Energy_Management

Integration and design of renewable energies into new housing developments

Integration and design of renewable
energies into new housing developments

Energy Management 2011-12
Sergio Arenas Gayoso

1


Index

1-Introduction Pag. 3

2-Scheme tariff Pag. 3

3-Integration of renewable energies Pag. 4

3.1-Photovoltaic system Pag. 4

3.1.1-Justification Pag. 4

3.1.2-Technical considerations to bear in mind for installing PV systems Pag. 4

3.1.3- Design and implementation strategy for a photovoltaic system Pag. 5

3.1.3.1-Incident solar radiation Pag. 5

3.1.3.2-Household electrical energy consumption Pag. 6

3.1.3.3-Modules and battery required Pag. 6

3.1.3.4-Final design Pag. 7

3.1.4-Payback Pag. 7

3.2-Wind power Pag. 8

3.2.1-Justification Pag. 8

3.2.2-Required data for installing wind power domestic systems Pag. 8

3.2.3-Design and implementation strategy for a wind power domestic system Pag. 10

3.2.3.1-Kind of turbine Pag. 10

3.2.3.2-Number of turbines required Pag. 11

3.2.4-Payback Pag. 12

4-Final scheme Pag. 12

5-Conclusion Pag. 13

6-References Pag. 13

Number of words (excluding figures/tables and references):2235

2


1-Introduction

A housing developer is interested in the integration of renewable energies into its new
housing developments. The developer is currently at the planning stage of a small site in
West Yorkshire which will consist of affordable 2-bedroom homes. It comprises 4 housing
“blocks” in addition to a significant area for communal parking.

Acting as a consultant to the developer, the renewable energy sources which could be
applied will be considered and they will benefit from one the UK tariff schemes.

The case will be built for the technologies chosen, highlighting the importance of the
respective scheme in addition to the economic, societal and environmental benefits. It will
be also suggested a design or implementation strategy for deploying the chosen
technologies on the site, so some basic calculus will be required as well as and concise
rationale for the choices.

2-Scheme tariff

For this work, has been suggested the Feed in Tariffs (FITs) scheme. The reason for this
choice it is because the Renewable Heat Incentive (RHI) has been discarded as the long-
term tariff support is targeted in the non-domestic sectors even though it will be also applied
to the domestic sector by the end of 2012 (DECC, 2011a;b).

Figure1. PV systems and wind power systems are
only available under the FITs scheme

The fact that the RHI tariffs level have not been
determined yet as well as other issues around the
operation of this scheme, couple with the need to install renewable energies with a degree of
tariff security, have been the deciding factors to go for the FITs scheme as solution for this
case. With this system, it will not only be boosted the installation of this kind of energy
sources (apart from the evident improvement on the environmental issue), but also the future
householders will be paid for the electricity produced, and their electricity bill be significantly
reduced as well.

Because certain members of the future community work in the green sector, they have
knowledge of wind and solar energy, so they would like to install them whenever possible
and site conditions were favorable. Obviously technical expert advice would be required

A communal photovoltaic panels and wind micro-turbines with a communal monthly bill to be
paid among the owners could be a possible solution, as the more power installed, the
cheaper it is. However, due to the different consumption every household has, an
individualized distribution is finally suggested.

3


3-Integration of renewable energies

3.1-Photovoltaic system

It is widely recognized that photovoltaic (PV) technology can provide an effective electricity
supply with low environmental impact and the use of PV in electricity supply systems is
growing rapidly. However, the potential contribution of PV to the overall electricity demand of
a country, like England, is highly dependent on both the prevailing climatic conditions and
the nature of the electricity supply and demand within that country (Pearsall et al, 1994).

3.1.1-Justification

In recent years, with the growing pressure on reducing fossil fuel dependence and CO2
emission to environment, integration of PV modules into building construction has become a
common practice (Schoen, 2001). The United Kingdom (UK) faces significant challenges in
the coming years to meet its objective of reducing its CO2 emissions by at least 80% by
2050 against a 1990 baseline, and with significant progress to be made by 2020 (OPSI,
2008). The UK domestic building sector, as this example, currently constitutes around 30%
of the UK’s final energy demand and about 23% of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
(Hammond et al, 2011).

