This document is a seminar report submitted by Manoj Kanhaiya Pailkar for partial fulfillment of a Bachelor of Technology degree in Mechanical Engineering. The report studies the materials used in weapons during the time of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, the great Maratha warrior who founded the Maratha Empire in western India in the 17th century. The report provides background on Shivaji Maharaj and the importance of studying the materials from his era. It then describes some common weapons used by Shivaji Maharaj's army such as swords, daggers, shields, spears and bows/arrows. The materials used to make these weapons are discussed, including high

1. Studying the materials used in weapons during
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj era
A
Seminar Report
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for
the Award of the
Degree of
Bachelor of Technology
in
Mechanical Engineering
By
Manoj Kanhaiya Pailkar
(PRN-2030331612017)
Guide
Prof. Dr. B.F. Jogi
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University
Lonere - 402 103, Dist- Raigad, Maharashtra
2022-2023

2. Approval Sheet
The seminar report entitled “Studying The Materials Used In Weapons During The Time
Of Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Era “By Mr. Manoj Kanhaiya Pailkar is approved for partial
fulfillment of award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Mechanical Engineering in
the Department of Mechanical Engineering.
Prof. Dr. B.F. Jogi Dr. Neeraj Agrawal
Guide Professor &Head,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University,
Lonere -402 103, Raigad.
.
Examiners
1) --------------------------------------------------------
2) ---------------------------------------------------------

3. Contents
Abstract i
List of Figures iii
List of Tables v
Nomenclature vi
Chapter Title Page
1 Introduction 01
1.1 Background 01
1.2 Report Layout 03
2 Literature Review 05
2.1 Introduction 05
2.2 Solar Collectors for Industrial Use 13
2.2.1 Stationary collectors 14
2.2.2 Sun tracking concentrating collectors 21
2.3 Summary 47
3 Development of the System 48
3.1 Selection of the Concentrators 48
3.2 Summary 50
4 Testing of the System 58
4.1 Test Procedure
4.2 Summary
58
5 Report Summary 83
References 88
Appendix I 91

4. List of Figures
Figure Title Page
2.1 Energy use in USA 06
2.2 Consumption of industrial energy in USA 07
2.3 Pattern of energy consumption in India 07
2.4 Schematic view of the solar process heat system 10
2.5 Experimental setup for fuel oil solar heating system 11
2.6 Pictorial view of FPC 15

5. Chapter 1
Introduction
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj the great Maratha Warrior
Name: Shivaji Bhonsle
Date of Birth: February 19, 1630
Birthplace: Shivneri Fort, Pune district, Maharashtra
Parents: Shahaji Bhonsle (Father) and Jijabai (Mother)
Reign: 1674–1680
Spouse: Saibai, Soyarabai, Putalabai, Sakvarbai, Laxmibai, Kashibai
Children: Sambhaji, Rajaram, Sakhubai Nimbalkar, Ranubai Jadhav, Ambikabai
Mahadik, Rajkumaribai Shirke
Religion: Hinduism
Death: April 3, 1680
Seat of Power: Raigad Fort, Maharashtra
Successor: Sambhaji Bhonsle

6. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj was the founder of the Maratha Empire in western
India. He is considered to be one of the greatest warriors of his time and even
today, stories of his exploits are narrated as a part of the folklore. With his valor
and great administrative skills, Shivaji carved out an enclave from the declining
Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapur. It eventually became the genesis of the Maratha
Empire. After establishing his rule, Shivaji implemented a competent and
progressive administration with the help of a disciplined military and well-
established administrative set-up. Shivaji is well-known for his innovative
military tactics that centered around non-conventional methods leveraging
strategic factors like geography, speed, and surprise to defeat his more powerful
enemies.
Importance of studying the materials used in weapons during the
time of Shivaji Maharaj
1. Understanding the Military Strategy: Shivaji Maharaj was known for his strategic
acumen and innovative military tactics. Studying the materials used in weapons
during his time can provide insights into how he was able to develop effective
weapons and tactics to overcome the challenges of warfare.
2. Understanding the Technology: The materials used in weapons during the time
of Shivaji Maharaj were primarily steel, iron, and brass. Studying these materials
can provide insights into the metallurgy and engineering techniques of the time.
This knowledge can be useful in fields such as materials science, engineering,
and archaeology.
3. Preserving Historical Knowledge: studying the material used weapons during the
time of Shivaji Maharaj can help preserve in historical knowledge of the Maratha
Empire. This knowledge can be useful for historians, archaeologists, and other

