2. 2
TERM
REPORT
Acknowledgement
At the onset I would like to thank ALLAH who gave
me strength to compile this report with my own
efforts and collected the data.
I hope that the report I tried to make will afford
information and true picture to the readers and they
might show the deep sense of appreciation for my
effort.
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I am thankful to my course instructor Ma’am Rubina
Safdar who helped me throughout the entire course
and guided to complete this report successfully.
Table of Contents
Contents
Page #
Introduction to Communication Process 4
Self Perception 5
Self Concept 6
Self Esteem 7
Self Disclosure 8
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Leadership 9
Types Of Communication 10
Verbal Communication 10
Non Verbal Communication 14
Barriers 17
Effective Listening 20
Types of Listening 21
INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNCATION PROCESS
Communication has three different meanings that is, the sharing of
information, giving and receiving of messages, transfer of information from
one or more people to one or more other people.
We use ‘communication’ usually to mean speaking or writing or sending a
message to another person. Communication is really much more than that.
It involves a number of choices and decisions but being natural and
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unnoticed in informal situations. In formal situations, our communication
needs to be more effective and carefully chosen, that is, we need to plan
our communication.
Communication may be broadly defined as the process of meaningful
interaction among human beings. More specifically, it is the process by
which meanings are perceived and understandings are reached among
human beings.
Looked at more closely, what is essential for communication to occur is the
cooperation between two parties, one active or at the giving end and the
other passive or at the receiving end.
The sender selects appropriate symbols to suit the situation and realizes
the meaning through speech or writing depending upon the socially
regulated requirements or self-perceived needs. At the receiving end the
symbols are identified and identification obviously implies recognition and
realization of meaning through the interpretive process.
Communication is thus a network of interactions and naturally the sender
and the receiver keep on changing their roles.
Another aspect of communication is the deployment of a code consisting of
arbitrarily evolved symbols and the determination of the appropriateness of
their use in given situations, leading to the emergence of diverse
communication patterns. A number of factors come into play in shaping
these patterns. In fact, communication is often but not always momentary.
At times communication is a cumulative process that starts before the
actual communicative event takes place and continues after it has
occurred. Thus communication therefore must acquire a true perspective of
not only the present requirements of the situation but also its relationship
with the past and its impact on the future.
Communication is a process where one sets out to convey a message to
another person through the medium of words, gestures and / or pictures.
The process of conveying the message is fulfilled only when the person
receiving it has understood the message entirely.
SELF PERCEPTION
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Self-perception is an account of attitude change developed by psychologist
Daryl. It asserts that people develop their attitudes by observing their
behavior and concluding what attitudes must have caused them. The
theory is counterintuitive in nature, as the conventional wisdom is that
attitudes come prior to behaviors. Furthermore, the theory suggests that a
person induces attitudes without accessing internal cognition and mood
states. The person reasons their own overt behaviors rationally in the same
way they attempt to explain others’ behaviors.
People decide on their own attitudes and feelings from watching
themselves behave in various situations. This is particularly true when
internal cues are so weak or confusing they effectively put the person in the
same position as an external observer.
Self-Perception Theory provides an alternative explanation for cognitive
dissonance effects. Cognitive dissonance says that people felt bad about
lying for $1 because they could not justify the act. Self-perception takes an
'observer's view, concluding that those who were paid $1 must have really
enjoyed it (because $1 does not justify the act) whilst those who were paid
$20 were just doing it for the money.
Note that this indicates how changing people's attitudes happen only when
two factors are present:
They are aroused, feeling the discomfort of dissonance.
They attribute the cause of this to their own behaviors and attitudes.
SELF CONCEPT
Self-concept (also called self-construction, self-identity or self-perspective)
is a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual's perception of
"self" in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics (and
nonacademic), gender roles, racial identity, and many others. Each of
these characteristics is a research domain (i.e. Academic Self-Concept)
within the larger spectrum of self-concept although no characteristics exist
in isolation as one’s self-concept is a collection of beliefs about oneself.
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While closely related with self-concept clarity (which "refers to the extent to
which self-knowledge is clearly and confidently defined, internally
consistent, and temporally stable"), it presupposes but is distinguishable
from self-awareness, which is simply an individual's awareness of their self.
