Barnabas technical report on SIWES

Technical report on SIWES
By SAMUEL BARNABAS I.1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
The Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is a program
initiated by institutions as a practical experience or knowledge to the theoretical
academic lessons engaged by students in their various field of study. The main
objectives of SIWES program are stated below.
 It helps to provide quality graduates with theoretical and practical
knowledge on their field of work.
 It prepares students for the work or situation they may likely meet after
graduation.
 To consistently and innovatively deliver goods and services that meet
international standards.
1.1 ASSUMPTION OF WORK/ACCEPTANCE
I started my Industrial training in the month of March 2015, where I worked
in the laboratory of Good Shepherd Medical Centre, Anyigba Kogi State.
On my first day of resumption I was given an intake examination, after I
pass the test I was accepted. Two days later I resumed fully for the working
experience; I was taken to various department of the Hospital which includes Out
Patient Department, Pharmaceutical department, the Consulting Room,
Laboratory and the Wards with other sections as well. I was introduced to some
of the staffs who work in the laboratory department.

1.2 PROFILE OF INDUSTRIAL TRAINING FUND (ITF)
The Industrial Training Fund is a program established in October 6th
1971
to encourage and promote the acquisition of skills in commerce and industries
with a view of generating a pool of indigenous trained manpower sufficient to
meet the need of the economy. The beehives offices and three skill centers
spread across the country where employer of labour and students are engaged
in training activities and other programs of the fund. The objectives of which the
Fund was established has been pursued vigorously and effectively in the four
decades of existence, ITF has not only raised training consciousness, but has
also helped in generating corps of skilled of manpower that has been manning
and managing various sectors to it statutory responsibility. ITF has expanded it
structures, developed training programs and reviews it strategies, operation and
services skilled manpower in the economy which was under the control of the
ministry of industry. The ITF provides a Vocational training, Apprentice training,
Research and Consultancy Services, Reimbursement of up to 60% levy paid by
the employer of labour registered with it administers and the Students Industrial
Work Experience Scheme (SIWES), and also provides human resources
development information and training technology to commerce and industries.
1.3 GOOD SHEPHERD MEDICAL CENTRE AS AN ESTABLISHMENT
Good Shepherd Medical Centre is located at No: 1 Ankpa road Anyigba,
Kogi State. It was founded by Ambassador. Micheal Friday in 2014. The Hospital
has various department and sections which includes; Medical Laboratory
Department, Theatre, Wards, Pharmacy, General Out Patient Department
(GOPD). The Hospital was opened primarily to cater for health challenges of the
people around.

1.4 THE MEDICAL LABORATORY
The Medical Laboratory Section is a department where daily test are done
on clinical or medical specimen so as to get more information about the health
condition of the patient(s) as pertaining diagnosis, treatment and prevention of
disease.
There are many sections in a Medical Laboratory such as the hematology
section, microbiology section, chemical pathology section, serology/immunology
section, virology section and several others. After the patient is checked by the
doctor, the test(s) to be carried out are written down in a request form and is sent
to the laboratory for the test. The test is done in the laboratory and the result is
sent back to the doctor for treatment if needs arises.
1.5 LABORATORY RULES AND REGULATIONS
For any organization to work effectively, there should be laid down
principles guiding the activities of each sections of that organization. The basic
laboratory rules and regulation are listed below.
 All laboratory work must be done with a laboratory coat or apron.
 Every experiment involving flammable gas should be done in a fume
cupboard.
 No eating or drinking in the laboratory.
 No playing or smoking in the laboratory.
 Every used laboratory kit or instrument should be discarded or disinfected
after use.
 All laboratory reagents should be stored under a suitable temperature.

 Wash your hand carefully when you leave.
 Beware of glass especially if it is broken and then dispose of it safely.
 Keep long hair tied back.
 Keep your work area tidy and clean up any spills including water on the
floor.
1.6 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
In the laboratory, different instrument are used; some has general purpose
while some have specific usage. Below are some laboratory equipment and their
uses.
TEST TUBE: This is a glass cylindrical instrument used in the laboratory to
hold the blood sample for analysis and examination.
MICROSCOPE: This is an optical device for viewing micro-organisms and
other pathological substances that cannot be viewed with the ordinary
eyes.
ANAEROBIC JAR: This is the instrument that is use to grow micro-organism
that fails to grow or die in an aerobic condition.
REFRIGERATOR: The refrigerator is a machine used to store laboratory
sample and reagent that are below normal room temperature.
BLOOD BANK REFRIGERATOR: It is a machine that is use to save keep
collected blood bags which can be use in blood transfusion.
PIPETTE: This is made of a rubber material and is graduated in milliliters. It is
use to measure specific volume liquid sample like blood and reagents.
SYRINGE/NEEDLE: It is use to collect blood sample from patient.