7. scholars interested in understanding the culture, technology, and society of the
time.
4. Developing Modern Weapons: The knowledge gained from studying the
materials used in weapons during the time of Shivaji Maharaj can be used to
develop modern weapons that are more effective and efficient. This knowledge
can be useful for researchers and engineers working in more effective and
efficient. This the defense industry.

8. Chapter 2
Common weapons used by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj army
Shivaji Maharaj was known for his exceptional military tactics and strategic
planning. However, his military prowess would not have been possible without
the use of advanced weaponry. Chhatrapati Shivaji and his army were equipped
with an array of weapons that helped them to overcome even the most formidable
opponents. In this essay, we will explore some of the most significant weapons
of Shivaji Maharaj and his army.
1. Talwar (Sword)
Talwar, also known as the Tulwar or Talavari, was a type of curved sword
that was commonly used by the Maratha army under the leadership of Shivaji
Maharaj. The Talwar was one of the most versatile and effective weapons in
the Maratha arsenal and played a significant role in many battles during the
17th century.
Design of Talwar used to be a slightly curved, single-edged blade that was
sharpened on the inner edge. The blade was typically 2 to 3 feet in length and
was wider near the hilt and tapered towards the tip. The Talwar was designed
for both cutting and thrusting, and its unique curve made it an effective
weapon for both offense and defence.
Shivaji Maharaj himself was a skilled Talwar fighter and was known to use
the weapon in battle. He trained his soldiers extensively in the use of the
Talwar, and it became one of the most important weapons in the Maratha
arsenal.
Fig 1 Talwar

9. Talwar was effective against both infantry and cavalry, and its curved blade
was especially useful in close-quarters combat. In the Maratha Empire,
soldiers used to deliver quick and precise strikes with Talwar. They used to
slash at their opponents’ limbs and capable of making deep cuts in their
bodies with the Talwar. The Talwar was also effective against armoured
opponents, as its curved blade allowed it to bypass the gaps in the armor.
It was not only used for combat but was also a symbol of honor and prestige.
Shivaji Maharaj often presented Talwars as gifts to his loyal soldiers and
commanders, and the weapon became a prized possession of the Maratha
warriors.
2. Bichwa (Dragger)
Also known as the Bhuj or Vichwa. It was a type of dagger or short sword
that was one of weapon used by Shivaji Maharaj and his soldiers in close
combat. The Bichwa had a long, curved blade that was sharp on both sides,
and a handle made of wood or ivory.
The Bichwa was a versatile weapon that was used for both offensive and
defensive purposes. It was often used as a secondary weapon, carried by
soldiers along with a larger sword or spear. In battle, the Bichwa was used to
make quick thrusts at the opponent, or to parry and deflect incoming attacks.
Its curved shape allowed for a greater range of motion, making it effective in
close quarters combat.
Fig. 2 Bichwa
Bichwa sword was also used for assassinations because of its small size,
which made it easy to hide. Shivaji Maharaj was known to carry a Bichwa
with him at all times, and it is said that he used it to kill the traitorous Afzal
Khan during a meeting in 1659.

