Tipes of Cohesion in the English Language.

1. Cohesion In EnglishCohesion In English
By: Waseem Azhar GilanyBy: Waseem Azhar Gilany

2. CohesionCohesion inin EnglishEnglish
 The various kinds of cohesion had been out lined byThe various kinds of cohesion had been out lined by
MAK Halliday in his writings on stylistics and theMAK Halliday in his writings on stylistics and the
concept was developed by Ruqaiya Hasan in herconcept was developed by Ruqaiya Hasan in her
University of Edinburgh doctoral thesis.University of Edinburgh doctoral thesis.
 Cohesive relations are relations between two orCohesive relations are relations between two or
more elements in a text that are independent of themore elements in a text that are independent of the
structure: for example between a personal pronounstructure: for example between a personal pronoun
and an antecedent proper name, such as Johnand an antecedent proper name, such as John
….he. A semantic relation of this kind may be set up….he. A semantic relation of this kind may be set up
either within a sentence with the consequence thateither within a sentence with the consequence that
when it crosses a sentence boundary it has thewhen it crosses a sentence boundary it has the
effect of making the two sentences cohere with oneeffect of making the two sentences cohere with one
another.another.
 The major function of cohesion is text formation.The major function of cohesion is text formation.
As defined: text is a unified whole of linguisticAs defined: text is a unified whole of linguistic
items, this unity of text as a semantic whole isitems, this unity of text as a semantic whole is
source for the concept of cohesion.source for the concept of cohesion.

3. TextText
Constituents ofConstituents of
TextText
Texture Ties Cohesion

4. TextureTexture
 ::
 Texture is that feature of text which made it a unifiedTexture is that feature of text which made it a unified
whole.whole.
 According to ‘The Concise Oxford Dictionary ofAccording to ‘The Concise Oxford Dictionary of
Linguistics by P.H. Mathews’ cohesion and coherenceLinguistics by P.H. Mathews’ cohesion and coherence
are sources which create texture. Crystal addsare sources which create texture. Crystal adds
‘informativeness’ to cohesion and coherence.‘informativeness’ to cohesion and coherence.

 Example:Example:
 Wash and coreWash and core six cooking applessix cooking apples. Put. Put themthem into ainto a
fireproof dishfireproof dish

5. Five Cohesive Devices To CreateFive Cohesive Devices To Create
Texture:Texture:
 ReferenceReference
 SubstitutionSubstitution
 EllipsesEllipses
 ConjunctionConjunction
 Lexical CohesionLexical Cohesion

6. Ties:Ties:
 The term refers to a single instance of cohesion.The term refers to a single instance of cohesion.
 Example:Example:
 Wash and coreWash and core six cooking applessix cooking apples . Put. Put
themthem into a fireproof dish.into a fireproof dish.
 ThemThem andand six cooking applessix cooking apples show reference as tie.show reference as tie.
 If we take the Example:If we take the Example:
 Wash and coreWash and core six cooking applessix cooking apples . Put. Put
the applesthe apples into a fireproof dish.into a fireproof dish.
 Here are two tiesHere are two ties
(i) Reference(i) Reference
(ii) Repetition(ii) Repetition

7. Different Kinds Of Cohesive TiesDifferent Kinds Of Cohesive Ties
 ReferenceReference
 SubstitutionSubstitution
 EllipsesEllipses
 ConjunctionConjunction
 Lexical cohesionLexical cohesion