KITS: These are various kits stripes used for test like OBT, VDRL, RVST, PT,
HBSAg etc.
CENTRIFUGE: It is use to separate liquid of different densities. Separating
the blood plasma from the red blood cell, white blood cell and platelet.
GLUCOMETER: A device for testing blood sugar level of a patient.
MICRO-HAEMATOCRIT CENTRIFUGE: It is a machine used to separate
blood components in a small capillary tube for the essence of knowing the
volume of the red blood cell in a patient.
MICRO-HAEMATOCRIT READER: This is use for reading out the percentage
composition of the red blood cell in the body.
BLOOD BAG: A bag containing anticoagulant in which blood is collected into
and stored for the purpose of blood transfusion.
DIAGRAM OF SOME LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
Plastic syringe and needle
Plastic syringe and needle
Light microscope

CHAPTER TWO
HAEMATOLOGY SECTION:
2.0 COLLECTION OF BLOOD SAMPLE
The volume of the blood to be collected and the method involved in the
collection is determined by the type of test to be carried out on a patient. The
following are the various ways by which blood can be collected in the laboratory
for examination.
 Venous puncture
 Finger prick
Venous puncture: This is the method used when a large volume of blood is
needed for the particular test(s) about (2-5mls) such as Widal (fever) test, serum
PT, etc.
Materials required: Wet swab, sterile syringe/needle and tourniquet.
Procedures:
 Pressure is applied to the area for puncture e.g the hand.
 The tourniquet is tied on the hand for about 5cm away from the place to be
punctured.
 Clean the area with wet swab or alcohol to disinfect it and locate a
convenient vein.
 The needle is inserted into the vein to puncture through and pull the syringe
to draw blood into the syringe.
 Loose the tourniquet and withdraw the needle.

2.1 PACKED CELL VOLUME (PCV) OR HAEMATOCRIT
Haematocrit or Packed Cell Volume (PCV) is the fraction of whole blood
volume that consists of red blood cells. The PCV test is carried out to determine
the percentage of the red blood cells in the body. If the percentage of the red
blood cells is below 30%, the need for blood transfusion will become imperative.
Reference values for blood range (Red Blood Cells) are;
Normal blood range for males ……………………… 40 – 52%
Normal blood range for females …………………… 34 – 48%
Low blood range …………………………………….. 33% below
High blood range ……………………………………. 56% above
Critical range ………………………………………… ≤18%
Materials used: Wet swab, lancet, haeparinized capillary tube, haemotocrit
centrifuge, micro-haematocrit reader and plasticine.
Procedures:
 The patient’s finger is cleaned with swab dipped in an alcohol.
 The finger is pricked with sterilized lancet. The first drop of blood is
cleaned before another drop is collected into the haeparinized capillary
tube.
 One side of the capillary tube is sealed using plasticine

 The blood in the capillary tube is spun using the haematocrit centrifuge for
10 minutes.
Result obtained: The red blood cells in the capillary tube will be separated from
the serum after spinning. The PCV is read using the micro-haematocrit reader.
The result is recorded in percentage.
2.2 FASTING AND RANDOM BLOOD SUGAR
A blood glucose test measures the amount of a sugar called glucose in a
sample of your blood. Random and Fasting blood sugar (RBS and FBS) test are
test which are done to determine the level of glucose or sugar in the blood. The
difference between Random Blood Sugar and Fasting Blood Sugar, the patient is
not expected to eat for at least 8 hours, while in the case of Random Blood
Sugar; the patient may eat whatever he/she wants before the test can be
conducted. The normal range for Fasting Blood Sugar is (60 – 100)mg/dL and
the normal range for Random Blood Sugar is (72 – 154.8)mg/dL. Any of the
value above the given normal range means that the patient has diabetes (excess
sugar in the blood).
Materials required: Wet and dry swab, test strip, blood sample and glucometer.
Procedures:
 After the glucometer is switch on, the Acu-check strip is inserted.
 The patient’s thumb is cleaned using the wet swab then pricked using the
lancet the first drop is wipe off with a dry swab and the thumb is pressed.
When pressed, a drop of blood is allowed to drop at the front top of the test
strip.

 It is allowed for few seconds while the results displays on the LCD screen.
 The result is recorded in milligram per deciliter (mg/dL).
2.3 BLOOD GROUP TEST
Blood typing is used to determine an individual’s blood group, to establish
whether a person is blood group A, B, AB, or O and whether he/she is Rhesus
positive or Rhesus negative. It is an antigen-antibody reaction.
Blood typing may be used to:
 Ensure compatibility between the blood type of a person who requires a
transfusion of blood or blood components and the ABO and Rhesus type of
the unit blood that will be transfused.
 Determine compatibility between a pregnant woman and her developing
baby
 Determine the blood group of potential blood donors at a collection facility.
 Determine the blood group of a potential recipient.
Materials required: Wet swab, lancet or sterile needle, tile, anti- A, B, AB, and D
anti-sera.
Procedures:
 The patient’s finger is cleaned with swab and pricked.
 The first blood is cleaned.