10. 3. Dhanushya-Baan (Bow & Arrow)
Dhanushya-Baan, also known as the bow and arrow, was one of the most
important weapons in ancient and medieval India. The Dhanushya-Baan
consisted of a long bow made of wood or bamboo and a set of arrows with
sharp tips.
The bow was typically made of high-quality wood and was designed to be
both strong and flexible. The bowstring was usually made of animal sinew or
plant fibers, which provided the tension needed to propel the arrow forward.
The arrows were made of lightweight materials such as bamboo or reed and
were typically tipped with metal or stone points.
Fig 3 Dhanushya-Baan
The Dhanushya-Baan was one of favoured weapons of Shivaji Maharaj when
it comes to defend his forts with minimal forces. He would often use the
weapon in battle, raining down arrows on his opponents from a distance. The
bow was particularly effective against enemy cavalry, as the arrows could
pierce through armor and injure the horse.
One of the advantages of the Dhanushya-Baan was its range and accuracy.
The bow and arrow could be used to strike targets from a distance, allowing
Shivaji Maharaj to attack his opponents without putting himself in harm’s
way. The accuracy of the bow and arrow also made it an effective tool for
hunting and food gathering.
4. Dhal (Shield)
The dhal is a type of buckler or shield found in the Indian subcontinent. They are nearly always
geometrically round and yet they vary in diameter from about eight inches to twenty-four inches.
Some are nearly flat while others are strongly convex or curved. The edges may be flat or rolled
back in the reverse direction to that of the curvature of the shield. Dhal shields were either made
from metal or hide.

11. Fig 4 Dhal
5. Bhaala (Spear)
A spear is a pole weapon consisting of a shaft, usually of wood, with a pointed head. The head
may be simply the sharpened end of the shaft itself, as is the case with fire hardened spears, or it
may be made of a more durable material fastened to the shaft, such
as bone, flint, obsidian, iron, steel, or bronze. The most common design for hunting or combat
spears since ancient times has incorporated a metal spearhead shaped like a triangle, lozenge, or
leaf. The heads of fishing spears usually feature barbs or serrated edges.
The word spear comes from the Old English spere, from the Proto-Germanic speri, from a Proto-
Indo-European root *sper- "spear, pole". Spears can be divided into two broad categories: those
designed for thrusting as a melee weapon and those designed for throwing as a ranged
weapon (usually referred to as javelins or darts).
The spear has been used throughout human history both as a hunting and fishing tool and as a
weapon. Along with the club, knife, and axe, it is one of the earliest and most important tools
developed by early humans. As a weapon, it may be wielded with either one or two hands.[1]
It was
used in virtually every conflict up until the modern era, where even then it continues on in the form
of the fixed bayonet on a long gun, and is probably the most commonly used weapon in history.
Fig 5 Bhaala
Chapter 3
Material Used In weapons
3.1.Talvaar (Swords):

12. The swords were made of high-quality steel, which was imported from Persia
and Damascus. The blades were typically curved and had a single edge. The
hilt was made of ivory, wood, or metal, and was adorned with precious
stones.
3.2. Bichuwa(Daggers):
The daggers were made of the same high-quality steel as the swords. They
were smaller in size and had a double-edged blade. The hilt was also made of
ivory, wood, or metal, and was adorned with precious stones.
3.3. Dhaal(Shields):
The shields were made of wood or metal. The wooden shields were covered
with leather or animal hide to make them more durable. The metal shields
were made of brass or iron and were often decorated with intricate designs.
3.4. Bhaala(Spears):
The spears were made of bamboo or iron. The bamboo spears were lightweight and easy to
handle, while the iron spears were heavier and more durable. The spearheads were made of
iron and were typically triangular in shape.
3.5. Dhanushy baan(Bows and Arrows):
The bows were made of bamboo or wood and were typically around 6 feet in length. The
bowstring was made of animal gut or silk. The arrows were made of bamboo or wood and had
iron or steel tips. They were fletched with feathers to stabilize their flight.
3.6 Why iron,
Chapter 4
Manufacuturing process of materials
4.1Manufacturing process Of Iron

13. 1. Mining: Iron ore was mined from the ground using tools like pickaxes and
shovels. The ore was then transported to the smelting site.
2. Crushing: The iron ore was crushed into small pieces using hammers or
stamp mills. This process helped to break down the ore and make it easier to
work with.
3. Roasting: The crushed iron ore was then roasted in a furnace to remove
any impurities. This step helped to purify the ore and prepare it for smelting.
4. Smelting: The roasted iron ore was placed in a smelting furnace along
with charcoal and heated until it melted. The charcoal provided the heat
needed to melt the iron ore and also acted as a reducing agent, helping to
separate the iron from any impurities.
5. Refining: Once the iron had melted and separated from any impurities, it
was poured into molds to create various shapes and objects. The iron could
also be refined further by hammering or rolling it to remove any remaining
impurities and improve its strength.
6. Tempering: After the iron had been refined, it was tempered by heating it
to a high temperature and then rapidly cooling it in water. This process
helped to improve the iron's strength and durability.
4.2 Manufacturing Process OF High-Quality Steel
1. Mining: The first step in the process was to mine iron ore from the ground
using tools like pickaxes and shovels. The ore was then transported to the
smelting site.

