5. DIABETIC KETOACIDOSIS
DKA is a triad of hyperglycaemia, ketosis and acidaemia
DKA is a potentially life threatening medical emergency
due to absolute or relative insulin deficiency coupled with
counter-regulatory hormones excess.
Diagnostic criteria (ADA) :
- Blood glucose > 13.8 mmol/l
- pH < 7.3
- Serum bicarbonate < 18mmol/l,
- Anion gap > 10
- Ketonaemia
10. Differential diagnosis.
Hyperglycemic hyperosmolar state is not associated
with ketosis.
Starvation and alcoholic ketoacidosis are not
characterized by hyperglycemia >200 mg/dl and
bicarbonate level <18 meq/L.
With hypotension and history of metformin use, lactic
acidosis (lactic acid level >7 mmol/L) should be
suspected.
Ingestion of methanol, isopropyl alcohol, and
paraldehyde can also alter anion gap and/or osmolality
and need to be investigated.
14. FLUID THERAPY
Rate Action Fluid
Step 1 1 pint over 30 min
for 1 hour
To review 1 litre
Step 2 1 pint over 1 hour
for 2 hour
To review 1 litre
Step 3 1 pint over 2 hour
for 4 hour
To review 1 litre
Step 4 1 pint over 4 hour
for 8 hour
To review 1 litre
Fluid replacement is priority one in the treatment of DKA.
Replace fluid deficit in DKA (~6 L) within 24-36 hours with the goal of 50%
volume replacement within first 12 hours.
15. INSULIN INFUSION
Start IVI at 0.1 unit/kg/ hr based on estimated body weight
(50 units human soluble insulin;Actrapid/ Humulin R + 0.9%
NaCl= 50 ml)
Irrespective of blood glucose level
Bolus insulin is not recommended
Monitor blood glucose level hourly
Aim for blood glucose drop of 2-4mmol/L per hour
Initially, aim for CBG~10mmol/L (range 8-12mmol/L)
until DKA has improved
oWithold insulin infusion if serum potassium <3.5mmol/L or ECG changes of
hypokalaemia.
o Transition to SC insulin by giving long-acting insulin 2 hours before the
discontinuation of IV insulin.
16. ELECTROLYTE MANAGEMENT
Potassium
Begin preplacement at the second hour of fluid therapy
Start with 0.5 gm KCL per hour over 2 hour (eg. Add 0.5gm KCL in 1 pint of normal
saline and run over 1 hour for 2 hour).
Once result is available, replace according to the result
Aim-Serum Potassium 4.0-5.0mmol/L
Sodium
If serum sodium is normal, use 0.9% NaCl(normal saline) in fluid therapy
If elevated (>160mmol/L) use 0.45% NaCl (half normal saline) in fluid therapy
Bicarbonate
Bicarbonate replacement is not routinely indicated in the management of DKA
Consider giving bicarbonate replacement if pH <7.0 and/or serum bicarbonate
<10mmol/L
if pH is < 7.0 or bicarbonate level is < 5 meq/L, administer 100 mmol (2 ampules) of
bicarbonate in 200 ml of water with 20 meq of potassium chloride over two hours.
17. Outline monitoring regimen
Hourly capillary blood glucose
Vital signs and input-output charting hourly
Venous bicarbonate and potassium at 60minutes, 4
hours and 6-hourly thereafter
6-hourly plasma electrolytes and urine ketone
Continuous pulse oximetry (if indicated)
Continuous cardiac monitoring (if indicated)
Look for precipitating cause and start broad spectrum
antibiotic if infection suspected.
18.
19. HYPEROSMOLAR HYPERGLYCAEMIC STATE
Hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic state (HHS) is caused
by deficiency of insulin usually in elderly patients; 2/3
have previously undiagnosed diabetes
Mortality up to 50%
Diagnostic criteria:
•Hypovolaemia
•Marked hyperglycaemia (BG>30mmol/L)
•Osmolality >320 mosmol/kg
20.
