home throws something that hits your window, it is
less likely to break. Therefore, the child is safer.
Sound reduction : Laminated glass does not allow as much sound to get through as does
regular glass, meaning your home will be quieter because there will be fewer outside sounds
getting through.
Protection from adverse weather conditions : People who live in areas that are prone to
hurricanes or tornado can rest assured that the security glass will be less susceptible to wind
and hail.
Durability : Security glass windows will need to be replaced less often than regular glass
windows. It simply lasts longer.
Type of glass Clear, tinted, deep tinted and coated glass
Spectral data See table below for average values given for a glass configuration of 2.1 mm
(outer pane) // 2.1 mm (inner pane). Tolerances depend on production and measurement
methods.
Material properties:
Hardness 470 HK
Index of refraction 1.52
Temperature resistance At least 96 Hours at 90°C
Properties Annealed Tempered Laminated
Alteration Possible Not possible Possible
Risk of Injury High Low Low
Impact Resistance Low High Low
Optical Distortion Low High Low

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Environment
Control
No No
Yes, protects from UV
rays
Acoustic Insulation No No Yes
Heat Insulation No
Yes with reflective
coating
Yes with reflective
coating
The manufacturing process for laminated glass:
Automotive windows are usually made from laminated glass for windshields and tempered
glass for sidelites and backlites. Laminated glazing can also be used for sidelites and backlites,
mainly to improve safety and security.
TEMPERED MONOLITHIC GLASS PROPERTIES & MANUFACTURING PROCESS

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The “Securit” tempering process was discovered in Saint-Gobain’s laboratories in 1929, in the
course of research undertaken at the request of the automobile industry. The process, which
consists of strengthening the glass by very fast blast cooling (from 600 to 300° C in a few
seconds), is used to make automobile, building, and specialty flat glass. Tempered glass is also a
safety glass. A violent impact shatters tempered glass into many tiny non-cutting fragments
Applications Generally, all windows except for the windshield. Type of glass Clear, tinted and
deep tinted glass Standard thickness : 3, 4, 5mm Spectral data See table below for average values
given for a thickness of 3.15mm. Tolerances depend on production and measurement methods.
TL/RL: Light transmission / reflection, type of light A, 2°, daylight viewing 380-780 nm
TE/RE: Energy transmission / reflection, Parry Moon, mass 2, 280-2500nm
TIR/RIR: Infrared transmission / reflection, Parry moon, mass 2, 780-2500nm
TUV: UV transmission, Schulze, ISO 9050, 280-380 nm
Physical and chemical properties:-
Density 2500 kg/m3
Hardness 470 HK
Modulus of elasticity 70 000 MPa

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Bending strength after tempering 100-120 MN/m2
Specific heat 0.8 J/g/K
Thermal conductivity 0.8 W/mk
Temperature coefficient of expansion 9.10-6 K -1
The manufacturing process for tempered glass
Saint-Gobain Sekurit tempered glass is produced in the following stages:
Step1. Glass pre- processing:
Step2. Glass pre- processing:
Step3. Forming:
Automotive windows are usually made from laminated glass for windshields and tempered glass
for sidelites and backlites. Laminated glazing can also be used for sidelites and backlites, mainly
to improve safety and security.
Types of Glass & it’s Mechanical properties

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The glass may be broadly classified as:
1. Soda-lime glass
2. Potash lime glass
3. Potash lead glass
4. Common glass and

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5. Special glasses.
1. Soda Lime Glass:
It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate and calcium silicate. It is fusible at low temperature. In
the fusion condition it can be blown or welded easily. It is colourless. It is used as window panes
and for the laboratory tubes and apparatus.
2. Potash Lime Glass:
It is mainly a mixture of potassium silicate and calcium silicate. It is also known as hard glass. It
fuses at high temperature. It is used in the manufacture of glass articles which have to withstand
high temperatures.
3. Potash Lead Glass:
It is mainly a mixture of potassium silicate and lead silicate. It possesses bright lustre and great
refractive power. It is used in the manufacture of artificial gems, electric bulbs, lenses, prisms
etc.
4. Common Glass:
It is mainly a mixture of sodium silicate, calcium silicate and iron silicate. It is brown, green or
yellow in colour. It is mainly used in the manufacture of medicine bottles.
5. Special Glasses:
Properties of glasses can be suitably altered by changing basic ingredients and adding few more
ingredients. It has now emerged as versatile material to meet many special requirement in
engineering.
The following is the list of some of the special glasses:
(a) Fibre glass
(b) Foam glass
(c) Bullet proof glass
(d) Structural glass
(e) Glass black
(f) Wired glass
(g) Ultraviolet ray glass