14. 2. Crushing: The iron ore was crushed into small pieces using hammers or
stamp mills. This step helped to break down the ore and make it easier to
work with.
3. Roasting: The crushed iron ore was then roasted in a furnace to remove
any impurities. This step helped to purify the ore and prepare it for smelting.
4. Smelting: The roasted iron ore was placed in a smelting furnace along
with charcoal and heated until it melted. The charcoal provided the heat
needed to melt the iron ore and also acted as a reducing agent, helping to
separate the iron from any impurities.
5. Refining: Once the iron had melted and separated from any impurities, it
was poured into molds to create various shapes and objects. The iron could
also be refined further by hammering or rolling it to remove any remaining
impurities and improve its strength.
6. Carbonization: To turn the iron into steel, it was necessary to add carbon
to the metal. This was done by heating the iron in a furnace along with
charcoal or other carbon-rich materials. The carbon would then combine
with the iron to create steel.
7. Quenching: After the steel had been formed, it was tempered by heating it
to a high temperature and then rapidly cooling it in water. This process
helped to improve the steel's strength and durability.
8. Annealing: To further improve the steel's properties, it was sometimes
necessary to anneal it by heating it to a high temperature and then slowly
cooling it. This process helped to reduce any internal stresses in the steel and
make it more ductile
4.3. Manufacturing Process of Wootz Steel
1. The manufacturing process of Wootz steel during the time of Shivaji
Maharaj involved several steps. First, a mixture of iron ore, charcoal, and
other additives such as wood chips or bark was placed in a clay crucible.
The crucible was then sealed and placed in a furnace, where it was heated
to a high temperature for several hours.

15. 2. During this heating process, carbon from the charcoal combined with the
iron to form a liquid steel. The steel was then allowed to cool slowly,
which allowed the carbon to distribute evenly throughout the steel. This
slow cooling process also helped to prevent the formation of brittle or
weak spots in the steel.
3. After the steel had cooled, it was removed from the crucible and
hammered into shape. This hammering process helped to further
distribute the carbon throughout the steel and remove any impurities that
may have been present.
4. Once the steel had been shaped and refined, it was often treated with a
special acid solution that brought out the unique patterns and textures that
were characteristic of Wootz steel. These patterns were highly prized for
their beauty and were often used as decorative elements on weapons and
other objects.
4.4 Manufacturing process of Brass
1. Mining: Copper and zinc ores were mined from the ground using tools
like pickaxes and shovels. The ores were then transported to the smelting
site.
2. Crushing: The ores were crushed into small pieces using hammers or
stamp mills. This process helped to break down the ores and make them
easier to work with.
3. Roasting: The crushed ores were then roasted in a furnace to remove any
impurities. This step helped to purify the ores and prepare them for smelting.
4. Smelting: The roasted ores were placed in a smelting furnace along with
charcoal and heated until they melted. The charcoal provided the heat needed
to melt the ores and also acted as a reducing agent, helping to separate the
copper and zinc.
5. Alloying: Once the copper and zinc had melted and combined, the
resulting brass was poured into molds to create various shapes and objects.
The brass could also be alloyed with other metals like tin or lead to improve
its properties.
6. Finishing: After the brass had cooled and solidified in the molds, it was
removed and finished by polishing or hammering. This step helped to
smooth out any rough edges and give the brass a shiny, polished appearance.