3.1.2-Technical considerations to bear in mind for installing PV systems

Optimum PV inclination and orientation depends on local climate, load consumption
temporal profile and latitude (Kern and Harris, 1975; Tsalides and Thanailakis, 1985; Bari,
2000). Generally, a surface with tilt angle equal to the latitude of a location receives
maximum insolation. Normally, during summer, the incident insolation is maximised for a
surface with an inclination 10-15o less than the latitude and, during winter, 10-15o more than
the latitude (Duffie and Beckman, 1991). However, for this particular case, the panels will be
always orientated 35o south, as they have not tracking system.

PV modules are usually installed on building facade or roof, which creates a warmer interior
thermal condition than that mounted in the free air, and results in a less efficient electrical
performance, which it could be ideal for the Yorkshire area. Currently, the PV electrical
efficiency is in the range 6–15%, which is a value measured at the Nominal Operating Cell
Temperature (NOCT) (Messenger and Ventre, 2003).

Figure 2. A typical I-V curve
for a photovoltaic cell.
Temperature effects on the
I-V curve

4


3.1.3- Design and implementation strategy for a photovoltaic system

The system simulation will use as a data base the UK climate conditions (Weather2, 2011)
and the calculus simulation will be based on the Technical Building Code (TBC) of Spain
(2009 and 2011) as well as on the Institute for Energy Diversification and Saving of Energy
(IDAE) of Spain (2009). It is clear that use of the same systems at latitudes with higher levels
of solar radiation will improve the performance and make it possible to cover loads with
smaller and less expensive systems (Sørensen, 2004). Table 1 shows the initial data for this
case.

Table 1. Input data for the case of study

Area West Yorkshire
o
Latitude 53 45’
Climate area * I
Building 4 housing “blocks” (2-bedroom homes)
Panels orientation ** South
o
Panels Inclination *** 35
Possible shadows No shadows ****
* It has been assumed that this climate zone, belonging to a specific area of the North of Spain, has similar
characteristics to the West Yorkshire area (TBC, 2011).
** Heat transfer through walls and openings depends on site location of the building, receiving surfaces and
orientation (Bekkouche et al, 2011). It is an accepted common practice to install flat solar systems facing south
(or north, in the southern hemisphere). In this way, the collector is exposed to the largest amount of total radiation
during the day, so that the energy output of the system is maximized (if the energy demand is made during the
last hours of sunshine) (Sokolov and Vaxman, 1988); All the houses are facing the south but the block one, so a
o
special structure should be placed on its roof. An inclination of 35 improves solar generation heat in winter, as
the Sun in this station has a lower trajectory in the sky.
*** For a typical UK roof pitch of 15-50, and for SE to SW facing installations, the energy available will be
increased by approximately 10–15% from these values (BSI, 1989).
**** No shading from surrounding buildings or trees.

3.1.3.1-Incident solar radiation

To design this system is required the daily incident solar radiation (IE), in order to
considerate the most unfavorable month (lowest incident solar radiation) as the technic
specifications will be based on it (table 2).

Table 2. Incident solar radiation

Months
J F M A My Jn Jl Ag S O N D
o
IEday(35 )*
0.92 1.61 2.6 3.69 4.45 4.28 4.65 4.29 3.46 2.26 1.31 0.75
(kWh/m2day)
days 31 28 31 30 31 30 31 31 30 31 30 31
IEmonth** 28.45 45.17 80.52 110.64 137.92 128.4 144 132.99 103.81 70.06 39.24 23.37
* IEday (0o) has been calculated considering monthly solar radiation from IDAE tables (2009); IEday (35o) has been
o o
calculated with a k (35 ) factor for every month, from IDAE tables (2009) as the inclination of the panels is 35
** It agrees with Suri et al (2007) as the global irradiation received annually (assuming no shading) on a
2
horizontal surface in the West Yorkshire area could be 900–1000 kWh/m

5


3.1.3.2-Household electrical energy consumption

The table 3, shows average electric consumption considering different devices.