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(h) Perforated glass.
ME CH ANI C AL P RO P E RTI E S
Density
2500 kg/m3
A 4mm thick pane of glass weighs 10kg/m2
Hardness
470 HK
The hardness of float glass is established according to Knoop. The basis
is the test method given in DIN 52333 (ISO 9385).
Compression
resistance
800 – 1000 MPa
The compression strength defines the ability of a material to resist a
load applied vertically to its surface
Modulus of
elasticity
70 000 MPa
The modulus of elasticity is either determined from the elastic
elongation of a thin bar, or from bending a bar with a round or
rectangular cross section.
Bending
strength
45 MPa
The bending strength of a material is a measure of its resistance during
deflection. It is determined by bending tests on glass plate using the
double ring method according to DIN EN 1288-5.
The main characteristics of glass are transparency, heat resistance, pressure and breakage
resistance and chemical resistance.
High Alumina Cement & It’s advantage, disadvantage and Applications

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High Alumina Cement (HAC, sometimes known as calcium aluminate cement (CAC) or
aluminous cement) is composed of calcium aluminates, unlike Portland cement which is composed
of calcium silicates. It is manufactured from limestone or chalk and bauxite.

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High alumina cement
Compos i ti on:
The main active constituent of calcium aluminate cements is monocalcium aluminate (CaAl2O4,
CaO, Al2O3, or CA in the cement chemist notation). It usually contains other calcium aluminates as
well as a number of less reactive phases deriving from impurities in the raw materials. Rather a
wide range of compositions is encountered, depending on the application and the purity of
aluminium source used. Constituents of some typical formulations include:

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Ad va n ta ge s of Hi gh Al umi na C e me nt
1. The initial setting time of this cement is more than 3.5 hours. The final setting setting time is about 5
hours. It therefore allows more time for mixing and placing operations.
2. It can stand high temperature.
3. It evolves great heat during setting. It is therefore not affected by frost.
4. It resists the action of acids in a better way.
5. It sets quickly and attains higher ultimate strength in a short period. Its strength after 1 day is about
40 N/mm2 and that after 3 days is about 50 N/mm2.
6. Its setting action mainly depends on the chemical reactions and hence it is not necessary to grind it
to fine powder.

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Di s a dva nta ge s of Hi gh Al umi na Ce me nt
Following are the disadvantages of High Alumina cement:
1. The extreme care is to be taken to see that it doesn’t come in contact with even traces of lime or
ordinary cement.
2. It cannot be used in mass construction as it evolves great heat as it sets soon.
3. It is costly
A p p lica t ion s of Hi gh Al umi na Ce me nt
1. HAC is also used in refractory concretes where it requires more strength at very high temperature.
2. In construction concretes, where rapid strength development is required, even at low
temperatures.
3. As a protective liner against microbial corrosion such as in sewer infrastructure
4. As a component in blended cement formulations, for various properties such as ultra-rapid strength
development and controlled expansion are required.
5. In sewer networks for their high resistance to biogenic sulfide corrosion.
Glass & It’s properties
Silica is the main constituent of glass. But it is to be added with sodium potassium carbonate to
bring down melting point. To make it durable lime or lead oxide is also added. Manganese oxide
is added to nullify the adverse effects of unwanted iron present in the impure silica. The raw

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materials are ground and sieved. They are mixed in specific proportion and melted in furnace.
Then glass items are manufactured by blowing, flat drawing, rolling and pressing.
At first thought to possess magical properties, glass has come a long way. It is one of the most
versatile and oldest materials in the building industry.
Important Properties of Glass:
1. It absorbs, refracts or transmits light. It can be made transparent or translucent.
2. It can take excellent polish.
3. It is an excellent electrical insulator.
4. It is strong and brittle.
5. It can be blown, drawn or pressed.
6. It is not affected by atmosphere.
7. It has excellent resistance to chemicals.
8. It is available in various beautiful colours.
9. With the advancement in technology, it is possible to make glass lighter than cork or stronger than
steel.
10. Glass panes can be cleaned easily.
Paints & It’s Constituents
Paints are applied on the surfaces of timber, metals and plastered surfaces as a protective layer and
at the same time to get pleasant appearance. Paints are applied in liquid form and after sometime
the volatile constituent evaporates and hardened coating acts as a protective layer.
Constituents of Paint
The essential constituents of paints are:
1. Base
2. A vehicle
3. A pigment