8. CohesionCohesion
 ‘‘The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics by P.H.The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics by P.H.
Mathews (1997)’ defines cohesion in term of syntactic unitMathews (1997)’ defines cohesion in term of syntactic unit
(sentence).(sentence).
 ‘‘ A Dictionary Of Linguistics And Phonetics by DavidA Dictionary Of Linguistics And Phonetics by David
Crystal (1997)’ defines cohesion in terms of a grammaticalCrystal (1997)’ defines cohesion in terms of a grammatical
unit (words)unit (words)
 MAKH and RH (1976) argued that the concept of cohesionMAKH and RH (1976) argued that the concept of cohesion
is semantic one. For them it refers to relation of meaningis semantic one. For them it refers to relation of meaning
that:that:
exists with in textexists with in text
gives the text texturegives the text texture
defines the text as textdefines the text as text
 This relation of meaning between the elements gives theThis relation of meaning between the elements gives the
reader presupposition. This is another way of approachingreader presupposition. This is another way of approaching
the notion of cohesion that presupposing and thethe notion of cohesion that presupposing and the
presupposed give us a presupposition at semantic level aspresupposed give us a presupposition at semantic level as
a relation of meaning: The one element presupposes thea relation of meaning: The one element presupposes the
other i.e. the one element cannot be decoded without theother i.e. the one element cannot be decoded without the

9. Example:Example:
Time fliesTime flies
You can’t; they fly too quickly.You can’t; they fly too quickly.
You can’tYou can’t (Ellipses)(Ellipses)
They (Reference)They (Reference)
Fly (Lexical Cohesion)Fly (Lexical Cohesion)

10. Types OF CohesionTypes OF Cohesion
 Language is multiple coding system comprisingLanguage is multiple coding system comprising
three levels of codingthree levels of coding
MeaningMeaning The semantic systemThe semantic system
WordingWording The lexicogrammatical systemThe lexicogrammatical system
(grammar an vocabulary)(grammar an vocabulary)
Sounding/writingSounding/writing The phonological andThe phonological and
orthographical systemorthographical system
 Cohesive relation fit into the overall pattern ofCohesive relation fit into the overall pattern of
language. Cohesion is expressed partly throughlanguage. Cohesion is expressed partly through
vocabulary and partly through grammar.vocabulary and partly through grammar.

11.  1. Grammatical Cohesion1. Grammatical Cohesion
(i) Reference(i) Reference
(ii) Substitution(ii) Substitution
(iii) Ellipses(iii) Ellipses
 2. Lexical Cohesion2. Lexical Cohesion
 The distinction between grammatical cohesion andThe distinction between grammatical cohesion and
Lexical cohesion is a matter of degree and MAHK RHLexical cohesion is a matter of degree and MAHK RH
suggested not to go in the depth of these overlappingsuggested not to go in the depth of these overlapping
areas and that conjunction is on the border line of theareas and that conjunction is on the border line of the
two types mainly it is grammatical but with the lexicaltwo types mainly it is grammatical but with the lexical
component so we cannot clearly distinguish betweencomponent so we cannot clearly distinguish between
the two types.the two types.

12. Cohesion and the LinguisticsCohesion and the Linguistics
StructureStructure
 Texture and StructureTexture and Structure
Structure is one mean of expressing of texture. Text consistStructure is one mean of expressing of texture. Text consist
of one sentence are fairly rare but they can be singleof one sentence are fairly rare but they can be single
sentences as well for Example:sentences as well for Example:
No smokingNo smoking
Wonder never ceaseWonder never cease
 But most of the text extends beyond the confines of singleBut most of the text extends beyond the confines of single
sentences so structure important in a text as structural unitssentences so structure important in a text as structural units
such as phrase, clause and sentence which express thesuch as phrase, clause and sentence which express the
unity of text. But our use of term Cohesion refers especiallyunity of text. But our use of term Cohesion refers especially
to the non structural text forming relation. They areto the non structural text forming relation. They are
semantic relations and the text is a semantic unit.semantic relations and the text is a semantic unit.

13. Cohesion With in the TextCohesion With in the Text
 Since cohesive relation is not concerned withSince cohesive relation is not concerned with
structure, they may be found just as well with in thestructure, they may be found just as well with in the
sentence as between sentences cohesive relationsentence as between sentences cohesive relation
are beyond the sentences boundaries. Cohesion isare beyond the sentences boundaries. Cohesion is
semantic relation between one element in the textsemantic relation between one element in the text
and some other element that is crucial for itsand some other element that is crucial for its
interpretation. This other element must also be foundinterpretation. This other element must also be found
with in the text. Cohesion refers to the range ofwith in the text. Cohesion refers to the range of
possibilities that exist for linking something with whatpossibilities that exist for linking something with what
has gone before.has gone before.