21. Precipitants :
- Infection
- Myocardial infarction / cerebrovascular accident
- Inadequate insulin treatment / noncompliance
- High sugar intake
- Other endocrine disorders e.g. acromegaly
- Drugs e.g. glucocorticoids, thiazides, loop
diuretics, phenytoin
27. HYPOGLYCAEMIA
IN CONTEXT OF DIABETES; excess insulin in absence of
enough carbohydrate. Most common in insulin treated
patient.
Low blood glucose concentrations lead to adrenergic
activation and neuroglycopenia .
Symptomatic hypoglycemia is diagnosed clinically using
Whipple’s triad: symptoms of hypoglycemia, plasma
glucose concentration<50 mg/dl (2.8 mmol/l), and
resolution of those symptoms after the plasma glucose
concentration is raised.
ALL UNCONSCIOUS PATIENTS SHOULD BE ASSUMED
TO BE HYPOGLYCAEMIC UNTIL PROVEN OTHERWISE
28. Hypoglycaemia unawareness occurs in up to 1/3
patients with type 1 diabetes
Conversely, some patients have hypoglycaemic
symptoms when their glucose is above the target range
(> 7.0 mmol/l)
Patients post total pancreatectomy have more frequent
and severe episodes because they have also lost their
glucagon producing cells
29. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Redundant counter-regulatory mechanisms are in place to
prevent or correct hypoglycemia. As glucose levels decline,
major defenses include:
1) a decrease in insulin secretion;
2) an increase in glucagon secretion;
3) an increase in epinephrine secretion. Increased cortisol
and growth hormone secretion also occur.
If these defenses fail, plasma glucose levels will continue to
fall.
In type 1 and longstanding type 2 diabetes these counter-regulatory responses to
hypoglycemia are frequently impaired. This increases the risk of hypoglycemia
and also contributes to hypoglycemia unawareness.
36. Thyroid Storm
A life threatening exacerbation of the hyperthyroid
state with evidence of decompensation in one or more
organ systems. The mortality is 20 - 30 %.
It may be precipitated by stress including concurrent
infections, surgery or pregnancy.
It is a clinical diagnosis with features of severe
thyrotoxicosis, hyperpyrexia and neuro-psychiatric
manifestations such as delirium.
Malaysian Endocrine and Metabolic Society (MEMS)
37. Precipitating factors
General:
Infection.
Non-thyroidal trauma or surgery.
Psychosis.
Parturition
DKA
Myocardial infarction or other acute medical problems.
Thyroid specific:
Radioiodine.
High doses of iodine-containing compounds (for example,
radiographic contrast media).
Discontinuation of antithyroid drug treatment.
Thyroid injury (palpation, infarction of an adenoma).
New institution of amiodarone therapy.
38.
39.
40. Scoring.
<25 : unlikely thyroid storm
25-44 : supports the diagnosis
>45 : highly suggestive of
thyroid storm
Adapted from: Burch HB, Wartofsky L. Life
threatening thyrotoxicosis. Thyroid storm.
Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1993: 22:263
41. Laboratory investigation
Free T4, free T3 elevated
TSH suppressed
Note that findings are not different than that of
hyperthyroidism, but the difference is in the setting
Biochemical features
include hyperglycaemia, leucocytosis, mild
hypercalcaemia,
and abnormal liver function tests.