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4. A drier
5. A thinner
Bases:
It is a principal constituent of paint. It also possesses the binding properties. It forms an opaque
coating. Commonly used bases for paints are white lead, red lead, zinc oxide, iron oxide,
titanium white, aluminium powder and lithophone. A lead paint is suitable for painting iron and
steel works, as it sticks to them well. However it is affected by atmosphere action and hence
should not be used as final coat. While zinc forms good base but is costly.
Lithophone, which is a mixture of zinc sulphate and barytes, is cheap. It gives good appearance
but is affected by day light. Hence it is used for interior works only.
Vehicles:
The vehicles are the liquid substances which hold the ingredients of a paint in liquid suspension
and allow them to be applied on the surface to be painted. Linseed oil, Tung oil and Nut oil are
used as vehicles in paints. Of the above four oils, linseed oil is very commonly used vehicles.
Boiling makes the oil thicker and darker. Linseed oil reacts with oxygen and hardens by forming
a thin film.
Pigment:
Pigments give required colour for paints. They are fine particles and have a reinforcing effect on
thin film of the paint. The common pigments for different colours are:
Black—Lamp black, suit and charcoal black.
Red—venedion red, red lead and Indian red.
Brown—burned timber, raw and burned sienna
Green—chrome green, copper sulphate.
Blue—prussian blue and ultra marine
Yellow—ochre and chrome yellow.
The Drier:
These are the compounds of metal like lead, manganese, cobalt. The function of a drier is to
absorb oxygen from the air and supply it to the vehicle for hardening. The drier should not be
added until the paint is about to be used. The excess drier is harmful because it destroys elasticity
and causes flaking.

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The Thinner:
It is known as solvent also. It makes paint thinner and hence increases the coverage. It helps in
spreading paint uniformly over the surface Terpentine and neptha are commonly used thinners.
After paint applied, thinner evaporates and paint dries.
Uses of Plastics
There are variety of plastics made to suit different uses. The typical uses of plastics in buildings is
listed below:
1. Corrugated and plain sheets for roofing.
2. For making jointless flooring.
3. Flooring tiles.
4. Overhead water tanks.
5. Bath and sink units.
6. Cistern hall floats.
7. Decorative laminates and mouldings.
8. Window and door frames and shutters for bathroom doors.
9. Lighting fixtures.
10. Electrical conduits.
11. Electrical insulators.
12. Pipes to carry cold waters.
Distemper’s & It’s properties

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Distempers are the cheaper variety of paints in which chalk is used as base and water is used as a
carrier. The emulsifying agent which is commonly used is glue or casein. Distempers are available
in powder form or in the form of paste.
They are to be mixed with hot water before use. The surface to be distempered should be
thoroughly rubbed and cleaned. The cracks, if any should be filled by lime putty. The surface
should be kept dry for about two months before applying distemper. Thus a primary coat is applied
and is allowed to dry. Distemper is usually applied in two coats.
Properties of Distemper

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1. They are generally light in colour.
2. The coatings are generally thick.
3. They give reflective coating.
4. They are less durable than oil paints but are cheaper.
Properties of an Ideal Paint
what is paint?
paint is a coloured substance which is spread over a surface and dries to leave a thin decorative
or protective coating.
An ideal paint should have following properties
1. It should be possible to apply easily and freely.
2. It should dry in reasonable time.
3. It should form hard and durable surface.
4. It should not be harmful to the health of workers.
5. It should not be easily affected by atmosphere.
6. It should possess attractive and pleasing appearance.
7. It should form a thin film of uniform nature i.e., it should not crack.
8. It should possess good spreading power.
9. It should be cheap.
Types of plastics & It’s properties