 The finger is pressed again and the blood is now dropped on the tile in four
separate places.
 Anti- A, B, AB, and D anti-sera is dropped on the four different places
respectively.
 The anti-sera and the blood is thoroughly mixed individually.
 The mixture is thoroughly rocked and agglutination is watched for.
Results: The result observed is written based on agglutination reaction formed. It
is illustrated in the table below.
Anti-A serum Anti-B serum Anti-AB serum Anti-D serum Blood group
No agglutination No agglutination No agglutination Agglutination “O” Rh positive
No agglutination No agglutination No agglutination No agglutination “O” Rh negative
Agglutination No agglutination Agglutination Agglutination “A” Rh positive
Agglutination No agglutination Agglutination No agglutination “A” Rh negative
No agglutination Agglutination Agglutination Agglutination “B” Rh positive
No agglutination Agglutination Agglutination No agglutination “B” Rh negative
Agglutination Agglutination Agglutination Agglutination “AB” Rh positive
Agglutination Agglutination Agglutination No agglutination “AB” Rh negative

2.4 BLOOD TRANSFUSION
Blood transfusion is generally the process of receiving blood products into
one’s circulation intravenously. Transfusions are used for various medical
conditions to replace lost components of the blood. A blood transfusion is the
transfer of blood or blood products from one person (donor) into another person’s
bloodstream (recipient). This is usually a life saving act to replace blood cells or
blood products lost through severe bleeding, during surgery when blood loss
occur or to increase the blood count in an anemic patient.
Before blood is transfused, the blood group of the patient and the donor
must be the same to avoid clumping of the patient’s blood which is due to
unmatched anti-body to antigen reaction.
The table below illustrates compatible and non-compatible
Blood group of a recipientDonor’s
blood A B AB O
A + - + -
B - + + -
AB - - + -
O + + + +
Note: + Indicates compatibility
- Indicates non-compatibility

Materials required: Anticoagulant, blood bag, cotton wool, and blood transfusion
set.
Procedures:
 The donor is made to lie relaxed on the bed, a suitable vein is located
and pierced with the flow set attached to the blood bag.
 The blood enters the blood bag until its volume becomes about 450mls.
 The tourniquet is untied from the donor’s hand.
 The flow set is removed from the donor’s vein and the area covered with
cotton wool.
The blood bag is shaking to mix the blood with the anticoagulant to avoid clotting.
The blood bag is labeled approximately with the donor’s number.
The blood is transfused to the patient or stored in the blood bank for future use.
2.5 COMPATIBILITY TEST
Compatibility test is a test done to determine the blood match of the donor
and the recipient before blood transfusion can be done for a patient.
Materials required: 2mls of donor’s whole blood, 2mls of patient’s whole blood,
a clean grease free slide, a clean cover slip, microscope and Pasteur pipette and
normal saline.
Procedures:

 Using three drops of normal saline, wash the donor’s red blood cells three
times by centrifuging.
 Discard the supernatant at every step took.
 On clean grease free slide a drop of washed donor’s red blood cells was
placed.
 A drop of patient serum or plasma was added and mixed properly. It was
covered with a cover slip avoiding air bubble and over floating.
 Focus with X10 and confirm with X40 objectives.
Result: Cells separated evenly (compatible), and incompatible when cells are in
clumps all over the field.
NOTE: The test can also be done macroscopically.
2.6 ERYTHROCYTE SEDIMENTATION RATE (ESR)
The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), also called a sedimentation rate
or Westergren ESR, and is the rate at which red blood cells sediment in a period
of one hour. It is a common hematology test, and is a non-specific test that has
being used for many years to help detect inflammation associated with conditions
such as infections, cancers, tuberculosis, and autoimmune disease.
ESR is said to be a non-specific test because an elevated result often
indicates the presence of inflammation but does not tell the health practitioner
exactly where the inflammation is in the body or what is causing it. ESR test is
use to diagnose certain specific inflammatory disease such as temporal arteritis,

systemic vasculitis and polymyalgia rheumatica. A significantly elevated ESR is
one the main test results used to support the diagnosis. The test may also be use
to monitor disease activity and response to therapy in both of the above disease
as well as some others, such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE).
The test is perform either by using Westergren method or Wintrobe
method. The anti-coagulated blood in either of the tubes undergoes three major
stages of sedimentation, which are;
1) Stacks of red cells formation (Rouleaux formation) : This stage occur in the
first 10 minutes.
2) The stage of sedimentation or settling: The stage will occur within 40
minutes.
3) This is the stage at which sedimentation slows and cells start to pack at the
bottom of the tube. It is called packing stage. It will happen for 10 minutes
after the first – two stages.
Principle:
The erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), also called the sed rate,
measures the settling of erythrocytes in diluted human plasma over a specified
time period. This numeric value is determined (in millimeter per hour) by
measuring the distance from the bottom of the surface meniscus to the top of
erythrocyte sedimentation in a vertical column containing diluted whole blood that
has remained perpendicular to its base for 60 minutes. Various factors affect the
ESR, such as red blood cell size and shape, plasma fibrinogen, and globulin
levels, as well as mechanical and technical factors.