42. Uncomplicated Thyrotoxicosis Thyroid Storm
Heat intolerence, diaphoresis Hyperpyrexia, temperature >38.5C,
dehydration
Sinus tachycardia, Heart rate 100-140 HR >140bpm, hypotension, atrial
dysrhythmias, congestive heart
failure
Diarrhea, increase appetite with loss
of weight
Nausea, vomitting, severe diarrhea,
abdominal pain, hepatocellular
dysfunction-jaundice
Anxiety, restlessness Confusion, agitation, delirium, frank
psychosis, seizures, stupor or coma
43. Management of Thyroid Storm
Asses ABCDE
Rehydration
Treat hyperpyrexia (use fans, tepid
sponging and oral paracetamol)
Do NOT use aspirin or NSAIDs
44. Treatment of Thyroid Storm
Sympathetic
outflow
Production and
release of thyroid
hormone
Peripheral
conversion
(T4 T3)
Triangle
of
Treatment
45. Management of Thyroid Storm
Beta sympathetic blocking agents
o Oral propanolol 40 mg qid, or I/V 1-2 mg 4-6 hourly
Iodide
o Oral saturated solution of potassium iodide (SSKI) 5 drops
6-hourly
o or I/V Sodium Iodide 500 mg 8 hourly
o or oral Lugol's iodine 5-10 drops, 6-hourly
Antithyroid Drugs
o Carbimazole 15-20 mg 6-hourly
o or propylthiouracil 150-200 mg 6-hourly
Corticosteroids
o I/V dexamethasone 2 mg 6-hourly
o or I/V hydrocortisone 200 mg 6-hourly
46. Take home points
1.Patients susceptible to developing thyroid storm have
increased sensitivity to catecholamines. Therefore, any
stressor that leads to outpouring of catecholamines, can lead
to thyroid storm.
2.Thyroid storm is a true medical emergency; these patients
should be managed in the ICU and beta-blockers should be
started early (esmolol is a great choice because of its short
half-life (on the order of seconds).
3.Remember the “triangle of treatment”: decrease
sympathetic outflow, decrease production of thyroid
hormone, and decrease peripheral conversion of T4 to T3.
47.
48. Myxedema Coma
Severe hypothyroidism leading to decreased mental status,
hypothermia, and other symptoms related to slowing of
function in multiple organs.
It is a medical emergency with a high mortality rate.
Fortunately, it is now a rare presentation of hypothyroidism,
likely due to earlier diagnosis as a result of the widespread
availability of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) assays.
End stage of untreated or insufficiently treated
hypothyroidism
History:
Previous thyroid surgery
Radioiodine
Default thyroid hormone therapy
49. Precipitating factors
Hypothermia.
Infections especially pneumonia.
Myocardial infarction or congestive heart failure.
Cerebrovascular accident.
Respiratory depression due to drugs (for example,
anaesthetics, sedatives, tranquillisers).
Trauma or gastrointestinal blood loss
53. Lab Tests
Free T4 low and TSH high
If the T4 is low and TSH low normal consider pituitary
hypothyroidism
Blood gasses
Electrolytes and creatinine
Distinguish from euthyroid sick syndrome
Low T3, Normal or low TSH, normal free T4
54. Management
1. ABCDE assesment
2. Gradual rewarming with blankets.
3. Accurate core temperatures should be recorded
with a low reading Rectal thermometer.
4. Thyroid hormone replacement with L-thyroxine
300-400 ug given orally via nasogastric tube or
parenterally if available. Alternatively, doses of tri-
iodothyronine 10 ug 8-hourly (IV or orally) may be
used.
55. 5. I/V hydrocortisone should be given, 200 mg stat
and 100 mg 6-hourly until patient regains
consciousness. Controversial but necessary in
hypopituitarism or multiple endocrine failure
6. Ensure adequate hydration and nutrition; Use 5-10%
dextrose solution to maintain normal blood glucose
levels.
7. Correct electrolyte imbalance (patients tend to be
hyponatraemic).
8. Ensure adequate ventilation. Patients tend to
hypoventilate, resulting in hypercapnoea.