It is also more general than self-esteem, which is a function of the purely
evaluative element of the self-concept.
The self-concept is an internal model which comprises self-assessments.
Features assessed include but are not limited to: personality, skills and
abilities, occupation(s) and hobbies, physical characteristics, etc. For
example, the statement "I am lazy" is a self-assessment that contributes to
the self-concept. However, the statement "I am tired" would not be part of
someone's self-concept, since being tired is a temporary state and a more
objective judgment. A person's self-concept may change with time as
reassessment occurs, which in extreme cases can lead to identity crises.
The self-concept is not restricted to the present. It includes past selves and
future selves. Future or possible selves represent individuals' ideas of what
they might become, what they would like to become, or what they are afraid
of becoming. They correspond to hopes, fears, standards, goals, and
threats. Possible selves may function as incentives for future behavior and
they also provide an evaluative and interpretive context for the current view
of self.
The perception that people have about their past or future selves is related
to the perception of their current self. Temporal self-appraisal theory argues
that people have a tendency to maintain a positive evaluation of the current
self by distancing negative selves and bringing close positive selves. In
addition, people have a tendency to perceive the past self less
favorably (e.g., I'm better than I used to be) and the future self more
positively.
SELF ESTEEM
Self-esteem is a term used in psychology to reflect a person's overall
emotional evaluation of his or her own worth. It is a judgment of oneself as
well as an attitude toward the self. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs (for
example, "I am competent", "I am worthy") and emotions such as
triumph, despair, pride and shame. Smith and Mackie define it by saying
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"The self-concept is what we think about the self; self-esteem is the positive
or negative evaluations of the self, as in how we feel about it." Self-esteem
is also known as the evaluative dimension of the self that includes feelings
of worthiness, prides and discouragement.
Self-esteem is a disposition that a person has which represents their
judgments of their own worthiness. In the mid 1960s, Morris
Rosenberg and social-learning theorists defined self-esteem as a personal
worth or worthiness. Nathaniel Branden in 1969 defined self-esteem as
"...the experience of being competent to cope with the basic challenges of
life and being worthy of happiness". According to Branden, self-esteem is
the sum of self-confidence a feeling of personal capacity and self-respect a
feeling of personal worth. It exists as a consequence of the implicit
judgment that every person has of their ability to face life's challenges, to
understand and solve problems, and their right to achieve happiness, and
be given respect.
Self-esteem is an essential human need that is vital for survival and
normal, healthy development. It arises automatically from within based
upon a person's beliefs and consciousness, and occurs in conjunction with
a person's thoughts, behaviors, feelings and actions.
SELF DISCLOSURE
Self-disclosure is both the conscious and subconscious act of revealing
more about oneself to others. This may include, but is not limited
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to, thoughts , feelings , aspirations , goals , failures , successes , fears ,
dreams as well as one's likes , dislikes , and favorites.
A self-disclosure happens when we initially meet someone and continues
as we build and develop our relationships with people. As we get to know
each other, we disclose information about ourselves. If one person is not
willing to "self-disclose" then the other person may stop disclosing
information about them as well.
In a counseling session, the patient or client does the "self-disclosing" while
the counselor, or therapist listens. The goal is to help the client see things
from different perspectives. This allows the client to see and evaluate
options he or she may not have thought about, which may give the client
more power when making important life decisions. There are several
relationship perspectives in self-disclosing information in a counseling
session.
There are several important factors that influence self-disclosure and the
state of the relationship, such as the relational definition, time, and way of
explaining each other's behavior, degree of affection, reciprocity, and
goals. The dimension of time is especially interesting because social
penetration theory assumes that relationships increase in intensity in a
gradual and orderly manner. This orderly progression resembles the
shifting messages from superficial to more intimate and move toward
broader range conversation topics that take place over time. But linear
progress in a single direction is only one pattern of relational development.
Research has shown that for some couples, the early period of openness is
followed by a quick decline in self-disclosure. There are also long-term
marriages in which greater and greater disclosure is followed by a leveling
off of disclosure and perhaps decline. And still another pattern is when
people click right away so that disclosure occurs quickly rather than in
gradual fashion.