14. The Place of Cohesion in theThe Place of Cohesion in the
Linguistics SystemLinguistics System
Ideational Interpersonal Textual
Experiential Logical Structural Non-structural
By Rank:
Clause:
Transitivity
Verbal Group:
Tense
Nominal Group:
Epithesis
Adverbial Group:
circmstance
All Ranks:
Practice and
hypotactic
relations
(condition,
addition,
report)
By Ranks
Clause:
Mood, modality
Verbal Group:
person
Nominal Group:
attitude
Adverbial Group:
comment
By Rank
Clause:
theme
Verbal Group:
voice
Nominal Group:
deixis
Adverbial Group:
conjunction
Cross-Rank
Information
Unit:
Information
distribution,
Information
focus
Cohesion
Reference
Substitution
Ellipses
Conjunction
Lexical cohesion

15. Conclusion:Conclusion:
 Cohesion is a part of text forming component inCohesion is a part of text forming component in
the linguistics system. It links together thethe linguistics system. It links together the
elements that are structurally unrelated throughelements that are structurally unrelated through
the dependence of one on the other for itsthe dependence of one on the other for its
interpretation. Without cohesion the semanticinterpretation. Without cohesion the semantic
system cannot be effectively activated at all.system cannot be effectively activated at all.

16. (i) Reference(i) Reference
 There are certain items in any language which cannotThere are certain items in any language which cannot
be interpreted semantically in their own right ratherbe interpreted semantically in their own right rather
they make reference to something else within the textthey make reference to something else within the text
for their interpretation.for their interpretation.
 Here is an example of reference:Here is an example of reference:
Doctor Foster went to Gloucester in a shower ofDoctor Foster went to Gloucester in a shower of
rainrain
He stepped in puddle right up to his middleHe stepped in puddle right up to his middle
And never went there againAnd never went there again
 Here in the above example:Here in the above example:
HeHe refers back torefers back to Doctor FosterDoctor Foster
ThereThere refers back torefers back to GloucesterGloucester

17. Reference can be sub-categorizeReference can be sub-categorize
as followas follow
ReferenceReference
ExophoraExophora EndophoraEndophora
AnaphoraAnaphora
CataphoraCataphora

18. ExophoraExophora
 It indicates situation references. AnaphoraIt indicates situation references. Anaphora
signals that reference must be made to thesignals that reference must be made to the
context of situation. It is outside the text so it iscontext of situation. It is outside the text so it is
called anaphoric reference.called anaphoric reference.
 Example;Example;
For he’s a jolly good fellow and so say all of us.For he’s a jolly good fellow and so say all of us.
Here text is not indicating who he is?Here text is not indicating who he is?

19. EndophoraEndophora
 It is a general name for reference withinIt is a general name for reference within
the text. This reference can be of twothe text. This reference can be of two
types.types.
 Anaphora:Anaphora: Reference backReference back
 Cataphora:Cataphora: Reference forwardReference forward

20. ExampleExample::
 Child: why does that one come out?Child: why does that one come out?
 Parent: that whatParent: that what
 Child: that one.Child: that one.
 Parent: that one what?Parent: that one what?
 Child: that lever there that you push to let theChild: that lever there that you push to let the
water out.water out.
That oneThat one that lever (cataphoric reference)that lever (cataphoric reference)
That leverThat lever thatthat (anaphoric reference)(anaphoric reference)

21. Three Types Of ReferenceThree Types Of Reference
 Personal ReferencePersonal Reference
 Demonstrative ReferenceDemonstrative Reference
 Comparative ReferenceComparative Reference
It is better first explain theIt is better first explain the
structure of nominal group thenstructure of nominal group then
proceed towards three types ofproceed towards three types of
Reference. It is because we willReference. It is because we will
analyze nominal group for cohesiveanalyze nominal group for cohesive
analysis of these cohesive devices.analysis of these cohesive devices.