9. Treat precipitating cause.
10. Infection may be masked by the hypothyroid state.
62. Clues to Underlying Chronic
Adrenal Insufficiency
Pigmentation in
unexposed areas of
the skin
Creases of hands
Buccal mucosa
Scars
Consider adrenal
insufficiency if
hypotension does not
respond to pressors
63. Lab Tests
Hyponatremia and hyperkalemia (Hyponatremia
might be obscured by dehydration)
Random cortisol is not helpful unless it is very low (<5
mg/L) during a period of great stress
64. Lab Diagnosis
ACTH (cosyntropin) stimulation test
Failure of cortisol to rise above 552 nmol/L 30 min
after administration of 0.25 mg of synthetic ACTH IV
Basal ACTH will be raised in primary adrenal
insufficiency but not in secondary
CT of abdomen will reveal enlargement of adrenals
in patents with adrenal hemorrhage, active TB or
metastatic malignancy
65. Management of Acute Adrenal
Insufficiency
ABCDE assesment
Hydrocortisone
100 mg IV stat then 50 mg 4 hly for 24 h
Taper slowly over the next 72 h
When oral feeds is tolerated change to oral replacement
therapy
Overlap the first oral and last IV doses
Replace salt and fluid losses with 5% dextrose in
normal saline IV
66. Patients with primary adrenal insufficiency may
require mineralocorticoid therapy (fludrocortisone)
when shifted to oral therapy
Treat precipitating diseases
67. SOURCES
Practice Guidelines For Thyroid Disorders The Malaysian Consensus 2000
Postgraduate Medical Journal
Clinical Practice Guidelines Management Of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus(5th
Edition) 2015
http://www.endotext.org
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
www.medscape.org
Greenspan Fs. The Thyroid Gland – Thyrotoxicosis Crisis. In Basic And
Clinical Endocrinology. Greenspan Fs, Gardner Dg, Eds. New York: Lange
Medical, 2001. Pp. 247-8
Hyperthyroidism: Management Guidelines Of The American Thyroid
Association And American Association Of Clinical Endocrinology
Hinweis der Redaktion
Pathogenesis :
- insulin deficiency
- increased counter-regulatory hormones (glucagon, catecholamines, cortisol and GH)
This leads to increased glucose production by the liver and decreased utilisation in peripheral tissues. Lipolysis results in ketone body production and acidosis.
Most patients usually present to emergency and ICU within 24 h of development of polyuria, polydipsia, weakness, and weight loss. There may be complaints of anorexia, abdominal pain, fatigue and muscle cramps. Intravascular volume depletion due to osmotic effects leads to dry mucous membranes, sunken eyeballs, tachycardia, orthostatic hypotension, and even supine hypotension. Tachypnea occurs to compensate the biochemical effects of metabolic acidosis. Infection and sepsis can aggravate the clinical effects of volume depletion. Altered sensorium ranging from mild confusion to coma may prevail.
The first goal of therapy is to correct tissue hypo-perfusion, improve glomerular filtration and reverse the insulin resistance and deficiency.
Note:
1.Starting point depend on severity ofdehydration. If a patient is not severely dehydrated, may start with Step 2or Step 3.
2.After each step, review the patient for adequacy of fluid replacement and evidence of fluid overload .
a)Symptom eg. Breathlessness
b)Sign eg. BP,PR, JVP, Lung Examination(for basal crepitation)
c)Monitoring-Input/output chart (Aim for urine output ~1ml/min) -CVP (When indicated; aim for CVP reading 8-10cm H2O)
d)Laboratory values-Hb, Hct,Urea (if available)
3.At review
•If patient still hemodynamicallyunstable ie. dehydrated and hypotensive with no urine output – repeat same step
•If patient is improving, follow from step 1- step 4, and continue step 4 as maintenance
•If patient developed fluid overload, withhold fluid therapy and manage the fluid overload accordingly. Once stable, restart fluid therapy at slower rate ie. Skip the next step and go directly the step after that (eg. Step 2–fluid overload-skip Step 3-go to Step 4)
4.Usual deficit in moderate DKA is 6L (range 4-8L)-aim 50% replacement in 6 hour, and total replacement within 24-48 hours.
5.In the acute stage, do not order fluid regimen for 24 hour. Always review after each steof fluid regime.
6.Caution in the elderly, those with heart failure or renal failure, slow replacementis imperative and frequent review is necessary to detect sign of fluid overload.
7.Use 0.45% NaCl (half normal saline) if serum Na>160mmol/L.
8.Once blood glucose level ~10mmol/L-change to 5% dextrose.