LEADERSHIP
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Leadership has been described as “A process of social influence in which
one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment
of a common task". Other in-depth definitions of leadership have also
emerged.
Leadership is "organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal".
The leader may or may not have any formal authority. Students of
leadership have produced theories involving traits, situational interaction,
function, behavior, power, vision and values, charisma, and intelligence,
among others. Somebody whom people follow: somebody who guides or
directs others
Good leaders are made not born. If you have the desire and willpower, you
can become an effective leader. Good leaders develop through a never
ending process of self-study, education, training, and experience.
To inspire your workers into higher levels of teamwork, there are certain
things you must be, know, and, do. These do not come naturally, but are
acquired through continual work and study. Good leaders are continually
working and studying to improve their leadership skills; they are NOT
resting on their laurels.
Leadership is a process by which a person influences others to accomplish
an objective and directs the organization in a way that makes it more
cohesive and coherent. This definition is similar to Northouse's “
Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of
individuals to achieve a common goal”.
Leaders carry out this process by applying their
leadership knowledge and skills. This is called Process Leadership.
However, we know that we have traits that can influence our actions. This
is called Trait Leadership , in that it was once common to believe that
leaders were born rather than made.
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TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
Communication takes place by exchanging symbols to describe our ideas
and experience. Language is a common symbol system which is used for
sharing our experiences with others. We can also use other symbols like
pictures, colours, signs and sounds to communicate. We do communicate
a number of things by our facial expressions, movements, clothing and so
on, though we do not speak. Thus communications through words are
called Verbal Communication; communications through symbols are called
non-verbal communication.
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
We use verbal communication for most purposes. Verbal communication
may be oral or written.
a) ORAL COMMUNICATION
Oral Communication is more natural and immediately available for
responding to a comment / statement. In natural and informal situations, we
speak readily without hesitation in order to communicate with others; but in
a formal and official situation, many persons feel nervous and cannot speak
easily. It needs training, practice and skill to speak effectively in a formal
situation.
Oral communication requires the presence and simultaneous attention of
both the persons. Need for personal presence makes certain demands on
the skills of both; each must be able to respond to the body language of the
other, and must be able to make immediate response to what the other
says.
Oral communication occurs in situations like conversations, telephone talk,
interviews, presentations, group discussions, and meetings.
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FACE-TO-FACE CONVERSATION
Oral communication is best when it is face-to-face. A face-to-face setting is
possible between two individuals or among a small group of persons at an
interview, or in a small meeting, where both the sender and the receiver
could see each other and communicate. Communication can flow both
ways in these situations. Here, an immediate feedback, which gives
clarification, is possible. Besides, a face-to-face setting offers a rich
communication experience owing to the presence of the living personality
whose voice, tone, expressions and movements add significance to the
words.
PRESENTATION
It has a face-to-face setting. It is a formal, well-prepared talk on a specific
topic, delivered to knowledgeable and interested audience. It looks odd and
slumbers if the presentation is not welcomed by the audience to which it is
presented. At times a touch of humor always enriches the presentation.
The purpose for such kind of communication is to give / pass on the
information rather than making them dull and sleepy.
PUBLIC SPEECH
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A public speech or lecture also has a face-to-face setting, but here the
space between the speaker and audience do matters. This distance
increases as the audience gets larger, as in an open air public meeting.
This way of communication much depends on the speaker’s skill in using
gestures and using the microphone in the correct order.
INTERVIEW
An interview is a meeting at which one person or panel of persons, who are
the interviewers, discuss a matter with another person or ask questions of
another person, who is the interviewee. The purpose is, usually to assess,
to judge whether it would be worthwhile to enter into a relationship with the
other. An interview is of structured question and answer type of
communication.
MEETING
Usually a meeting involves many persons; there is a chair person or leader
who leads and guides the communication and maintains perfect order.
There is a fixed agenda, that is, a list of issues to be discussed at the
meeting. Meetings are of many types, from the small committee meeting
consisting of three or four persons to the large conference or the share
holders’ meeting. This type of oral communication is backed up by note-
taking and writing up of minutes.
B) WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
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Written communication is used for many purposes. Many types of
documents are required for official work. Letters, circulars, memos, notices,
reports and minutes are constantly prepared and exchanged in and
between organizations. All has a format and layout which is fixed by
custom.
Letters are the most widely used form of written communication. They are
used mostly for external communication. A letter has a complex lay-out
which has to be carefully followed.
Memo
Memo, short form of memorandum, is an informal message between
members of an organization and generally relates to daily work. Information
or instructions can be conveyed by a memo. A memo may or may not be
signed.
Notice
A notice is used in order to communicate the same message within an
organization. It is the most common method of mass communication, within
an organization. It should be short, its language should be simple and the
type should be large and well spaced for easy reading.
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Circular
A circular is a detailed document giving information, instructions or orders
on a specific matter. A circular has a number and date for reference, and is
signed by the authorized signatory of the issuing office. They are generally
issued by government department and other official bodies like government
departments, councils, universities and Head Offices of organizations.
Report
A report is a document prepared by an individual or a committee entrusted
with the task of collecting information on a given subject. It requires careful
research, collection of data and presentation of the findings, conclusions
and recommendations. Reports are of varying length and may be anything
from two pages to a full book dived into chapters.
Minutes
Minutes are the written record of decisions taken at a meeting. Different
bodies have their own convention of recordings the discussion and the
decisions. Minutes may be written by hand or typed and pasted in minute
books, or typed and filled in a minute file. Minutes are a legal document.
NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Nonverbal communication is the process of sending and receiving
messages from another person. These messages can be conveyed
through gestures, engagement, posture, and even clothing and hygiene.
Nonverbal communication can convey a very different message than a
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verbal conversation. This can tell someone whether they are liked,
interesting or hated. Nonverbal communication can have meanings in
objects as well. Certain articles in a person’s life can say a lot about them
and can sometimes even talk for them. A person’s handwriting can also tell
a lot about the way they can communicate with others. Nonverbal
communication can be easiest practiced when the two communicators are
face to face. The nonverbal aspect of communication is easiest when the
environment is right for all communicators involved, such as, when
the environment is right or the moment is right. Nonverbal communication
is an important aspect in any conversation skill people are practicing.
Nonverbal communication will inhibit someone to be able to tell other
person how they are really feeling without having to voice any opinions.
People can interpret body signals better than they can talk most of the time.
Nonverbal communication is usually understood as the process
of communication through sending and receiving wordless cues between
people. Messages can be communicated through gestures and touch,
by body language or posture, by facial expression and eye contact. Speech
contains nonverbal elements known as paralanguage, including voice
quality, rate, pitch, volume, and speaking style, as well prosodic features
such as rhythm, intonation, and stress. Likewise, written texts have
nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of
words, or the physical layout of a page. However, much of the study of
nonverbal communication has focused on face-to-face interaction, where it
can be classified into three principal areas: environmental conditions where
communication takes place, physical characteristics of the communicators,
and behaviors of communicators during interaction.
Use of Body: Kinecs
The term "kinesics" was first used (in 1952) by Ray Birdwhistell, an
anthropologist who wished to study how people communicate through
posture, gesture, stance, and movement. Part of Birdwhistell's work
involved making films of people in social situations and analyzing them to
show different levels of communication not clearly seen otherwise. Several
other anthropologists, including Margaret Mead and Gregory Bateson, also
studied kinesics.
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Gesture
Gestures may be made with the hands, arms or body, and also include
movements of the head, face and eyes, such as winking, nodding, or rolling
one's eyes. Although the study of gesture is still in its infancy, some broad
categories of gestures have been identified by researchers. The most
familiar are the so-called emblems or quotable gestures. These are
conventional, culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for
words, such as the hand wave used in western cultures for "hello" and
"goodbye." A single emblematic gesture can have a very different
significance in different cultural contexts, ranging from complimentary to
highly offensive. For a list of emblematic gestures, see List of gestures.