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Plastic is an organic material prepared out of resin. It may or may not contain fillers, plasticisers
and solvents. Plastic may be defined as a natural or synthetic organic material which are having
the property of being plastic at some stage of their manufacture when they can be moulded to
required size and shape.
Shellac and bitumen are the natural resins used as plastic for a long time. In 1907, Blackland
produced synthetic resin from the reaction of phenol and formaldehyde. The resin was hardened
under pressure and heat to produce useful plastic articles.
Typ e s o f P la st ics
Primarily there are two types of plastics:
1. Thermosetting
2. Thermoplastic
Thermosetting Plastics: It needs momentary heated condition and great pressure during shaping.
When heated cross linkage is established between the molecules and chemical reaction takes place.
During this stage shape can be changed with pressure. This change is not reversible. The scrap of
such plastic is not reusable. Bakelite is an example of such plastic.

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Thermoplastic: In this variety, the linkage between the molecules is very loose. They can be softened by
heating repeatedly. This property helps for reuse of waste plastic. These plastic need time to cool down
and harden. These plastics are to be kept in moulds till cooling takes place completely. Bitumen,
cellulose and shellac are the examples of this variety of plastics.
P ro p e rt ie s o f P last ics
1. Colour: Some plastics are completely transparent. Using pigments plastics of any attractive colour
can be produced.
2. Dimensional Stability: It is dimensionally stable to a great extent.
3. Durability: Plastic offers great resistance to moisture and chemicals and hence more durable.
4. Electrical Insulation: The plastics possess excellent electrical insulating property.
5. Fire Resistance: The phenol-formaldehyde and urea-formaldehyde plastics resist fire to a great
extent and hence they are used as fire proofing materials.
6. Strength: The plastics are reasonably strong. Their strength may be increased by reinforcing with
various fibrous materials. Attempts are being made to produce structurally sound plastics.
7. Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of plastics is very low and hence convenient to handle.
8. Ductility: The plastics are not ductile and hence they fail without giving warning.
9. Fixing: Plastics can be bolted, drilled, glued, clamped or simply push fitted in position.
10. Maintenance: There is no maintenance cost for plastic articles i.e., they do not need painting and
polishing.
Different Types Of Bonds In Brick Masonry

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BRICK MASONRY
Brick masonry is built with bricks bonded together with mortar. For temporary sheds mud mortar
may be used but for all permanent buildings lime or cement mortars are used. The various types
of bonds generally used in brick masonry are
1. Stretcher bond
2. Header bond
3. English bond and
4. Flemish bond.
1. Stretcher Bond:
A stretcher is the longer face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In the brick of size 190 mm ×
90 mm × 90 mm, 190 mm × 90 mm face is the stretcher. In stretcher bond masonry all the bricks
are arranged in stretcher courses care should be taken to break vertical joints. This type of
construction is useful for the
construction half brick thick partition wall.

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Fig:-Stretcher Bond
2.Header Bond:
A header is the shorter face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In a standard brick it is 90 mm
× 90 mm face. In header bond brick masonry all the bricks are arranged in the header courses as
shown in Fig. 8.5. This type of bond is useful for the construction of one brick thick walls.
Fig:-Header Bond
3. English Bond:
In this alternate courses consist of headers and stretchers. This is considered to be the strongest
bond. Hence it is commonly used bond for the walls of all thicknesses. To break continuity of

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vertical joints a brick is cut lengthwise into two halves and used in the beginning and end of a wall
after first header. This is called queen closer.
Fig:-English Bond
4. Flemish Bond:
In this type of bond each course comprises of alternate header and stretcher Alternate courses
start with stretcher and header. To break the vertical joints queen closers are required, if a course
starts with header. Every header is centrally supported on the stretcher below it. Flemish bonds
may be further classified as
(a) Double Flemish Bond
(b) Single Flemish Bond.
In case of double flemish bond, both faces of the wall have flemish look, i.e. each course consist
of alternate header and stretcher, whereas single flemish bond outer faces of walls have flemish
look whereas inner faces have look of English bond. Construction of flemish bond needs greater
skill.
It gives more pleasing appearance. But it is not as strong as English bond. If only pointing is to
be used for finished wall, flemish bond may be used to get good aesthetic view. If plastering is
going to be used, it is better to use English bond.

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Fig:-flemish Bond
Other Types of bonds are:
1. Facing bond
2. Dutch bond
3. English cross bond
4. Brick on edge bond
5. Raking bond
6. Zigzag bond
7. Garden wall bond