I.Aim for blood glucose drop of 2-4mmol/L per hour
oIf CBG is dropping at <2mmol/L per hour-increase insulin dose by 2u/hr. Continue increasing the dose
by 2u/hr until blood glucose fall by 2-4mmol/hr, ORinsulin dose more than 6u/hr
oIf CBG is reducing at the rate of 2-4mmol/L per
hour- maintains the current dose
oIf CBG is reducing at the rate >4 mmol/L per hour – reduce insulin infusion by 2u/hr (or if present
insulin dose is ≤2u/hr, half the current dose)
II.Initially, aim for CBG~10mmol/L (range 8-12mmol/L) until DKA has improved, inform doctor if CBG <8mmol/L OR >
12 mmol/L. Once DKA has resolved (fully conscious, acidosis normalized) aim for CBG of 4-6mmol/L. Inform the
doctor if CBG <4mmol/L OR >8mmol/L. Consider changing to s/c insulin if patient is able to take regular meal.
III.Caution:
oInform endocrinologist on-call if insulin rate is >6u/hr.
oWithold insulin infusion if serum potassium <2.5mmol/L with ECG changes of hypokalaemia.
– Correct potassium under continuous cardiac monitoring.
–restart insulin therapy once serum potassium ≥3.0mmol/L or normalization of ECG changes.
Cerebral edema is reported in young adult patients. This condition is manifested by appearance of headache, lethargy, papillary changes, or seizures. Mortality is up to 70%. Mannitol infusion and mechanical ventilation should be used to treat this condition.
Danger
a.Rapid infusion of KCL may cause cardiac arrest
b.KCL must neverbe administered by IV bolus or IM injection
e)Caution
a.Do not give potassium if urine output is poor ie. ≤30ml/hr (patient may need to be catheterized for accurate urine output charting)
b.Withold potassium replacement if serum potassium is >5.5mmol/L
c.Withold insulin if serum potassium < 2.5mmol/L
f)Aim-Serum Potassium 4.0-5.0mmol/L
Consider giving bicarbonate replacement if pH <7.0 and/or serum bicarbonate <10mmol/L
•Give 50ml 8.4% NaHCO3 over 1 hour
•Repeat ABG 1 hour after completion of infusion
•Repeat NaHCO3 infusion if pH is still <7.0
Caution-HCO3 over correction may cause complication including:
•Hypokalaemia
•Cerebral oedema
•Pulmonary oedema
•Lactic acidosis
Bicarbonate (mmol) = base deficit × weight (kg) × 0.3
Half of the amount is given as bolus dose and rest as slow infusion over 8 hours period.
Phosphate
a)Phosphate replacement is not routinely indicated in the management of DKA
b)Consider giving phosphate replacement if serum phosphate <0.3mmol/L or in patient with severe hypoxia
severe hyperglycemia, often >600 mg/dl, and hyperosmolality with preservation of near normal pH and bicarbonate, and minimal or absent serum and/or urine ketones.
Diagnostic criteria of HHS
(Level III)
•Hypovolaemia
•Marked hyperglycaemia (BG>30mmol/L)
•Osmolality >320 mosmol/kg
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
HHS and diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) represent the two ends of the spectrum of markedly decompensated diabetes, differing mainly in severity of acidosis, ketosis and dehydration. HHS usually occurs with lesser degree of insulinopenia compared with DKA, but the pathophysiology is otherwise thought to be similar. In both entities, there is a decrease in net effective insulin action with concomitant elevation of counterregulatory hormones. In the setting of relative insulin deficiency, glucagon, catecholamines and cortisol stimulate hepatic glucose production though glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. High catecholamines and low insulin reduce peripheral glucose uptake. Unlike DKA, it is thought that there is adequate insulin available in HHS to restrain lipolysis and ketogenesis. However, there is significant hyperglycemia with resultant glycosuria leading to loss of water and electrolytes, dehydration, and ultimately decreased renal perfusion, decreased glucose clearance, and exacerbation of hyperglycemia.