There are some universal gestures like the shoulder shrug. “The shoulder
shrug is a good example of a universal gesture that is used to show that a
person doesn’t know or doesn’t understand what you are saying. It’s a
multiple gesture that has three main parts: exposed palms to show nothing
is being concealed in the hands, hunched shoulders to protect the throat
from attack, and raised brow, which is a universal, submissive greeting”
Displays of emotions can generally be categorized into two groups:
negative and positive. Negative emotions usually manifest as increased
tension in various muscle groups: tightening of jaw muscles, furrowing of
forehead, squinting eyes, or lip occlusion (when the lips seemingly
disappear). In contrast, positive emotions are revealed by the loosening of
the furrowed lines on the forehead, relaxation of the muscles around the
mouth, and widening of the eye area. When individuals are truly relaxed
and at ease, the head will also tilt to the side, exposing our most vulnerable
area, the neck. This is a high-comfort display, often seen during courtship
that is nearly impossible to mimic when we are tense or suspicious.
Eye Contact
Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an
especially important type of nonverbal communication. The way you look at
someone can communicate many things, including interest, affection,
hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow
of conversation and for gauging the other person’s response.
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Facial Expression
The human face is extremely expressive, able to express countless
emotions without saying a word. And unlike some forms of nonverbal
communication, facial expressions are universal. The facial expressions for
happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust are the same across
cultures.
Facial expressions, more than anything, serve as a practical means of
communication. With all the various muscles that precisely control mouth,
lips, eyes, nose, forehead and jaw, human faces are estimated to be
capable of more than ten thousand different expressions. This versatility
makes non verbal of the face extremely efficient and honest, unless
deliberately manipulated. In addition, many of these emotions, including
happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust, shame, anguish and
interest are universally recognized.
Posture
Posture or a person's bodily stance communicates a variety of messages.
Posture can be used to determine a participant’s degree of attention or
involvement, the difference in status between communicators, and the level
of fondness a person has for the other communicator, depending on body
“openness”. Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal
relationships suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one
person’s left side is parallel to the other person’s right side, leads to
favorable perception of communicators and positive speech; a person who
displays a forward lean or decreases a backward lean also signifies
positive sentiment during communication.
Barriers
Communication is the process of establishing meaningful relationships
among human beings. Communication is used to share information,
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thoughts and feelings between each others. Effective communication
ensures whether the transmitted contents are received and understood by
someone in the way they were intended. Also the common goal of effective
communication includes creating a general perception, changing behaviors
and acquiring correct information. Many people think that communication is
easy. But effective communication cannot be expressed in simplest form. It
is not just about talking. There are many other things involved with effective
communication such as gesture, proper body language, expressions and
listening. The proper balance of these attributes to be maintained during
your communication process if you need to receive the intended goal.
Communication is not always successful. Several things can prevent the
message from reaching the intended recipient or from having the desired
effect on the recipient. There may be some fault in the communication
system which may prevent the message from reaching. Some of these
defects are in the mechanical devices used for transmitting – medium,
some are in tools we use for communication – language, and some are in
nature of persons who are engaged in communication – the sender and
recipient / receiver.
There are some common barriers exist against effective communication.
Communication is straightforward. But it becomes complex and difficult
when barriers are there. Here are some types of barriers that negatively
affect to effective communications.
Types Of Barriers
Language Barriers
This is one of the most common barriers that can be found. Many
communication issues can be occurred because of the language and
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vocabulary differences. If the sender and the receiver cannot understand
the languages of each others, the communication will not give the intended
effect. Use of unclear and inappropriate words also can make confusions
and misunderstandings during a particular communication process.
Cultural Barriers
There are many communication issues comes through cultural differences.
Age differences, gender differences, economic positions, political beliefs
and cultural backgrounds are some of them. Effective communication
between people of different cultures is really difficult. Same word can make
different meaning to people who have cultural differences.
Organization Barriers
Most of the communication barriers exist in workplaces can be included
into this category. Poor organization structures, some rules and
regulations, poor employee relationships, physical separations, outdated
equipments and noisy environment can badly affect to communication
processes within the organization.
Personal Barriers
Individual discomfort and perceptions can also make negative impact on
effective communication. If people are not in the same level in terms of
their perceptions, knowledge and attitudes; the communications between
them are not very much successful.