Specimen:
Fresh anticoagulated blood collected in EDTA. Blood should be at room
temperature and should be no more than 2 hours old. If anticoagulated blood is
refrigerated, the test must be set up within 6 hours. Hemolyzed specimens
cannot be used.
Reagents, Supplies, and Equipment:
1. Westergren tubes
2. Westergren rack
3. Disposable pipets
4. 0.5 ml sodium citrate or EDTA in puncture ready vials
5. Leveling plate for holding the Westergren rack
6. Timer
Procedure:
 Collect 2mls of whole blood and pour it into an anticoagulant container,
example EDTA or Sodium citrate.
 Label the puncture ready vial with the patient’s name. Also label the
Westergren tube near the top of the tube.
 Remove cap from the puncture ready vial and add well mixed blood up to
the line.
 Replace cap and invert 8 times making sure the blood and saline are well
mixed.
 Carefully insert the Westergren tube into plungeable vial cap of
blood/diluents mixture twisting as you push the tube down. Use caution not
to use excessive force when placing the vial into the tube. If excessive
force is used, blood can spew out of the top of the vial.

 Place the tube in the Westergren rack to a vertical position and leave
undisturbed for 1 hour.
 Set timer for 1 hour.
 After 1 hour has passed, immediately read the distance in millimetres from
the bottom of the plasma meniscus to the top of the sediment erythrocytes.
Do not include the Buffy coat, layer of white cells and platelets at the
interface of red cells and plasma, in this measurement.
 Record your results, kit lot, and expiration date on the report sheet.
Reporting Results:
Normal Range:
Adult male: 0 – 10 mm/hr
Adult female: 0 – 15 mm/hr
Children: 0 – 10 mm/hr
Procedure Notes:
 Age of Specimen: Specimen must be less than 2 hours at room
temperature, less than 6 hours at 2 – 6°C.
 Temperature: Environmental temperature and specimen must be between
20-25°C when testing is performed. Elevated temperatures falsely elevate
the ESR.
 Incorrect ratio of blood to diluents. Excess anticoagulant causes the red
blood cells to shrink, resulting in a decreased ESR.
 Bubbles in the Westergren tube, results in a decreased ESR.
 Tilting of the Westergren tube accelerates the fall of the erythrocytes (an
angle of even 3° will increase the rate by as much as 30%)
 Vibration (ex. nearby centrifuge) can falsely elevate the ESR.

 Plasma and red blood cells abnormalities affect sedimentation rate.
 Haemolysis of the specimen causes a decrease in the ESR.

CHAPTER THREE
PARASITOLOGY SECTION:
3.0 MALARIA PARASITE (MP) TEST
Malaria presents a diagnostic challenge to laboratories in most countries.
The mainstay of malaria diagnosis has been the microscopic examination of the
blood utilizing blood films and malaria parasite kits (Rapid Diagnostic Test kits).
Although blood is the sample most frequently used to make a diagnosis, both
saliva and urine have been investigated as alternative, less invasive specimen.
Plasmodium species is the causative organism that causes malaria
parasite. One becomes infected if bitten by an infected female anopheles
mosquito. The Plasmodium species are; Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium
falciparum, Plasmodium ovale, and Plasmodium malariae. It is the trophozoides
of Plasmodium species that causes harm to man. The trophozoides is the form of
a sporozoan protozoan in the feeding stage of the malaria parasite, this stage
occur in the human red blood cells.
Symptoms of malaria include fever, headache, vomiting, high body
temperature etc. The breeding site for mosquitoes include streams, stagnant dirty
water, bushes, and many more. If this breeding sites are destroyed, the rate of
malaria disease will be reduced.
Aim: To determine the presence of plasmodium species in the human blood.
Materials required: Whole blood specimen, sterilized lancet, cotton wool and
field stain A and B, and microscope.
Procedures:

 Smear blood specimen on a clean grease free disinfected slide
 Allow to air dry for 20 minutes
 Flood the smear with field stain A for 60 seconds and wash the stain off
with water and also counter stain field stain B for 60 seconds and wash off
with gentle stream of water.
 Allow to air dry again for 10 minutes
 Focus using X10 and add immersion oil then confirm under the microscope
with X100.
Result:
a) The result is positive if a ring shape of Plasmodium is seen.
b) The result is negative if the ring is not seen.
3.1 MICROFILARIA TEST
The microfilaria sometimes abbreviated MF, is an early stage in the life
cycle of certain parasite nematodes in the family Onchocercidae. In some
species of Onchocercidae, the release of microfilaria by the adult female is
periodic – occurring daily at a particular time of the day or night. This timing
increases the chance that they will be picked up by a blood feeding arthropod
vector, like the mosquito and the deer fly as vector for Wuchereria bancrofti and
Loa loa respectively which are often more active at certain time of the day.
Eight known filarial nematodes use human as their definitive host. These
are divided into three groups according to the niche within the body they occupy.
1) Lymphatic filariasis is caused by the worms Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia
timori and Brugia malayi. These worms occupy the lymphatic system,

including the nodes; in chronic cases, these worms leads to disease called
elephantiasis.
2) Subcutaneous filariasis is caused by Loa loa (the swollen eye worm),
Mansonella streptocerca, and Onchocerca vovulus. These worms occupy
the subcutaneous layer of the skin in the fat layer. Loa loa causes filariasis
(itching of the eye) while Onchocerca vovulus cause river blindness or
Onchocerciasis.
3) Serous cavity filariasis is caused by the worms Mansonella perstans and
Mansonella ozzardi, which occupy the serous cavity of the abdomen.
The microfilaria test can be done using the blood and the skin snip sample.
Aim: To determine the presence of microfilaria parasite in the blood and the
subcutaneous layer of the skin.
Materials required: Glass slide, cover slip, blood lancet, surgical blade, blood
sample, microscope, and normal saline.
PROCEDURE FOR MICROFILARIA BLOOD TEST
 Get the materials ready.
 Clean the patient’s thumb with a wet swab.
 Prick the thumb with a blood lancet and wipe the first drop of blood with a
cotton wool.
 Apply pressure to cause blood drop on the glass slide.
 Make a smear and cover it with a cover slip avoiding air bubbles