If the cause of the hypoglycemia is not evident, measure plasma glucose, insulin, c-peptide, proinsulin, and beta-hydroxybutyrate concentrations and screen for oral hypoglycemic agents (sulfonylurea and glinide drugs) during an episode of spontaneous hypoglycemia. Glucagon, 1 mg IV, should then be administered with careful follow up of the glucose response. The diagnosis of insulinoma is supported if insulin, c-peptide and proinsulin levels are elevated, beta-hydroxybutyrate is <2.7 mmol/l, and sulfonylurea/meglitinide levels are undetectable during the hypoglycemic episode.
If testing cannot be performed during a spontaneous episode of hypoglycemia, a 72 h fast or a mixed meal test, done in a monitored setting, followed by administration of glucagon is the most useful diagnostic strategy.
During a 72 hour fast, patients are allowed no food but can consume non-caloric caffeine-free beverages. Insulin, c-peptide and glucose samples are obtained at the beginning of the fast and every 4-6 hours. When the plasma glucose falls to <60 mg/dl, specimens should be taken every 1-2 hours under close supervision. Patients should continue activity when they are awake. The fast continues until the plasma glucose falls below 45 mg/dl (2.5 mmol/l) [plasma glucose <55 mg/dl (3.0 mmol/l) is recommended in the most recent Endocrine Society guidelines] and symptoms of neuroglucopenia develop, at which time insulin, glucose, c-peptide, oral insulin secretagogue, proinsulin and beta-hydroxybutyrate levels are obtained and the fast is terminated. Additional samples for insulin antibodies, anti-insulin receptor antibodies, IGF-1/IGF-2 and plasma cortisol, glucagon or growth hormone can also be obtained at this time if a non-islet cell tumor, autoimmune etiology, or hormone deficiency is suspected. Patients are fed at the conclusion of the fast.
For patients with hypoglycemic symptoms several hours after meals, a mixed meal test may be performed. This test has not been well standardized. Patients eat a meal similar to one that provokes their symptoms. A plasma glucose level is drawn at the time of symptoms to verify hypoglycemia.
Table 4. Distinguishing causes of symptomatic hypoglycemia [glucose < 55 mg/dl (3.0 mmol/l)] after a prolonged fast Insulin (µU/ml) C-peptide (nmol/L) Proinsulin (pmol/L) Oral hypoglycemic Interpretation »3 <0.2 <5 No Exogenous insulin ≥3 ≥0.2 ≥5 No Endogenous insulina ≥3 ≥0.2 ≥5 Yes Oral hypoglycemic a Insulinoma, noninsulinoma pancreatogenous hypoglycemia (NIPHS), post gastric bypass hypoglycemia.
In a patient with documented hypoglycemia with laboratory findings consistent with endogenous hyperinsulinism localizing studies should be done to evaluate for insulinoma. These may include computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), transabdominal and endoscopic ultrasonography, and, if necessary, selective pancreatic arterial calcium injections with measurements of hepatic venous insulin levels.
Life threatening thyrotoxicosis or thyroid storm is a rare, occasionally iatrogenic disorder characterized by multisystem involvement and
a high mortality rate if not immediately recognized and treated aggressively. A high index of suspicion for thyroid storm should be maintained in patients with thyrotoxicosis
associated with any evidence of systemic decompensation. Precise criteria for thyroid storm have been defined (Table ) and include tachycardia, arrhythmias, congestive heart
failure, hypotension, hyperpyrexia, agitation, delirium, psychosis, stupor and coma, as well as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and hepatic failure.
Pathophysiology:
•There is no evidence that increased productionof T3 or T4 causes thyroid storm
•Increased catecholamine receptors (increased sensitivity to catecholamines) plays a key role
•Decreased binding to TBG (increased free T3 or T4) may play a role
•Bottom line: patients who are susceptible to thyroid storm have increased sensitivity to catecholamines; therefore, in states of stress (= catecholamine excess), thyroid
storm can rear its ugly head!
by:Greenspan FS. The Thyroid Gland – Thyrotoxicosis Crisis. In Basic and Clinical Endocrinology. Greenspan FS, Gardner DG, eds. New York: Lange Medical, 2001. pp. 247-8
Remember that elderly patients often present atypically (apathetic thyroid storm)
To confirm the diagnosis, both serum levels of free T4 and supersensitive TSH
should be assayed.