16. 4.5 Manufacturing Process of Wood and Animal Gut
1. Wood harvesting: The first step in the process was to harvest trees from
the forest. This was typically done using axes and saws.
2. Wood seasoning: Once the trees were harvested, they were left to dry out
in the sun for several months. This process helped to remove any excess
moisture from the wood and make it more stable.
3. Wood shaping: After the wood had been seasoned, it was shaped using
various tools like chisels and saws. This process involved cutting and
carving the wood into the desired shape and size.
4. Wood joining: To create larger structures like buildings or boats, the
pieces of wood were joined together using techniques like mortise and tenon
joints or dovetail joints. These joints helped to create strong connections
between the pieces of wood.
5. Animal gut preparation: Animal gut was commonly used for making
strings for musical instruments like sitars and sarangis. The gut was
harvested from animals like sheep or goats and then cleaned and dried.
6. Gut spinning: Once the gut had been prepared, it was spun into thin
threads using a spinning wheel or spindle. The threads were then twisted
together to create thicker strings.
7. String winding: After the strings had been created, they were wound onto
the instrument's tuning pegs and tightened to the desired pitch.
4.6 Manufacturing Process of Bamboo
1. Bamboo harvesting: The first step in the process was to harvest bamboo
stalks from the forest. This was typically done using machetes or other sharp
tools.
2. Bamboo splitting: Once the bamboo stalks had been harvested, they were
split into smaller pieces using a knife or cleaver. This process involved
removing the outer layer of the bamboo to reveal the inner fibers.

17. 3. Bamboo shaping: After the bamboo had been split, it was shaped using
various tools like chisels and saws. This process involved cutting and carving
the bamboo into the desired shape and size.
4. Bamboo curing: To make the bamboo more durable and resistant to insects
and moisture, it was cured by boiling it in a mixture of water and salt. This
process helped to remove any excess moisture and make the bamboo more
stable.
5. Bamboo polishing: Once the bamboo had been cured, it was polished using
sandpaper or other abrasive materials. This process helped to smooth out any
rough edges and give the bamboo a more polished appearance.
6. Bamboo assembly: To create larger structures like buildings or bridges, the pieces of
bamboo were joined together using techniques like lashing or weaving. These techniques
helped to create strong connections between the pieces of bamboo.
Chapter 5
Conclusion
The study of materials used in weapons during the reign of Chhatrapati Shivaji
Maharaj provides a fascinating glimpse into the technological advancements and
military strategies of that time. The use of high-quality materials such as Wootz

18. steel and brass in weapons was a testament to the importance placed on durability
and precision in battle. These materials were not only strong and durable but also
allowed for intricate designs and ornamentation, highlighting the importance of
aesthetics in weapons during that era.Furthermore, the development of unique
weapons like the Patta and Bhuj speaks to the ingenuity and creativity of the
Maratha warriors. The Patta was a short sword with a broad blade, designed for
close combat, while the Bhuj was a type of axe used for both cutting and thrusting.
These weapons were specifically developed to suit the needs of the Maratha army
and were highly effective in battle.The study of these materials and weapons
sheds light on the rich history and legacy of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and his
army. It highlights the importance of preserving historical artifacts for future
generations to understand and appreciate their cultural heritage. The study also
emphasizes the need to continue researching and learning about ancient
technologies and strategies to better understand our past and inform our present.
the study of materials used in weapons during the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj
era provides valuable insights into the technological advancements and military
strategies of that time. It is a testament to the ingenuity and creativity of the
Maratha warriors and their commitment to developing weapons that were both
effective and aesthetically pleasing. Studying these artifacts not only enriches our
understanding of history but also helps us appreciate the importance of preserving
our cultural heritage.
Chapter 6
1. "Iron Technology in India during the Maratha Period" by B.R. Nanda,
Indian Journal of History of Science, Vol. 21 (1986), pp. 329-340
2. .Wootz Steel: A Review of Recent Research," by J.D. Verhoeven and A.H.
Pendray, Journal of Materials Science, Volume 33, Issue 14, July 1998,
Pages 3525-3533.

19. 3. Brass and Copper Industry in Maharashtra during the Maratha Period" by
V.V. Bedekar, Proceedings of the Indian History Congress, Vol. 62 (2001),
pp. 1026-1032.
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhal_(shield)
5. https://www.google.com/search?q=chatrapati+shivaji+maharaj+informati
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