 View the prepared slide under the microscope using X10.
Result: Movement of filariasis confirms positive and non movement confirms
negative.
PROCEDURE FOR MICROFILARIA SKIN SNIP TEST
 Clean the shoulder region of the patient with a wet swab.
 Use the blood lancet to raise a small thin layer of the skin.
 Use the surgical blade to cut the layer.
 Place the layer on a glass slide and add one drop of normal saline.
 Place the prepared slide in a cool place at a normal temperature for 30
minutes, for the microfilaria to migrate into the normal saline.
 View under the microscope using X10 and X40.
Result: Positive when microfilaria swims in the normal saline and negative when
none swims.
3.2 SPUTUM ACID-FAST BACILLI (AFB) SMEAR
AFB smear refers to the microscopic examination of a fluorochrome stain of
clinical specimen (mycobacterium). The sputum stain for mycobacterium is a
laboratory test performed on a sample of the patient’s sputum. It is also known as
an acid-fast bacillus stain (AFB) or a tuberculosis (TB) smear. The test is
commonly ordered by the doctor to find out if a patient has tuberculosis or
another type of mycobacterium infection. Most mycobacterium is known to be
acid-fast, which means they hold unto the dye when washed in an acid solution.

Materials required: Sputum, glass slide, carbol fuschin, acid alcohol, methylene
blue, distill water and microscope.
Procedures
 Make a circular smear of the sputum from the lungs on a grease free glass
slide.
 Fix the smear on the slide by passing it through the Bunsen burner 3 times,
allows to cool.
 Flood the smear with a strong carbol fuschin, heat the back surface of the
slide to steam rise (prevent from boiling).
 Allow standing for five minutes, rinse with buffer distil water to remove
excess stain, decolourize with 3% acid alcohol briefly, rinse with a buffer
distil water.
 Counter stain with methylene blue for 2 minutes, rinse with water.
 Clean the back surface with dry cotton wool, place on a dry rack to air dry.
 Observe under microscope using X10 for focusing and X100 (adding
immersion oil) for observation.
Results:
AFB stained red
Non AFB stained blue. Taking the colour of the counter stain.
3.3 STOOL MICROSCOPY
Microscopic examination of a wet mount of the stool has been the standard
practice for the laboratory diagnosis of intestinal parasitic infections. Stool

microscopy is a medical test done to determine any gastrointestinal infection, to
look for parasites such as Giardia, Eschericia coli, etc., perforation of the
abdomen or any digestive tract abnormality, diseases like taeniasis, amoebic
dysentery which can be detected through the test. Protozoan trophozoites, cysts,
oocysts, helminthes eggs and larvae may be seen and identified using a wet
mount identification technique.
Materials required: Microscope, glass slide, cover slip, stool sample and normal
saline.
Procedures:
 Give a disinfected container to the patient.
 The patient should help collect his/her stool into the container.
 Add one drop of normal saline on the glass slide.
 Using an applicator sticks to get the stool from the container, add it to the
normal saline and smear.
 Cover the smear with a cover slip. You can seal the edge of the cover slip.
 Mount the prepared slide on the microscope and view to and fro; viewing
all the areas in the cover slip.
Results: Cyst, ova, or parasite seen is recorded.
3.4 URINE MICROSCOPY
A microscopic examination may be performed as part of a routine
urinalysis. It will typically be done when there are abnormal findings on the
physical or chemical examination. It is perform on urine sediment – urine that has
been centrifuged to concentrate the substances in it at the bottom of a tube. The

fluid at the top of the tube is then discarded and the deposit of the fluid remaining
are examine under a microscope. Cells, crystals and other parasites are found
and reported either as the number observed per low power field or per high
power field. In addition, some entities, if present are estimated as ‘’few’’,
‘’moderate’’, or ‘’many’’, such as epithelial cells, bacteria, crystals, red blood cells
and white blood cells.
Procedures:
 Collect the urine sample in a centrifuge tube with cap.
 The centrifuge tube is then centrifuged for 5 minutes.
 The supernatant is discarded and the sediment taped, a drop on a clean
grease slide.
 It was covered with a clean cover slip, avoiding bubbles.
 It was focused using X10 objective and confirmed with X40
Expected result: The result is recorded based on what is seen which can be the
following;
 Schistosoma haematobium
 Pus cells
 Red blood cells
 Epithelial cells
 Trichomonas vaginalis
 spermatozoa