Results of serum total T4 measurements can be affected by protein binding
abnormalities and may be misleading.
Supersensitive TSH assay is useful for screening but a suppressed TSH level by
itself may not be due to thyrotoxicosis.
A result of normal free T4 (fT4) level may miss a small number of cases of
thyrotoxicosis due to T3 toxicosis. In patients suspected of T3
toxicosis, serum free T3 (fT3) measurement is indicated.
Isotope uptake scan may be performed in cases suspected of thyroiditis and toxic adenoma.
Airway assessment is always the first as it is imperative that the airway is not obstructed. For detailed advice on management of the airway see the WHO ETAT course (1).
Check consciousness
Assess ability to take a deep breath
Assess ability to speak in a full sentence – can the patient speak a full sentences, juse phrases, single words, or not at all
Assess if the airway is clear
Breathing should be adequate; if breathing assistance is required use a bag valve mask device or give oxygen if available. Only when problems with airway and breathing are addressed should the clinician move onto circulation.
Look, listen and feel for the movement of air
Assess the adequacy of the breathing process – is their sufficient rate and volume of air being moved?
Assess work of breathing (patient effort versus efficacy)
Listen to the chest (through Auscultation) and identify any variances of normal breathing. Normal breathing should sound like soft air movements; absent breath sounds is very bad; wheezes suggests bronchospasm; crackles and rales indicates pulomonary oedema or infection.
Expose chest (while maintaining patient’s dignity) and assess for accessesory muscle involvement, such as sternocloidomastoid arching, pectoral muscles,external and internal intercostal muscles, which are all signs of increased respiratory distress
Circulation. The chart gives guidance on the use of fluids. It is important to recognise malnutrition at this stage, as rapid infusion of intravenous fluids to a malnourished child can be very dangerous. Depending upon measurement of capillary refill, heart rate and blood pressure, give fluids: rapidly IV, slowly IV, or orally.
Examine for life- threatening haemorrhage
Assess perfusion (level of consciousness, skin colour, pulse rate and blood preasure
Assess the pule mannually – is it regular or irregular, what is the rate (15 seconds x 4), skin colour, temperature, central and peripheral cap refil.
Disability. If the patient shows signs of disability (either coma or convulsion) airway and breathing management are top priority. It is then appropriate to insert an IV cannual and measure the blood sugar if possible. These patients are at risk of low blood sugar and often it is safer to give glucose as soon as possible.
Measure level of consciousness (AVPU – Patient is Alert, responding to verbal stimuli, responds to pain, unconscious; GCS: Glascow Coma Score)
Dehydration - is so common in tropical countries that checking for signs of dehydration should be routine. The signs of shock have already been looked for while assessing circulation but specific examination for loose skin, lethargy and sunken eyes should occur.
Exposure. Finally it is important to look at the whole patient, to look for signs of a rash, trauma or swollen abdomen.
Expose the patient (while maintaining their dignity) so that you can see any injuries, watch breathing, etc.
Check temperature
“Triangle of treatment”
−Decrease the sympathetic outflow (beta-blockers – esmolol is a great choice)
−Decrease production of thyroid hormone (PTU or methimazole); super-saturated iodine solution
(SSKI) can also be used to block outflow of thyroid hormone from the thyroid gland.
−Decrease peripheral conversion of T4 >T3 (PTU, beta-blockers, steroids)
The above regime should be instituted simultaneously. Once the clinical situation stabilises (usually after 3 - 4 days), iodide and corticosteroids may be stopped and the dose of anti-thyroid drugs and beta-blockers may be reduced.