Table 3. Average electrical energy consumption*

Kind of item Units Power (W) h/d Consumption (Wh/d)
Light bulb 10 18 3 540
Light bulb 2 2 8 32
TV 2 50 2 200
Radio 2 20 1 40
PC 3 80 5 1200
Microwave 1 600 0.25 150
Fridge 1 100 - 400
Washing machine 1 150 1 150
Dishwater 1 150 1 150
Total 1564 2862
* IDAE, 2009

It has been assumed a 0.9 power output of the inverter (standard technic specification) and
a PV system with the technic specifications showed in table 4.

Table 4. Average technical specifications of a PV system*

Power rating (Pr) 150 Wp
Voltage rating 24 V
Safety factor (Sf) 1.3
Size 1590x790x39.5 mm
* TBC, 2009

3.1.3.3-Modules and battery required

Demand energy (ED) (Wh/d)=2862/0.9=3180 Wh/d → 3.2 kWh/d

Maximum power of the inverter in direct current (DC)=1564/0.9=1740 W

PV power rating (kWp)=(SfED)/IEworst-month=(1.3x3.2)/0.75=5.54 kWp=5546 Wp ≈ 6000 Wp

If the system requires 48VDC, then there will be branches of 2 panels in series (300 Wp).

It is also necessary a battery bank oversized to account for possible 4-5 days of inclement
weather.

Thus, the battery bank capacity should be: ED (Wh/d)/Voltage system=3200/48=66.24 Ah

For four days: 66.24x4=265 Ah; with a 80% output → 331.25 Ah

Tables 5 and 6 show the final power and area required.

6


Table 5. Number of PV panels and power required

1 house PV = 6000 Wp → 20 panels
1 block 40 panels
4 blocks 160 panels (48 kWp)

Table 6. Total area required for installing de PV panels

2
1 panel 1590x790 mm = 1.25 m
2
1 block needs 50 m
2
The residential area needs 200 m

3.1.3.4-Final design

The panels could be placed on the top of the parking spaces if the block roof had not
enough surface. Therefore, the following 20
parking spaces will be used:

West zone: V, V, 18, 19, 27, 28, 36, 37, 20.

South zone: 26, 35, both disabled parking spaces,
V, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17.

(It has been assumed a 10 m2 parking space
roof). Therefore, there will be eight panels in each
parking space designated.

Figure 3. There would be 8 panels in every carport

3.1.4-Payback

Using the calculator given on the Solarguide website (2011) and using the “calculating by
size” mode (6 kWp system), the result is as table 7 shows. It seems that the payback would
be less than 12 years and the profit over 25 years (4.75% AER) would be basically £40000.

Table 7. Payback for the study case

Investment in 5.92kWp System £ 17104.41
First year
Income from Feed-In Generation Tariff: 16.80p/kWh £ 802.05
Income from exporting energy: 3.10p/kWh £ 96.20
Electricity Saving £ 240.62
Total Benefit £ 1138.86
Payback Time 11y 6m
£ 38974.32
Total Profit Over 25 years
9.11% per year (4.75% AER)

7


3.2-Wind power

Urban energy generation such as that produced by small scale wind turbines installed on or
around buildings can be defined as micro-generation (Bahaj and James, 2006). It is
estimated that there is a huge potential to utilise this type of technology in the urban built
environment not only to satisfy demand and provide decentralised generation but also to
help tackle fuel poverty and achieve reductions in emissions (DTI, 2005).

3.2.1-Justification

Micro-scale wind turbines in the UK are an emerging technology driven by advances in
device design, increasing energy prices and the financial incentives offered to aid their
uptake in buildings (Bahaj et al, 2007). The direct benefit in utilising micro-wind turbines in
the built environment is clearly one of sustainable electrical power generation and hence
CO2 abatement and also in financial savings. Indirect benefits are more subtle and span
‘softer’ issues such as pride in housing and increased energy awareness to technical issues
such as generation at point of use and the potential for demand reduction. It can also be
argued that the use of micro-generation technologies when combined with occupier
perception and behaviour can result in further environmental benefits or additionally that
cannot be achieved with traditional supply (ibid).