22. Nominal GroupNominal Group
 The logical structure of the nominal group (noun phrase) is that it consistsThe logical structure of the nominal group (noun phrase) is that it consists
of head with optional modifier the modifying elements include some whichof head with optional modifier the modifying elements include some which
precede the head and some which follow it. They can be referred asprecede the head and some which follow it. They can be referred as PrePre
modifiermodifier andand PostPost modifiermodifier respectively.respectively.
 ExampleExample
The two high stone wall along the roadside.The two high stone wall along the roadside.
WallWall ------------------------ HeadHead
The two high stoneThe two high stone ------------------------ Pre modifierPre modifier
Along the roadsideAlong the roadside ------------------------ Post modifierPost modifier
The modifier can be further subcategorized as:The modifier can be further subcategorized as:
 DeicticDeictic
 NumerativeNumerative
 EpithetEpithet
 ClassifierClassifier
 QualifierQualifier
 ThingThing
 ExampleExample
TheirTheir famousfamous oldold redred wine.wine.
DeicticDeictic DeicticDeictic epithetepithet classifierclassifier thingthing
DeterminerDeterminer adjectiveadjective adjectiveadjective adjectiveadjective nounnoun

23. Personal ReferencePersonal Reference
 It is a reference by means of function into a speechIt is a reference by means of function into a speech
situation through the category of the person in thesituation through the category of the person in the
form of personal pronouns. The category of personsform of personal pronouns. The category of persons
includes the three classes of personal pronouns. Theincludes the three classes of personal pronouns. The
category of person includes the three classes ofcategory of person includes the three classes of
personal pronouns. During the communicationpersonal pronouns. During the communication
process the speech roles are assigned to theprocess the speech roles are assigned to the
participants through the person system as:participants through the person system as:
SpeakerSpeaker
AddresseeAddressee
 It/one are used as a generalized form for other itemsIt/one are used as a generalized form for other items
 ExampleExample
If the buyer wants to look the condition of theIf the buyer wants to look the condition of the
property, he has to have another survey. Oneproperty, he has to have another survey. One
carried out on his own behalf.carried out on his own behalf.

24. Here in the above example the use of personal pronouns isHere in the above example the use of personal pronouns is
a source of personal referencea source of personal reference
BuyerBuyer hehe hishis
SurveySurvey oneone
 If possessive pronouns are used, they give two moreIf possessive pronouns are used, they give two more
notions other than Speaker and Addressee. They arenotions other than Speaker and Addressee. They are
that ofthat of
Possessor and PossessedPossessor and Possessed
ExampleExample
That new house is John’s. I didn’t know it was hisThat new house is John’s. I didn’t know it was his
PossessorPossessor JohnJohn
PossessedPossessed househouse
(shown by the use of his and ‘s)(shown by the use of his and ‘s)

25. Existential Possessive
Head Modifier
Noun (pronoun)
Determiner
I me
you
we us
he him
she her
they them
it
one
mine
yours
ours
his
hers
theirs
[its]
my
yours
our
his
her
their
its
one’s
Semantic category
Grammatical function
Class
Person:
speaker (only)
addressee (s), with/without
other person(s)
speaker and other person
other person, male
other person, female
other persons, objects
object; passage of text
generalized person
Table: Personal Reference

26. Demonstrative ReferenceDemonstrative Reference
 .. It is essentially a form of verbalIt is essentially a form of verbal
pointing. The speaker identifies or pointspointing. The speaker identifies or points
pout the referent by locating it on scale ofpout the referent by locating it on scale of
proximity. The system of demonstrativeproximity. The system of demonstrative
pronoun is given in the following table.pronoun is given in the following table.

27. Table: Demonstrative
Reference
Selective Non-selective
Modifier Adjunct Modifier
determiner adverb determiner
this these
that those
here [now]
there then
the
Semantic
category
Grammatical
category
Class
Proximity:
near
far
neutral

28.  ExamplesExamples
Leave thatLeave that therethere and comeand come herehere..
WhereWhere do you come from?do you come from?
I like the lions and I like the polar bears.I like the lions and I like the polar bears.
TheseThese are my favorites andare my favorites and thosethose are myare my
favorites too.favorites too.