CHAPTER FOUR
SEROLOGY SECTION
Serology section in the laboratory has to do with any laboratory test or
analysis that has to do with serum.
4.0 RETROVIRAL SCREENING TEST (RVST)
Retrovirus is a virus that is composed not of DNA but of RNA. Retroviruses,
have an enzyme called reverse transcriptase, that gives them the unique
property of transcribing their RNA into DNA after entering a cell. The retroviral
DNA can then integrate into the chromosomal DNA of the host cell, to be
expressed there. HIV is a retrovirus.
Retroviral screening test (RVST) is a test done to detect the presence of
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV – 1 and HIV – 2) antibodies in serum or
plasma. HIV is a virus that causes Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS), it invades the immune system of human, destroying the blood cells which
serve as a defense mechanism to the body. When the body immune systems are
destroyed, the body becomes open to any pathological attack. People suffering
from this virus suffer symptoms like fever, tuberculosis, weakness of the body,
diarrhea, etc. Though anti-retroviral drugs are now available to alleviate the risk
of death when infected but it has no cure at the moment.
Aim: To determine the presence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) in the
blood.
Materials required: Determine test strip or UNIGOLD stat park test strip, blood
sample and centrifuge.
Procedure:

 Locate a suitable vein.
 Disinfect the portion with a wet swab.
 Collect 2mls of blood with the syringe and needle and pour it into the test
tube.
 Centrifuge the blood to get a serum or plasma.
 Pipette the serum onto the space provided on the Unigold strip or
determine strip.
 Wait for about 5 – 6 minutes to see the pink line(s) appear on the test strip.
Results: A double pink line will appear if positive and a single pink line appear if
negative.
4.1 VENEREAL DISEASE RESEARCH LABORATORY (VDRL) TEST
Venereal disease research Laboratory (VDRL) test is a screening test for
syphilis. It measures substances, called antibodies that a body may produce if it
comes in contact with the bacteria that cause syphilis. This bacterium is called
Treponema pallidum. It is a sexually transmitted disease that can be gotten
through sexual intercourse, mother to child at child birth, contaminated blood etc.
Instead of testing for the bacteria that causes syphilis, the VDRL test checks for
anti-bodies to these bacteria. Your immune system produces a specific kind of
anti-body (a type of protein) when it defends your body from syphilis.
Aim: To check the presence of anti-body produced by the body when
Treponema pallidum is present.

Materials required: Blood sample, syringe and needle, centrifuge and VDRL
test strip.
Procedure:
 Locate a prominent vein on the hand.
 Tie the hand with tourniquet 6cm away from the place you wish to
puncture.
 Insert the needle into the vein, then draw the blood into the syringe, about
1ml.
 Pour it into the EDTA tube and centrifuge for 5 minutes.
 Pipette the serum onto the provided point on the VDRL test strip.
 Wait for 5 – 6 minutes to see pink line(s) appear.
Results: A double pink line means positive but single pink line means negative
or non reactive.
4.2 SERUM PREGNANCY TEST AND URINE PREGNANCY TEST
Pregnancy is a test done to know if a woman is pregnant or not. This is
possible through the presence of human chorionic gonadotrophin hormone
(HCG) in the blood or urine. The pregnancy test can be done using two basic
samples which are urine and serum. When serum is used as the test sample the
presence of the human chorionic gonadotrophin hormone can be detected in the
first three weeks of pregnancy, while the test done using and urine sample can
only discover pregnancy from the first month accurately. The human chorionic
gonadotrophin hormone is produced by the placenta shortly after the embryo

attach itself to the uterine lining and build up rapidly in the body in the few days of
pregnancy.
Aim: To determine the presence of human chorionic gonadotrophin hormone in
urine or serum.
PROCEDURE USING URINE SAMPLE
 Collect the urine sample.
 Dip the HCG test strip into the urine.
 Allow for 5 – 6 minutes.
 Watch for the pink line(s) to appear
PROCEDURE USING SERUM
 Collect the blood sample into a test tube.
 Centrifuge to have a plasma or serum.
 Dip the HCG test strip into the serum portion.
 Watch for the pink line(s) to appear.
Results: Double pink lines means positive and single pink line means negative.
4.3 WIDAL (FEVER) TEST
The Widal test is a serological test for enteric fever whereby bacteria
causing typhoid fever are mixed with serum containing specific anti-bodies from
an infected individual. The Widal is positive if Salmonella O antigen titre is more

than 1:160 in an active infection or if Salmonella H antigen titre is more than
1:160 in past infection or in immunized persons.
Enteric fever is a life threatening illness caused by infection with the
bacterium Salmonella enterica serotype typhi (Salmonella typhi), usually
transmitted through foods and drinks contaminated with fecal matter. It is
associated with symptoms that include high fever, fatique, headache, abdominal
pain, diarrhea or constipation etc. Early diagnosis and treatment are important
because serious complications including severe intestinal bleeding or perforation
can develop within a few weeks.
Aim: To determine the presence of the bacteria causing typhoid fever in the
serum.
Materials required: Blood sample, salmonella O and H antigen with salmonella
paratyphi A, B, and C for O and H antigen respectively, centrifuge and EDTA
bottle.
Procedure:
 Locate a prominent vein on a patient’s hand.
 Tie the tourniquet 6cm away from the vein you wish to puncture.
 Insert the needle into the vein and draw the syringe to collect blood.
 Pour the blood into an EDTA bottle and spin using the centrifuge for 5
minutes.
 One drop each of patient’s serum sample for the four antigen are drop on
a circled card and one drop of each of the four salmonella antigens are
added separately and gently mixed, then rocked for two minutes.