The UK has the most intense wind energy resource in Europe due to its western location
that is subjected to the main Atlantic weather fronts (Petersen and Troen, 1990). However,
micro-wind turbines will not enjoy as favourable locations as large scale devices due to their
siting at low altitude and in perhaps dense urban terrain.

3.2.2-Required data for installing wind power domestic systems

The following table, shows the kind of data required to install a wind turbine.

Table 8. Annual values for wind speed and frequency*

Average speed (m/s): 7.56**
Height (m): 13***
Direction Frequency (%) Speed (m/s)
N 6 6.68
NE 11 6.17
E 10 8.36
SE 13 6.68
S 10 6.00
SW 24 9.77
W 10 9.2
NW 16 7.51
* Data estimated from www.metoffice.gov.uk for the North West region
** Micro wind turbine looks promising when it is installed in locations having high annual average wind speeds
(>6 m/s) (Li et al, 2011)
*** 13 m would be good for the domestic sector in this case as Bahaj et al, (2007) took their data from 10 m
height. The more height, the more energy production (Alam et al, 2011), but common sense should be taken into
account

With the data above, it is possible to make the wind rose (figures and). It will help in order to
know what is the most probably wind direction and therefore, what should be the micro-
turbines orientation.

8


Figures 4 to 5. Wind rose for most probably direction (4); direction of the maximum speed (5)

N
4 25

NW 20 NE
15
10
5
W 0 E fr (%)

SW SE

S

N
5 10

NW 8 NE
6
4
2
W 0 E V (m/s)

SW SE

S

According to the figures above, it is clear that the micro-turbines should be orientated
towards SW direction.

To know the annual production of one micro-turbine, the data showed in table 9 are required.

9


Table 9. Energy production of a micro-turbine

Speed (m/s) h/year* Power (W)** Production (Wh/year)
1 515.1 1.14 586.88
2 801.3 9.11 7303.68
3 958.7 30.76 29491.93
4 1049.9 72.92 76556.96
5 1210.2 142.42 172355.02
6 1368.9 246.10 336885.45
7 1029.8 390.80 402442.45
8 659.4 583.35 384658.81
9 458.2 830.59 380574.24
10 299.9 1139.35 341690.77
11 190.1 1516.47 288281.62
12 104.9 1968.80 206526.60
13 60.3 2503.15 150939.93
14 30.1 3126.37 94103.85
15 13.9 3845.30 53449.71
16 6.8 4666.77 31734.06
17 1.6 5597.62 8956.19
18 0.9 6644.68 5980.22
19 0 7814.79 0
20 0 9114.79 0
21 0 10551.51 0
22 0 12131.79 0
23 0 13862.46 0
Total (kWh/year) 2972.52
* Data estimated from www.metoffice.gov.uk for the North West region. Considering 8760 h/year
** Power (P), has been estimated using the following relationship P(W)=0.5ρAV 3Cp, where ρ is the density of air
3
(1.23 kg/m ), A is the rotor area (for this case a 2 m diameter rotor has been taken since it is a standard size in
2 2
the market, therefore A=πr =3.14 m ), V is the wind speed (m/s), and Cp is the coefficient of power and is a
dimensionless term that has a theoretical maximum value of 0.59 (Burton et al, 2001).

3.2.3-Design and implementation strategy for a wind power domestic system

3.2.3.1-Kind of turbine

At present there are a number of micro-wind turbines available aimed specifically at
domestic properties. Rated power ranges from 400 W to 1.5 kW. Larger devices are
available but are better suited to larger multiple occupancy buildings. Whereas traditional
horizontal axis rotors seem to be favoured for domestic applications vertical axis devices are
appearing upwards of 1.5 kW rated power (Mertens, 2003).