29. Comparative ReferenceComparative Reference
 Here two types of comparison are given:Here two types of comparison are given:
 General ComparisonGeneral Comparison
 Particular ComparisonParticular Comparison
 General ComparisonGeneral Comparison
 Here things compared show likeness or unlikenessHere things compared show likeness or unlikeness
without considering any particular property. Likenesswithout considering any particular property. Likeness
or unlikeness is referential property as something isor unlikeness is referential property as something is
can be like something else.can be like something else.
 ExampleExample
 It’s the same cat as the one we saw yesterday.It’s the same cat as the one we saw yesterday.
 Its different cat from the one we saw yesterdayIts different cat from the one we saw yesterday

30. (ii)Particular(ii)Particular ComparisonComparison
 Here comparison is made on the scale ofHere comparison is made on the scale of
quantity or quality it is a matter of degreequantity or quality it is a matter of degree
compare things on this scale. In other words wecompare things on this scale. In other words we
can say it expresses the comparability betweencan say it expresses the comparability between
things.things.
 ExampleExample
We are demanding higher living standard.We are demanding higher living standard.
There are twice as many people there as theThere are twice as many people there as the
ll ast time.ast time.

31. Table: Comparative reference
Modifier
Deictic /epithet
(see below)
Submodifier /adjuncts
Adjectives Adverb
same identical equal
similar additional
other different else
identically
similarly likewise
so such
differently otherwise
better, more etc
[comparative adjectives and
quantifiers]
so more less equally
Grammatical function
Class
General comparison:
Identity
general similarity
difference (ie non-identity or
similarity)
Particular comparison:

32. 2. Substitution2. Substitution
 Substitution is replacement of one linguistic item by another.Substitution is replacement of one linguistic item by another.
Ellipses is also a kind of Substitution where one linguistic itemEllipses is also a kind of Substitution where one linguistic item
is replaced by nothing/ zero. Therefore it is an omission of anis replaced by nothing/ zero. Therefore it is an omission of an
item.item.
 When we talk about replacement of one item by another,When we talk about replacement of one item by another,
we mean replacement of one word/phrase with another word orwe mean replacement of one word/phrase with another word or
phrase. We can say substitution is a relation onphrase. We can say substitution is a relation on
lexicogrammatical level. It is used to avoid repetition of alexicogrammatical level. It is used to avoid repetition of a
particular item. But while locating cohesion through substitutionparticular item. But while locating cohesion through substitution
semantic is involved.semantic is involved.
 ExampleExample
 MyMy axe is too blunt. I mist get a sharper one.axe is too blunt. I mist get a sharper one.
 You know John already knows. I think everybodyYou know John already knows. I think everybody
does.does.

33. Types of SubstitutionTypes of Substitution
 There are three types of substitution.There are three types of substitution.
 Nominal SubstitutionNominal Substitution
 Verbal SubstitutionVerbal Substitution
 Clausal substitutionClausal substitution

34. NominalNominal SubstitutionSubstitution
 There are three nominal substitutes.There are three nominal substitutes.
 one, ones, same.one, ones, same.
 The nominal substitute one/onesThe nominal substitute one/ones
 TheThe substitute one/ones always function as head of asubstitute one/ones always function as head of a
nominal group and can substitute only for an item which isnominal group and can substitute only for an item which is
itself head a nominal group.itself head a nominal group.
 ExampleExample
 I’ve heard some strangeI’ve heard some strange storiesstories in my time. But thisin my time. But this
oneone was perhaps the strangest one of all.was perhaps the strangest one of all.
 NoteNote: The word other than a substitute can be used as: The word other than a substitute can be used as
 The personal pronoun oneThe personal pronoun one
 Cardinal numeral oneCardinal numeral one
 Determiner oneDeterminer one