 Agglutination is watch for. The appearance of agglutination gives a
qualitative result.
4.4 HEPATITIS
Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver, most commonly caused by a viral
infection. There are five main hepatitis viruses referred to as type A, B, C, D, and
E. These five types are of great concern because of the burden of illness and
death they cause and the potential for outbreaks and epidemic spread. In
particular, types B and C leads to chronic disease in hundreds of millions of
people and together are the most common cause of liver cirrhosis and cancer.
Hepatitis A and E are typically caused by ingestion of contaminated food or
water. Hepatitis B, C, and D usually occur as a result of potential contact with
infected body fluids. Common modes of transmission for these viruses include
transfuse of contaminated blood or blood products, invasive medical procedure
using contaminated equipment and Hepatitis B is transmitted from mother to
baby at child birth, from family member to child, and also by sexual contact.
Acute infection may occur with limited or no symptoms.
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is present in the stool of an infected person and is
most often transmitted through consumption of contaminated water or food.
Certain sexual practices can also spread hepatitis A virus. Infections are in many
cases mild, with most people making a full recovery and remained immune from
further HAV infections. However, HAV infections can also be severe and life
threatening. Most hepatitis B virus (HBV) is transmitted through exposure to
infective blood, semen and other body fluids. HBV can be transmitted from
infected mothers to infants at the time of birth and through sexual intercourse. It
also occur through transfusions of HBV contaminated blood and blood products,

and contaminated injections during medical procedures. A safe and effective
vaccine is available to prevent HBV.
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is mostly transmitted through exposure to infective
blood. Sexual transmission is also possible but is much less common. There is
no vaccine for HCV. The hepatitis D virus (HDV) infection occurs only in those
who are infected with HBV.
Aim: To determine whether an individual have hepatitis or not.
Materials required: Serum or plasma, hepatitis test strip.
Procedure:
 Put on gloves and laboratory apron or coat.
 The blood of the patient is got through vein puncture.
 The blood is spun to get the serum or plasma.
 Dip the hepatitis kits strip into the serum. Allow for 5 – 6 minutes.
 Watch for pink line(s) to appear.
Results: A double line will appear if positive but single line if negative.

CHAPTER FIVE
CHEMISTRY SECTION AND OTHERS
5.0 URINALYSIS
Urinalysis is a test done to analyze the urine and determine its constituent,
it detect the presence of some abnormal make-up of the urine which could be as
a result of an inflammation or perforation of the kidney or any other urinary organ.
The urinalysis test strips are in different ranges which are combi-2, combi-9 and
combi-11. The combi-11 test strip determine the presence of the following
substances in the urine,
i) Urobilinogen
ii) Glucose
iii) Bilirubin
iv) Ketones
v) Specific gravity
vi) Blood
vii) pH
viii) Protein
ix) Nitrites
x) Leukocytes
xi) Ascorbic acid

Also the physical appearance of the urine is taken note of, that is, by checking
the colour and the appearance whether it is clear or cloudy.
Aim: To determine the urine constituent and deposits.
Materials required: Fresh urine sample, combi-11 test strip, and combi-11
colour chart.
Procedures:
 Give a disinfected container to the patient for the urine sample.
 When the urine sample is brought
 Put on hand gloves and lab coat.
 Collect the urine sample and dip the combi-11 test strip into the urine.
 Check for result on the combi-11 colour chart.
5.1 OCCULT BLOOD TEST (OBT)
Occult Blood Test is known as Fecal Occult Blood Testing (FOBT). FOBT
is a testing that is performed on samples of stool in other to detect occult blood
(blood that is not visible to the naked eye) in otherwise normal-coloured stool.
Fecal occult blood usually is a result of slow bleeding from inside the upper or
lower gastrointestinal tract. The slow bleed does not change the colour of the
stool or result in visible bright red blood. Therefore, the blood is found only by
testing the stool for blood in the laboratory.
A fecal occult blood test is done primarily to detect or prevent colon cancer
in people without intestinal symptoms. Cancers of the colon are common and

frequently produce fecal occult blood long before they cause other symptoms
such as abdominal pain, rectal bleeding or changes in bowel habits.
Aims: To detect hidden blood in the stool.
Materials required: Stool sample, fecal occult blood test strip.
Procedure:
 Collect the stool sample from the patient.
 Use a small rod to pick the stool from the container into the FOBT strip
diluents.
 Shake to dissolve the stool into the diluent.
 Pipette the dissolve stool unto the strip at the space provided.
 Wait and watch for the line(s) to appear.
Result: A double line proves positive while a single line proves negative.
5.2 LUTEINIZING HORMONE: URINE OVULATION TEST
The one step LH urine ovulation test is fast and easy to use. It is a
qualitative test that can predict when there is a LH (luteinizing Hormone) surge,
and in turn when you are likely to ovulate. Ovulation is the release of an egg from
the ovary. The egg then passes into the fallopian tube where it is ready to be
fertilized. A baby is conceived when the male sperm successfully fertilizes the
female egg. When a woman is about to ovulate, her body releases a large
amount of a hormone called L.H. (Luteinizing Hormone). L.H. is always present
in your urine but the levels increase (surge) in the middle of your cycle, causing
you to release an egg from the ovary. The test detects the sharp increase in LH