Interpersonal Barriers
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Misunderstanding, lack of trust on each other, fear of losing power and
control, poor relationships are some of interpersonal communication
barriers. These can make lack of attentions, listening and poor responses
during a communication.
Physical Barriers
This barrier is particularly important when speaking to a group or audience.
If the audience perceives you as distant from them, looking down on them,
or simply not reachable, then they will not be as receptive to the message
you are trying to share. For example, if you are standing on a stage and
never venture out into the audience, the distance itself can send a
message contrary to the one you intend.
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EFFECTIVE LISTENING
Listening is a communication technique that requires the listener to feed
back what they hear to the speaker, by way of re-stating or paraphrasing
what they have heard in their own words, to confirm what they have heard
and moreover, to confirm the understanding of both parties.
When interacting, people often "wait to speak" rather than listening
attentively. They might also be distracted. Active listening is a structured
way of listening and responding to others, focusing attention on the
"function" of communicating objectively as opposed to focusing on "forms",
passive expression or subjectivity.
There are many opinions on what is "active listening". A search of the term
reveals interpretations of the "activity" as including "interpreting body
language" or focusing on something other than or in addition to words.
Successful communication is the establishment of common ground
between two people. Agreeing to disagree is common ground. Common
ground can be false, i.e., a person says they feel a certain way but they do
not. Nevertheless it is common ground, once accepted as understood.
Dialogue, understanding and progress can only arise from that common
ground. And that common ground cannot be established without respect for
the words as spoken by the speaker, for whatever reason.
Thus the essence of active listening is as simple as it is effective:
paraphrasing the speakers words back to them as a question. There is little
room for assumption or interpretation. It is functional, mechanical and
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leaves little doubt as to what is meant by what is said. "The process is
successful if the person receiving the information gives feedback which
shows understanding for meaning. Suspending one's own frame of
reference, suspending judgment and avoiding other internal mental
activities are important to fully attend to the speaker.
Types of Listening
Appreciative Listening
In appreciative listening, we seek certain information which will appreciate,
for example that which helps meet our needs and goals. We use
appreciative listening when we are listening to good music, poetry or
maybe even the stirring words of a great leader.
Discriminative Listening
Discriminative listening is the most basic type of listening, whereby the
difference between difference sounds is identified. If you cannot hear
differences, then you cannot make sense of the meaning that is expressed
by such differences.
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We learn to discriminate between sounds within our own language early,
and later are unable to discriminate between the phonemes of other
languages. This is one reason why a person from one country finds it
difficult to speak another language perfectly, as they are unable distinguish
the subtle sounds that are required in that language.
Likewise, a person who cannot hear the subtleties of emotional variation in
another person's voice will be less likely to be able to discern the emotions
the other person is experiencing.
Listening is a visual as well as auditory act, as we communicate much
through body language. We thus also need to be able to discriminate
between muscle and skeletal movements that signify different meanings.
Comprehension Listening
The next step beyond discriminating between different sound and sights is
to make sense of them. To comprehend the meaning requires first having a
lexicon of words at our fingertips and also all rules of grammar and syntax
by which we can understand what others are saying.
The same is true, of course, for the visual components of communication,
and an understanding of body language helps us understand what the
other person is really meaning.
In communication, some words are more important and some less so, and
comprehension often benefits from extraction of key facts and items from a
long spiel.
Comprehension listening is also known as content listening, informative
listening and full listening.
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Empathetic Listening
When we listen empathetically, we go beyond sympathy to seek a truer
understand how others are feeling. This requires excellent discrimination
and close attention to the nuances of emotional signals. When we are
being truly empathetic, we actually feel what they are feeling.
In order to get others to expose these deep parts of themselves to us, we
also need to demonstrate our empathy in our demeanor towards them,
asking sensitively and in a way that encourages self-disclosure.
Critical Listening
Critical listening is listening in order to evaluate and judge, forming opinion
about what is being said. Judgment includes assessing strengths and
weaknesses, agreement and approval.
This form of listening requires significant real-time cognitive effort as the
listener analyzes what is being said, relating it to existing knowledge and
rules, whilst simultaneously listening to the ongoing words from the
speaker.