35. The nominal substitute sameThe nominal substitute same
 Same typically accompanied bySame typically accompanied by thethe presupposepresuppose
an entire nominal group.an entire nominal group.
 ExampleExample
 A:A: I’ll have two poached eggs on toast, please.I’ll have two poached eggs on toast, please.
 B:B: I’ll haveI’ll have the samethe same
 The Same can have following expressions as:The Same can have following expressions as:
Say the sameSay the same
DO the sameDO the same
Be the sameBe the same

36. 2. Verbal Substitution2. Verbal Substitution
 The verbal substitute isThe verbal substitute is do.do. This operates as head of a verbalThis operates as head of a verbal
group. Lexical verb is replaced bygroup. Lexical verb is replaced by dodo and its position is on the finaland its position is on the final
in the group.in the group.
 Example from AliceExample from Alice
 The words did notThe words did not comecome the same as they used tothe same as they used to dodo..
 It can also substitute for a verb plus certain other elements in theIt can also substitute for a verb plus certain other elements in the
clause.clause.

 ExampleExample
 I don’tI don’t know the meaning of half those language wordsknow the meaning of half those language words andand
what’s more, I don’t believe youwhat’s more, I don’t believe you dodo either.either.

37. Note:Note: The word Do other than asThe word Do other than as
substitutesubstitute
 LexicalLexical verb doverb do
(he is doing)(he is doing)
 GeneralGeneral verb doverb do
(they did a dance)(they did a dance)
 Pro-verb doPro-verb do
{do(action), happen(event)}{do(action), happen(event)}

38. Clausal substitutionClausal substitution
 Here presupposed is not an elementHere presupposed is not an element
within the clause but an entire clause.within the clause but an entire clause. SoSo
andand NotNot areare clausalclausal substitutessubstitutes
 ExampleExample
 IsIs there going to be an earth quakethere going to be an earth quake? - it? - it
sayssays soso
 Types of Clausal SubstitutionTypes of Clausal Substitution
 There are three types of clausalThere are three types of clausal
substitution.substitution.
 Substitution of reported clauseSubstitution of reported clause
 Substitution of conditional clauseSubstitution of conditional clause
 Substitution of modalized clauseSubstitution of modalized clause

39. Substitution of Reported ClauseSubstitution of Reported Clause
 The reported clausal that is substituted byThe reported clausal that is substituted by soso oror notnot isis
always declarative whatever the mood of the presupposedalways declarative whatever the mood of the presupposed
clause is whether interrogative or imperative.clause is whether interrogative or imperative.
 ExampleExample
 Has everyone gone homeHas everyone gone home? I hope? I hope notnot..
 I didn’t think so.I didn’t think so.
 (I hope not (that) every one has gone home)(I hope not (that) every one has gone home)
 Is this mango ripeIs this mango ripe? – It seems? – It seems soso..
 The essential distinction to be made here is that betweenThe essential distinction to be made here is that between
reports and facts. Reports can be substituted whereas facts canreports and facts. Reports can be substituted whereas facts can
not, reason is that facts are encoded at semantic level whilenot, reason is that facts are encoded at semantic level while
clausal substitute works at lexicogrammatical level only.clausal substitute works at lexicogrammatical level only.

40. Substitution of ConditionalSubstitution of Conditional
ClauseClause
 Conditional clause are also substituted byConditional clause are also substituted by soso
andand notnot especially following if / assuming so /especially following if / assuming so /
suppose so etc.suppose so etc.
 ExampleExample
 Everyone seems to thinkEveryone seems to think he’s guiltyhe’s guilty. If. If
soso, no doubt he’ll offer to resign, no doubt he’ll offer to resign
 We should recognize the place when we comeWe should recognize the place when we come
to itto it. Yes, but supposing. Yes, but supposing notnot then what do wethen what do we
do?do?

41. Substitution of Modalized ClauseSubstitution of Modalized Clause
 So and not also occur as substitute forSo and not also occur as substitute for
clauses expressing modality.clauses expressing modality.
 ExampleExample
 ‘‘May I give you a slice?’ sheMay I give you a slice?’ she
said.said.
 ‘‘CertainlyCertainly notnot’ the red queen’ the red queen
said.said.

42. The EndThe End
Allah HafizAllah Hafiz