The precipitating cause should be treated. Subsequently, appropriate treatment for thyrotoxicosis should be continued.
Typical clinical picture:
Elderly obese female
Becoming increasingly withdrawn, lethargic, sleepy and confused
Slips into a coma
elderly patients with hypothyroidism may have atypical symptoms. They may just present with reduced mobility, and some patients with compensated hypothyroidism are asymptomatic
The physical signs of hypothyroidism are usually obvious and most patients have respiratory depression secondary to a decreased
hypoxic ventilatory drive and an impaired response to hypercapnia: the more severe the latter, the more likely coma is. Cardiac enlargement, bradycardia, decreased ventricular
contractility, hypotension, and ECG changes (low voltage, non-specific ST wave changes and sometimes torsades de pointes with a long QT interval) are common.
Many patients have anorexia, abdominal pain and distention, and constipation and these changes may rarely lead to paralytic ileus and megacolon.
hyponatraemia, normal
or increased urine sodium excretion, raised creatine phosphokinase
and lactate dehydrogenase, hypoglycaemia, and
normocytic or macrocytic anaemia. Thyroid stimulating
hormone values may only be modestly raised (and will be
normal or low in secondary hypothyroidism) but free
thyroxine levels are usually very low.
The adrenal glands are two, triangular-shaped organs that measure about 1.5 inches in height and 3 inches in length. They are located on top of each kidney. Their name directly relates to their location (ad—near or at; renes—kidneys).
Each adrenal gland is comprised of two distinct structures—the outer part of the adrenal glands is called the adrenal cortex. The inner region is known as the adrenal medulla.
The adrenal cortex—the outer part of the gland—produces hormones that are vital to life, such as cortisol (which helps regulate metabolism and helps your body respond to stress) and aldosterone (which helps control blood pressure).
Adrenal Cortex Hormones
The adrenal cortex produces two main groups of corticosteroid hormones—glucocorticoids and mineralcorticoids. The release of glucocorticoids is triggered by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland.
Mineralcorticoids are mediated by signals triggered by the kidney.
When the hypothalamus produces corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH), it stimulates the pituitary gland to release adrenal corticotrophic hormone (ACTH). These hormones, in turn, alert the adrenal glands to produce corticosteroid hormones.
Glucocorticoids released by the adrenal cortex include:
Hydrocortisone: Commonly known as cortisol, it regulates how the body converts fats, proteins, and carbohydrates to energy. It also helps regulate blood pressure and cardiovascular function.
Corticosterone: This hormone works with hydrocortisone to regulate immune response and suppress inflammatory reactions.
The principle mineralcorticoid is aldosterone, which maintains the right balance of salt and water while helping control blood pressure.
There is a third class of hormone released by the adrenal cortex, known as sex steroids or sex hormones. The adrenal cortex releases small amounts of male and female sex hormones. However, their impact is usually overshadowed by the greater amounts of hormones (such as estrogen and testosterone) released by the ovaries or testes.
The adrenal medulla—the inner part of the gland—produces nonessential (that is, you don’t need them to live) hormones, such as adrenaline (which helps your body react to stress).
The hormones of the adrenal medulla are released after the sympathetic nervous system is stimulated, which occurs when you’re stressed. As such, the adrenal medulla helps you deal with physical and emotional stress, fight-or-flight response.
Hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla are:
Epinephrine: Most people know epinephrine by its other name—adrenaline. This hormone rapidly responds to stress by increasing your heart rate and rushing blood to the muscles and brain. It also spikes your blood sugar level by helping convert glycogen to glucose in the liver. (Glycogen is the liver’s storage form of glucose.)
Norepinephrine: Also known as noradrenaline, this hormone works with epinephrine in responding to stress. However, it can cause vasoconstriction (the narrowing of blood vessels). This results in high blood pressure.
Acute adrenocortical insufficiency may be due to primary failure of adrenal function (primary adrenal insufficiency, PAI) or secondary due to lack of adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH) drive from the pituitary (secondary adrenal insufficiency, SAI).