concentration in urine, the so called “LH surge” which precedes ovulation.
Conception is most likely to occur within 36 hours following the LH surge.
5.2.1 WHEN TO BEGIN TESTING
First, you must determine the length of your menstrual cycle. This is the
number of days from the first day of your menstrual bleeding to the day before
your next bleeding begins again, count the first day of bleeding as day 1.
Calculate what the usual length of your menstrual cycle has been over the last
few months. Once you have worked out the length of your cycle refer to the chart
to determine on which day of your menstrual cycle you should begin testing.
Example:
If your cycle is normally 28 days, the calendar below shows you how to work out
when day 11 is.
S M T W T F S
1 2 3 (Day 1) 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 (Day 11) 14
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
22 23 24 25 25 27 28
29 30 31
SAMPLE CALENDAR
3: The first day of menstrual bleeding (day 1)
13: The day to begin ovulation testing (day 11)

5.2.2 SPECIMEN COLLECTION:
Once you have identified what day you should begin testing you should
then begin to collect your urine on a daily basis.
 Do not use first morning urine samples as LH is synthesized in your body
early in the morning. It will not show up in your urine until later in the day.
 The best time to collect your urine is between 10am -8pm. Pick a regular
time that suits you best.
 Collect urine at about the same time each day. Reduce liquid intake about
2 hours before collecting your urine as a diluted urine sample can prevent
the test from detecting LH surge.
5.2.3 TEST PROCEDURE:
 Determine the day to begin testing.
 Collect urine sample in a clean and dry container.
 To begin testing, open the sealed pouch and remove the strip. Do not
remove the strip until you are ready to begin testing.
 With the arrows pointing downwards towards the urine, place the test strip
vertically (straight) into the urine sample, for at least 10 seconds. DO NOT
allow the urine to go above the MARK level line.
 Remove the strip from the urine and place on a clean, dry surface. For
best results you should read the results at 10 minutes.
 Wait for coloured bands to appear. Depending on the concentration of LH
in the urine specimen, positive results may be observed in as short
as 40 seconds. However, to confirm negative results, the complete

reaction time of 10 minutes is required. Results obtained after 30
minutes may be considered invalid.
5.2.4 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS:
After each test, you must decide if you are having a L.H. surge. To
determine your result you must compare the colour intensity of the test band to
the control band. The control band is used to compare the test band against and
also confirms that you have completed the test correctly.
Positive for L.H. surge
If two colour bands are visible and the test band is of almost equal or greater
colour intensity (darker) than the control band, this is a positive result and a
good indication that the L.H. surge is occurring. You should ovulate within the
next 24-36 hours. Sexual intercourse is advised at anytime after the first positive
test.
Negative for L.H. surge
If two bands are visible but the test band is of a less intense colour (paler) than
the control band or cannot be seen, this means the L.H. level is at or near its
normal level and that the surge is not in progress. You should continue with
daily testing.
Invalid result
If no control band appears within 5 minutes, the result is invalid and should be
ignored. A visible control line is needed in all cases to confirm a proper test
result. Repeat test with a new test kit.

5.3 PREPARATION OF NUTRIENT AGAR
Nutrient agar is a general purpose medium supporting growth of a wide
range of non-fastidious organism. It is a nutrient medium used for the cultivation
of microbes. It is frequently used for isolation and purification of cultures.
Nutrient agar consists of heat-stable digestive products of proteins (called
peptones) and beef extract. Both of these provide amino acids, minerals, and
other nutrients used by a wide variety of bacteria for growth. In addition, it
contains agar as a solidifying agent.
Procedures:
 Weigh 2.8 grams of nutrient agar powder and add 100mls of deionized
water.
 Allow to soak for 10 minutes. Swirl to mix.
 Sterilize by autoclaving for 15 minutes at 1210
C.
 Allow to cool to 470
C, mix well before pouring plates.

5.4 CONCLUSION
I have really discovered from my four months of experience that SIWES is
of a great importance; it has exposed me to a lot of medical laboratory skills,
techniques, and strategies. I learnt about the causes of many diseases, mode of
infection, symptoms and possible solution.
Student Industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) is of much relevance
because it exposes students to so many thing the shores of their school could
not allow them have access to. It really helps me, so other student should
endeavour to participate in this exercise.

5.5 RECOMMENDATION
I recommend that the technical report is physical proving of laboratory
testing for diagnosis of some disease and sickness affecting the human bodies.
For this reason, students should always seek to be trained in a well equipped or
adequate establishment to enhance proper learning of the practical methods
involve in diagnosis.

Barnabas technical report on SIWES

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