However, there are some conditions given in the paper of Li et al (2011) which should be in
mind in order to install micro-turbines in the domestic sector. They are the following:

 The turbine shall not be erected on, or attached to, the house or any building or other
structure within its curtilage
 The total height of the turbine shall not exceed 13 m
 The rotor diameter shall not exceed 6 m
 The minimum clearance between the lower tip of the rotor and ground level shall not
be less than 3 m

10


 The supporting tower shall be a distance of not less than the total structure height
(including the blade of the turbine at the highest point of its arc) plus 1 m from any
party boundary
 Noise levels must not exceed 43 dB(A) during normal operation, or in excess of 5
dB(A) above the background noise, whichever is greater, as measured from the
nearest neighbouring inhabited dwelling
 No more than one turbine shall be erected within the curtilage of a house
 No such structure shall be constructed, erected or placed forward of the front wall of
a house
 All turbine components shall have a matt non-reflective finish and the blades shall be
made of material that does not deflect telecommunication signals
 No sign, advertisement or object not required for the functioning or safety of the
turbine shall be attached to, or exhibited on, the wind turbine.

Taken these points into account, the turbines will be placed in the area open ground on the
right of the residence area.

Figure 6. Several micro-wind turbines (T-D and L–R): Windsave (1 kW 1.75 m diameter); renewable
devices swift turbine (2.1 m diameter 1.5 kW); Turby vertical axis (2.6 m high, 2 m diameter, 2.5
kW); D400 StealthGen (400 W1.1 m diameter)

3.2.3.2-Number of turbines required

Assuming that the demand trend and annual electricity consumption in the UK is around
6000-8000 kWh/year (Bahaj and James, 2004; Li et al, 2011) and considering that the PV
system supplies 1000 kWh/year in this study (≈3 kWh/d x 365d/year = 1095 kWh/year), a
couple of micro wind turbines could be require for each home. It means 4 micro-
turbines/block and 16 micro-turbines in total. It would allow supply the energy for cooking
(assuming a 1.9 kW electric cook 2.5 h/d), the boiler for hot water (assuming a 4 kW boiler
2.5 h/d) and the heating energy requirement (considering 0.8 kW electric heaters 7 h/d).

Due to the different daily energy demand in the houses, it should be considered an auxiliary
power generator, just in case of the shortage of energy production as figure shows.

11


Figure 7. Annual mean wind speeds for each hour of the day at 3 sites in the UK during 2003*

16

14

12
wind speed (m/s)

10

8 Coleshill

6 Coombe
Aberdeen
4

2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Hour of the day

* Taken from Bahaj et al, 2007. As it is seems, the peaks normally start at 11-12 pm and end at 19-20 pm

3.2.4-Payback

According to Li et al (2011), the payback depends on multiple factors and it could vary from
20 to 50 years. The first factor would be obviously the kind of micro-turbine, however other
factor could be the annual mean wind speed (the more speed, within the limits, the less
payback), the household electrical load, the exported electricity price, the Grant available
and the imported electricity price (all of them vary in the same way as the first factor).

4-Final scheme

An example could be like figure 8 shows.

Figure 8. Final scheme

12


5-Conclusion

In this work, has been suggested a possible solution for a renewable energy installation in a
residence area under the FITs scheme. The ignorance in relation to the determination of the
RHI tariffs level as well as other issues around the operation of this scheme has been
deciding factors to discard it.

PV system and wind micro-turbine devices have been presented as a viable way to supply
the annual electrical demand in houses with average electrical energy consumption and few
changes should be done to the initial site design.

The socio-economic and environmental impacts are predominantly related to the fact of
reducing the CO2 emissions and the use of fossil fuels, a lower electric bill and the chance
of giving place a sector on the increase, which generates employment and will contribute to
reduce the CO2 emissions by at least 80% by 2050. Furthermore, paybacks seem to be
encouraging as they could range to 11-12 years for PV systems and, under favorable
conditions, to less than 20 years for wind micro-turbines.

However, for this particular case it would be suggested the construction of an isolated room
in order to keep a power generator since the weather conditions would not be always
suitable for energy production.

6-References

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Bahaj, A.S., James, P.A.B., 2004. Direct indirect benefits of PV in social housing (invited), in:
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13


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